合同术语 英译商务合同

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合同常用术语ASISAcontracttermbywhichthebuyerofgoodstakesthemintheconditiontheyareinwithoutanywarrantiesorguaranteesforbetterorforworse.ASSIGNMENTThetransferofrights,title,interest,andbenefitsofacontractfromoneparty(theassignor)toanotherindividualorentity(theassignee)thatwasnotapartytotheinitialcontract.ATSIGHTAterminafinancialinstrumentunderwhichtheinstrumentispayableonpresentationordemand.Example:abillofexchangethatispayableatsightispayableatthetimethepersonforwhomthebillisdrawn(thedrawee)presentsittoabank(thepayee).ATTACHMENTThelegalprocessforseizingpropertybeforeajudgmenttosecurethepaymentofdamagesifawarded.Attachmentmaybesoughtbeforecommencingacourtactionorduringtheaction.Thisprocessisalsoreferredtoassequestration.Example:apartywhoclaimsdamagesforbreachofcontractmayrequestacourttoissueanorderfreezingalltransfersofspecificpropertyownedbythebreachingpartypendingresolutionofthedispute.AUTHENTICATIONTheactofconferringlegalauthenticityonawrittendocument,typicallymadebyanotarypublic,whoattestsandcertifiesthatthedocumentisinproperlegalformandthatitisexecutedbyapersonidentifiedashavingauthoritytodoso.Authenticationisalsoreferredtoasacknowledgment.AVOIDANCECancellationofacontractbylawwhenaneventrendersperformanceimpossibleorinequitable,withtheresultthatthepartiesarereleasedfromtheirobligations.BAILMENTAdeliveryofgoodsintothepossessionofanother(thebailee)underanexpressorimpliedcontractandforaparticularpurposerelatedtothegoodswhilepossessedbythebailee,whohasadutytoreturnthemtotheowner(thebailor)ortodisposeofthempursuanttothebailor'sinstructionsafterthepurposehasbeenaccomplished.Forexample,asellerwhodeliversgoodstoashipperwithinstructionstotransportthemtothebuyerataspecifieddestinationhascreatedabailment.Inabailmentforhire,thebailoragreestocompensatethebailee.Inaspecialbailment,thebaileeisheldtoagreaterdutyofcareforthesafetransportanddeliveryofthegoods.BENEFICIARYApersonorentitythatisnotapartytoacontractbutthatwillbenefitfromacontractmadebetweenother parties.Example:Asalescontractmayprovidethat,ifthesellershoulddiebeforethetransactioniscompleted,thepurchasepriceistobepaidtotheseller'sestate.Theestateisabeneficiaryofthesalescontract.BILLOFEXCHANGEAwritteninstrumentsignedbyaperson(thedrawer)andaddressedtoanotherperson(thedrawee),typicallyabank,orderingthedraweetopayunconditionallyastatedsumofmoneytoyetanotherperson(thepayee)ondemandoratafuturetime.BOILERPLATEStandardcontracttermsusuallyprintedinsmalltypeonthereverseofapre-printedcontractform.Alsocalledfineprint.Refersgenerallytotheminutedetailsofacontract.SeealsoFINEPRINT.BONAFIDEInorwithgoodfaith,honesty,andsincerity.Example:Abonafidepurchaserisonewhobuysgoodsforvalueandwithoutknowledgeoffraudorunfairdealinginthetransaction.Knowledgeoffraudorunfairdealingmaybeimpliedifthefactsaresuchthatthepurchasershouldhavereasonablyknownthatthetransactioninvolveddeceit,suchaswhengoodsthataresusceptibletopiracyareprovidedwithoutdocumentationoftheirorigin.BOTTOMLINE(1)Thelastlineinafinancialstatementindicatingtheprofitofacompany.(2)Inacontract,thelineuponwhichapartysigns.(3)Pragmatic,realistic.BREACHAviolationoflaworagreement.CAPACITYTOCONTRACTAperson'scompetency,asdefinedbylaw,tomakeacontract.Capacitytocontractistypicallydeterminedbywhetherapersonhasattainedmajorityageandismentallycapableofunderstandingthecontractterms.CHATTELPersonalproperty.CHATTELPAPERDocumentsthatconstituteasecurityinterestinoraleaseofspecificgoodsforamonetaryobligation.CISGSeeCONVENTIONONCONTRACTSFORTHEINTERNATIONALSALEOFGOODS(CISG).CONFIRMATIONAwrittencontractormemorandumthatsetsforththetermsofanagreementthatwouldotherwisehavebeendifficulttoproveandthereforetoenforce.Forexample, partieswhohaveagreedorallyorthroughaseriesofletterstothetermsofasaleofgoodsmayformalizetheiragreementbysigningaconfirmationthatcontainsalloftheterms.CONFLICTOFINTERESTAfinancialorethicalconflictbetweenanofficial'sprivateinterestsandofficialduties.CONSIDERATIONAnitemofvaluepassedfromonecontractingpartytotheotherasaninducementtomakethecontractandwithoutwhichthecontractisnotbinding.Considerationmayconsistofaright,interest,profit,orbenefitthataccruestoonepartyoraforbearance,detriment,loss,orobligationgiven,suffered,orundertakenbytheotherparty.Forexample,theconsiderationinasalescontractisthepriceofthegoods.CONSIGNMENTCONTRACTAnagreementbywhichaseller(consignor)deliversgoodstoanindividualorentity(consignee)thatwillsellthem.Forgoodssold,theconsigneewillremitthepricetotheconsignorlessacommission.Goodsnotsoldmaybereturnedtotheconsignor.CONSULERIZATIONAnauthenticationbyacountry'sconsulorothersimilargovernmentofficial.SeealsoAUTHENTICATION.CONVENTIONONCONTRACTSFORTHEINTERNATIONALSALEOFGOODS(CISG)AUnitedNationsconventionthatestablishesuniformlegalrulestogoverninternationalcontractsforthesaleofgoodsbetweennationalsofmembercountries.Ifcross-bordertradersarenationalsofcountriesthathaveratifiedtheCISG,theircontractsforthesaleofgoodswillbesubjecttotheCISGunlessthecontractsspecifyotherwise.COUNTEROFFERAreplytoanofferthatmateriallyaltersthetermsoftheoffer.Example:asellerwhoacceptsabuyer'sofferonconditionthatthegoodswillbemadeofadifferentmaterialhasmadeacounteroffer.SeealsoACCEPTANCE.SeealsoOFFER.CROSSEDCHECKAcheckthatbearsonitsfacetwoparalleltransverselines,indicatingthatitcannotbepresentedforcash.Abankthatacceptssuchacheckwillpaytheproceedsonlytoanotherbank,whichwillcreditthemoneytotheaccountofthepayeeofthecheck. DAMAGESAmonetaryamountclaimedandawardedtoapersonforlossorinjurytothepersonortheperson'sproperty.Varioustypesofdamagesmaybesoughtdependingonthecircumstancesoftheinjuryorloss,includingactual(compensationforamountsinfactincurred),expectation(compensationforamountsthatapersoncouldhavereasonablyanticipatedreceivingfromatransactionhaditnotfailed),incidental(expensesreasonablyincurredinmitigating,orotherwiseinassociationwith,losses),andliquidated(anamountfixedbycontractasreasonablecompensationintheeventapartydefaults).DESIGNAscheme,drawing,plan,orotherdepictionofanewpattern,model,shape,orconfigurationthatisdecorativeorornamental.Inmanycountries,therightstoadesigncanberegistered,allowingtheregistranttoclaimexclusiveuseinthatcountry.DESTINATIONCONTRACTAcontractforsaleofgoodsinwhichtheriskoflossispassedtothebuyerafterthesellerdeliversthegoodstothedestination.DOCUMENTATIONThefinancialandcommercialdocumentsrelatingtoatransaction.Thesedocumentsmayincludeacommercialinvoice,consularinvoice,customsinvoice,certificateoforigin,billoflading,inspectioncertificate,andbillofexchange.DOTTHE"I'S"ANDCROSSTHE"T'S"Tomakecertainthateverydetailofadocumenthasbeentakencareof.EXECUTION(1)Thesigningofadocument,suchasacontract.(2)Alegalprocessforenforcingajudgmentfordamages,usuallybyseizureandsaleofthedebtor'spersonalproperty.Example:ifacourtawardsdamagesinabreachofcontractactionandthereachingpartyfailstoremitthem,thepartyawardeddamagesmayrequestthecourttoorderseizureandsaleofthebreachingparty'sinventorytosatisfytheaward.EXECUTORYCONTRACTAcontractthathasnotbeenperformedentirely.EXHIBITAdocumentattachedtoacontractoragreement.Forexample,adocumententitledExhibitAlistingproductspecificationsattachedtoapurchaseorder.FINEPRINTStandardcontracttermsprintedinsmalltypeusuallyonthereverseofapre-printedcontractform.Refersgenerallytotheminutedetailsofacontract.SeealsoBOILERPLATE. FORCEMAJEURECLAUSEAcontractclausethatexcusesapartywhobreachesthecontractwhenperformanceispreventedbytheoccurrenceofanevent—suchasanaturaldisaster,war,orlaborstrike—thatisbeyondtheparty'sreasonablecontrol.GENERALAGREEMENTONTARIFFSANDTRADE(GATT)SeeURUGUAYROUND.GOODSProducts,whetherrawmaterials,semimanufacturedcomponents,orcompletedmerchandise.Goodsidentifiedtoacontractareallproductsdesignatedbyacontractorbythesellerassoldtoaparticularbuyer.Consumablegoodsaregoodspurchasedforthebuyer'spersonal,family,orhouseholduse.Durablegoodsaregoodsthatlastarelativelylongtimewithoutbeingquicklydissipatedordepletedduringuse,suchasmachinery.Hardgoodsareconsumerdurablegoods,suchasappliancesorvehicles.Softgoodsareconsumergoodsthatarenotdurable,suchasclothingorluggage.GOVERNINGLAWCLAUSEAcontractprovisionthatspecifiesthelawthatthepartieshaveselectedfortheinterpretationoftheircontract.Whetheracourtrespectsthechoiceofthepartiesisdiscretionary,sincepartiesarenotpermittedtodepriveacourtofjurisdiction.INTEGRATEDCONTRACTAcontractthatstateseveryprovisiontowhichthepartiesintendtoagree.Parolevidencecannotbeusedtochangeorsupplementtheprovisionsofanintegratedcontract.INTELLECTUALPROPERTYIntangiblerightsthatcanbeprotectedbecauseoftheirnovelty,uniqueness,andvaluetothecreator.Theserightsincludecopyrights,trademarks,servicemarks,designs,andpatents.INVALIDCONTRACTSeeVOIDABLECONTRACT.JURIDICAL(JURISTIC)ACTAnactionintendedtohave,andcapableofhaving,alegaleffect,suchasthecreation,termination,ormodificationofalegalright.Example:Thesigningofapowerofattorneyisajuridicalactbecauseitgiveslegalauthoritytoanagent.JURIDICAL(JURISTIC)PERSONAnindividualorentityrecognizedunderlawashavinglegalrightsandobligations.Example:limitedliabilitycompanies,corporations,andpartnershipsareentitiesrecognizedasjuridicalpersons. LEGALESELanguageparticulartothelegalprofession.LEGALIZATIONAnauthenticationofawrittendocument.SeealsoAUTHENTICATION. LIQUIDATEDDAMAGESAsumofmoneythatcontractingpartiesagreewillbepaidintheeventofvoluntarybreachofthecontract.Theagreedsummustbeareasonableestimateofthedamagesthatapartywouldactuallyincurbecauseoftheotherparty'sbreach.Liquidateddamagesareoftenincludedincontractstoavoidhavingtoprovedamagesthataredifficulttoassess.Forexample,ifgoodsareneverreceivedandthebuyerisforcedtoobtainreplacementgoodsatahigherprice,damagesmaybeassessedasthecostofreplacementlessthecostofthegoodsunderthebreachedcontract.However,ifthebuyerisunabletoobtainreplacementgoodsbecausethegoodsorderedhaduniquecharacteristics,thestandardsusedtoassessdamages—costofreplacementormarketvalue—donotapply.Thepartiesmaythereforechoosetoestimatewhatthereasonabledamagesofabreachwouldbeandagreetothepaymentofliquidateddamagesondefault.MATERIALTERMSContractprovisionsthataresosignificanttothebargainmadethattheagreementwouldbesubstantiallydifferentifthetermsweretobealteredoreliminated.MIDDLEMANAnintermediaryactingasanagentordealerbetweenbuyersandsellers.MINIMUMCONTACTAperson'sconnectionstoajurisdiction,suchasoperatingorsolicitingbusinessthere,thatareconsideredsufficientlysubstantialastoallowthepersontocomeundertheauthorityofthecourtsofthatjurisdiction.MITIGATIONOFDAMAGESTheduty,imposedbylaw,tousereasonablecareandduediligencetominimizeone'sdamagesortoavoidaggravatinganinjurysufferedorincurredbecauseofanotherperson'sbreachofcontractualorotherdutiesowedtotheinjuredparty.Forexample,ifabuyerrefusestoacceptashipmentofgoodsthatwillquicklyspoilifnotimmediatelycollectedfromthedockside,thesellerhasadutytotakereasonablestepstofindanotherbuyerortomovethegoodsintoappropriatestoragewhilethedisputeisbeingresolved.MUTUALITYOFCONTRACTTheintentofbothpartiestoacontracttobecomeboundbythecontractterms.Mutualityisessentialtotheenforcementofacontract.Itisshownbytheapparentintentionofthepartiesasdemonstratedbytheiractionsrelativetoexecutingandperformingthecontract.MUTUALITYOFREMEDYContractprovisionsbywhichbothpartiesaregiventherighttothesameremedyortoremediesofequaleffect.NECESSARYTERMS Contractprovisionsforthegoods,price,deliverytime,andpayment,withoutwhichtermsacontractisgenerallyconsideredunenforceableunlessthepartieshavepartiallyorfullyperformedit.Somejurisdictionsmayimplythesetermsfromcustomarytradeorfinancialpractices.NEGOTIABLEINSTRUMENTAwrittendocumenttransferablemerelybyendorsementordelivery.Example:acheckorbillofexchangeisanegotiableinstrument.NONSUIJURISStrictlytranslatedas"notofone'sownright".Thistermisappliedtopersonswhoareunderageorwhootherwisedonothavelegalcapacitytoenterabindingcontract.SeealsoCAPACITYTOCONTRACT.OFFERAproposalthatismadetoaspecificindividualorentitytoenterintoacontract.Theproposalmustcontaindefinitetermsandmustindicatetheofferor'sintenttobeboundbyanacceptance.Example:abuyer'sordertopurchasedesignatedgoodsoncertaindeliveryandpaymenttermsisanoffer.SeealsoACCEPTANCE.SeealsoCOUNTEROFFER.OPEN-ENDCONTRACTAnagreementbywhichthebuyermaypurchasetheseller'sgoodsatanytimewithinaspecifiedperiodwithoutchangesinthepriceorothercontractterms.OUTPUTCONTRACTAnagreementbywhichthebuyeragreestopurchasetheseller'sentireproduction.PAROLCONTRACTAcontractthatispartlyorentirelyoral.PAROLEVIDENCEOralstatementsthatareofferedtoprovethetermsofacontract.Ingeneral,iftheparolevidencechanges,contradicts,orsupplementsthewrittencontractterms,itisinadmissibletoprovetheintentoftheparties.Thus,iforalstatementsaremadeduringpreliminarynegotiationsbutarenotincorporatedintothefinalagreement,thosestatementsmaynotlaterbeusedbyonepartytoprovethemeaningofthewrittenterms.PARTY(TOATRANSACTION)Anindividual,group,orentitythatrepresentsonesideofaquestion,contract,ordispute.POWEROFATTORNEY Awrittendocumentbywhichoneindividualorentity(theprincipal)authorizesanotherindividualorentity(theagent)toperformstatedactsontheprincipal'sbehalf.Example:aprincipalmayexecuteaspecialpowerofattorney(authorizinganagenttosignaspecificcontract)orageneralpowerofattorney(authorizingtheagenttosignallcontractsfortheprincipal).SeealsoAGENCY.PRIVITYOFCONTRACTAmutualityofinterestbetweenthepartiestoacontract.Contractingpartiesareinprivityiftheyhaveequalinterestsinthesubjectofthecontract.PROFORMAINVOICEAninvoiceprovidedbyasupplierpriortoasaleorshipmentofmerchandisetoinformthebuyerofthekindsandquantitiesofgoodsbeingsent,theirvalue,andspecificationssuchasweightandsize.Aproformainvoiceisusedasapreliminaryinvoicetogetherwithaquotationandforcustomspurposesinidentifyingthegoods.Legally,itmayserveasevidenceofthecontractualarrangementbetweentheparties.PURCHASEORDERAbuyer'swrittenoffertoasellerstatingalltermsandconditionsofaproposedtransaction.REASONABLEPERSONSTANDARDAtestdevelopedbythecourtsfordeterminingwhetheraperson'sconductwithinaparticularsituationisthesameaswhatwouldbeexpectedofanother,reasonablepersonunderidenticalconditions.Inrelationtocontracts,courtsmayinfermissingtermsinaccordancewithwhatthepartieswouldreasonablyintendunderthecircumstances,i.e.,inaccordancewiththecommontradeorindustrypractice.REQUIREMENTCONTRACTAnagreementbywhichtheselleragreestofurnishallgoodsrequiredbythebuyerforaspecifiedtimeandatacertainprice,duringwhichtimethebuyeragreestopurchasesuchgoodsfromthesellerexclusively.RESCINDAcontractingparty'srighttocancelthecontract.Forexample,acontractmayallowonepartytorescindiftheotherpartyfailstoperformwithinareasonabletime.RESTITUTIONAlegalremedyforbreachofcontractbywhichthepartiesarerestoredtotheiroriginalpositionsbeforethecontractwasmadeorthebreachoccurred.Forexample,ifabuyerremitspartialadvancepaymentandthesellersendsgoodsthatfailtomeetthebuyer'sspecifications,thebuyermaytakelegalactionfortherestitutionofthepaymenttothebuyerandreturnofthegoodstotheseller. SEQUESTRATIONSeeATTACHMENT.SEVERABILITYCLAUSEAcontracttermthatprovidesthateachprovisionofthecontractisindependentofalloftheotherssothatifacourtinvalidatesanyoftheclauses,therestofthecontractremainsvalid.STATUTEOFFRAUDSAlawthatrequiresdesignateddocumentstobeinwritinginordertobeenforcedbyacourt.Example:contractingpartiesmayorallyagreetotransferownershipofimmovableproperties,butacourtmightnotawarddamagesforbreach,unlessthecontractwaswritten.TYINGARRANGEMENTAconditionofsalethatasellerimposesonabuyer,requiringthatifthebuyerpurchasesoneproduct(tyingproduct),thebuyermustagreetopurchaseasecondproductalso(tiedproduct),regardlessofwhetherthebuyerwantsbothproducts.Thelawsofsomecountriesprohibittyingarrangements.ULTRAVIRESAnactperformedwithouttheauthoritytodoso.Example:Ifacontractprovisionrequiresbothpartiestoapproveanassignmentofthecontractbutonepartyagreestoanassignmentwithoutobtainingtheother'sconsent,theassignmentisultravires.UNCONSCIONABLEUnfairoroppressive.Forexample,acontractwithunconscionabletermsfavorsonepartyandburdenstheothertosuchanextentthatacourtmayrefusetoenforcetheunconscionabletermsbecausetheresultwouldbeunjust.UNFAIRCOMPETITIONTradingandbusinessactivitiesthataredishonestorfraudulentasagainsttheactivitiesofothertraders.Unfaircompetitionincludesfraudulentadvertising,counterfeiting,andsimilarillegaltradepractices.URUGUAYROUNDTheeighthroundofmultilateraltradenegotiationspursuanttotheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT).ThemeetingsbeganinUruguayin1987andwereconcludedinDecember1993withanagreementamong117membernations.ThemajorgoalsofthisRoundweretoreducetradebarriersforgoods,tostrengthentheinternationalroleofGATT,toimprovemultilateraltrading,toincreasetheresponsivenessofGATTtotheevolvinginternationaleconomicenvironment,toencouragecooperationinstrengtheningtheinterrelationshipbetweentradeandothereconomicpoliciesthataffectgrowthanddevelopment,andtoestablishamultilateralframeworkofprincipalsandrulesfortradeinservices. VALUEADDEDTAX(VAT)Ataxbasedonthevaluethatisaddedtogoodsateachstageofproduction.Thesetaxescanserveasindirecttradebarrierstoimportsbecausethetaxesarepassedontotheultimateconsumer,makingtheimportedgoodsmoreexpensivethanlocalproducts.VOIDABINITIOHavingnoeffectfromthetimeofinitiation.Acontractthatviolateslaworthatisagainstpublicpolicyisvoidabinitiobecause,fromthemomentitisformed,itnevertakeseffect.VOIDABLECONTRACTAnagreementthatisvalidbutthatcanbedeclaredinvalidattherequestofoneofthepartiesbecauseofadefectorillegalityinmakingit.Forexample,ifonepartymadeafraudulentmisrepresentationonwhichtheotherpartyreliedinmakingtheagreement,theagreementwillbeenforcedagainstthemisrepresentingpartybuttheotherpartymayseekreliefbyelectingtovoidthecontract.VOIDCONTRACTAnagreementthathasnolegaleffectandthatcannotberatifiedorotherwisemadeeffective,suchasacontracttoperformanillegalact.WAIVER(1)Theabandoningofaclaimorright.(2)Thedocumentacknowledgingtheabandoningofaclaimorright.WARRANTYAcontractprovisionbywhichonepartyrepresentstotheotherthatcertainfactsaretrue.Forexample,asellermightwarrantthatthegoodswillmeetcertainspecificationsandthebuyermightbeentitledtoreturnnonconforminggoods. 商务合同英译应注意的问题　　英译商务合同貌似简单，实则不然。商务合同是一种特殊的应用文体，重在记实，用词行文的一大特点就是准确与严谨。　　本文拟运用翻译教学中所积累的英译商务合同的实例，从三个方面论述如何从大处着眼、小处着手、力求准确严谨英译商务合同。　　前言　　一、酌情使用公文语惯用副词　　商务合同属于法律性公文，所以英译时，有些词语要用公文语词语、特别是酌情使用英语惯用的一套公文语副词，就会起到使译文结构严谨、逻辑严密、言简意赅的作用。但是从一些合同的英文译本中发现，这种公文语副词常被普通词语所代替，从而影响到译文的质量。　　实际上，这种公文语惯用副词为数并不多，而且构词简单易记。常用的这类副词是由here、there、where等副词分别加上after、by、in、of、on、to、under、upon、with等副词，构成一体化形式的公文语副词。例如：从此以后、今后：hereafter；此后、以后：thereafter；在其上：thereonthereupon；在其下：thereunder；对于这个：hereto；对于那个：whereto；在上文：hereinabovehereinbefore；在下文：hereinafterhereinbelow；在上文中、在上一部分中：thereinbefore；在下文中、在下一部分中：thereinafter．　　现用两个实例，说明在英译合同中如何酌情使用上述副词。　　例1：本合同自买方和建造方签署之日生效。　　ThisContractshallcomeintoforcefromthedateofexecutionhereofbytheBuyerandtheBuilder.　　例2：下述签署人同意在中国制造新产品，其品牌以此为合适。　　TheundersignedherebyagreesthatthenewproductswheretothistradenameismoreappropriatearemadeinChina.　　二、谨慎选用极易混淆的词语　　英译商务合同时，常常由于选词不当而导致词不达意或者意思模棱两可，有时甚至表达的是完全不同的含义。因此了解与掌握极易混淆的词语的区别是极为重要的，是提高英译质量的关键因素之一，现把常用且易混淆的七对词语，用典型实例论述如下。　　2.1.shippingadvice与shippinginstructions　　shippingadvice是“装运通知”，是由出口商（卖主）发给进口商（买主）的。然而shippinginstructions则是“装运须知”，是进口商（买主）发给出口商（卖主）的。另外要注意区分vendor（卖主）与vendee（买主），consignor（发货人）与consignee（收货人）。上述这三对词语在英译时、极易发生笔误。　　2.2.abideby与complywith　　abideby与complywith都有“遵守”的意思．但是当主语是“人”时，英译“遵守”须用abideby。当主语是非人称时，则用complywith英译“遵守”。 　　例3：双方都应遵守/双方的一切活动都应遵守合同规定。　　BothpartiesShallabideby/Alltheactivitiesofbothpartiesshallcomplywiththecontractualstipulations.　　2.3.changeAtoB与changeAintoB　　英译“把A改为B"用“changeAtoB"，英译“把A折合成/兑换成B"用“changeAintoB"，两者不可混淆。　　例4：交货期改为8月并将美元折合成人民币。　　BothpartiesagreethatchangethetimeofshipmenttoAugustandchangeUSdollarintoRenminbi.　　2.4.ex与per　　源自拉丁语的介词ex与per有各自不同的含义。英译由某轮船“运来”的货物时用ex，由某轮船“运走”的货物用Per，而由某轮船“承运”用by。　　例5：由“维多利亚”轮运走/运来/承运的最后一批货将于10月1日抵达伦敦。　　Thelastbatchper/ex/byS.S."Victoria"willarriveatLondononOctober(S.S.=Steamship)　　2.5.in与after　　当英译“多少天之后”的时间时，往往是指“多少天之后”的确切的一天，所以必须用介词in，而不能用after，因为介词after指的是“多少天之后”的不确切的任何一天。　　例6：该货于11月10日由“东风”轮运出，41天后抵达鹿特丹港。　　ThegoodshallbeshippedperM.V."DongFeng"onNovember10andareduetoarriveatRotterdamin140days.(M.V.=motorvessel)　　2.6.on/upon与after　　当英译“……到后，就……”时，用介词on/upon，而不用after，因为after表示“之后”的时间不明确。　　例7：发票货值须货到付给。　　Theinvoicevalueistobepaidon/uponarrivalofthegoods.　　2.7.by与before　　当英译终止时间时，比如“在某月某日之前”，如果包括所写日期时，就用介词by；如果不包括所写日期，即指到所写日期的前一天为止，就要用介词before。　　例8：卖方须在6月15日前将货交给买方。　　ThevendorshalldeliverthegoodstothevendeebyJune15.(or:beforeJune16，说明含6月15日在内。如果不含6月15日,就译为byJune14或者beforeJune15。)　　三、慎重处理合同的关键细目　　实践证明，英译合同中容易出现差错的地方，一般来说，不是大的陈述性条款。而恰恰是一些关键的细目．比如：金钱、时间、数量等。为了避免出差错，在英译合同时，常常使用一些有限定作用的结构来界定细目所指定的确切范围。　　3.1.限定责任 　　众所周知，合同中要明确规定双方的责任。为英译出双方责任的权限与范围，常常使用连词和介词的固定结构。现把最常用的此类结构举例说明如下。　　3.1.1and/or常用and/or英译合同中“甲和乙+甲或乙”的内容，这样就可避免?nbsp|译其中的一部分。　　例9：如果上述货物对船舶和（或）船上其它货物造成任何损害，托运人应负全责。　　Theshippershallbeliableforalldamagecausedbysuchgoodstotheshipand/orcargoonboard.　　3.1.2byandbetween　　常用byandbetween强调合同是由“双方”签订的，因此双方必须严格履行合同所赋于的责任。　　例10：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售下列商品并签订本合同。　　ThisContractismadebyandbetweentheBuyerandtheSeller,wherebytheBuyeragreestobuyandtheSelleragreestoselltheunder-mentionedcommoditysubjecttothetermsandconditionsstipulatedbelow.　　3.2.限定时间　　英译与时间有关的文字，都应非常严格慎重地处理，因为合同对时间的要求是准确无误。所以英译起止时间时，常用以下结构来限定准确的时间。　　3.2.1双介词　　用双介词英译含当天日期在内的起止时间。　　例11；自9月2O日起，甲方已无权接受任何定单或收据。　　PartyAshallbeunauthorizedtoacceptanyordersortocollectanyaccountonandafterSeptember20.　　例12：我公司的条件是，3个月内，即不得晚于5月1日，支付现金。　　Ourtermsarecashwithinthreemonths,i.e.onorbeforeMay1.　　3.2.2not(no)laterthan　　用“not(no)laterthan+日期”英译“不迟于某月某日”。　　例13：本合同签字之日一个月内，即不迟于12月15日，你方须将货物装船。　　PartyBshallshipthegoodswithinonemonthofthedateofsigningthisContract,i.e.notlaterthanDecember15.　　3.2.3include的相应形式　　常用include的相应形式：inclusive、including和included，来限定含当日在内的时间。　　例14：本证在北京议付，有效期至1月1日。ThiscreditexpirestillJanuary1(inclusive)fornegotiationinBeijing.(or:ThiscreditexpirestillandincludingJanuary1fornegotiationinBeijing.)如果不包括1月1日在内，英译为tillandnotincludingJanuary1。　　3.3.限定金额　　为避免金额数量的差?nbsp|、伪造或涂改，英译时常用以下措施严格把关。　　3.3.1.大写文字重复金额　　英译金额须在小写之后，在括号内用大写文字重复该金额，即使原文合同中没有大写，英译时也有必要加上大写。在大写文字前加上“SAY"，意为“大写”；在最后加上“ONLY"．意思为“整”。必须注意：小写与大写的金额数量要一致。 　　例16：聘方须每月付给受聘方美元500元整。　　PartyAshallpayPartyBamonthlysalaryofUS$500(SAYFIVEHUNDREDUSDOLLARSONLY).　　3.3.2.正确使用货币符号　　英译金额必须注意区分和正确使用各种不同的货币名称符号。“$"既可代表“美元”，又可代表其它某些地方的货币；而“￡”不仅代表“英镑”，又可代表其它某些地方的货币。　　必须注意：当金额用数字书写时，金额数字必须紧靠货币符号，例如：Can$891,568，不能写成：Can$891,568。另外，翻译的还要特别注意金额中是小数点(.)还是分节号(,)，因为这两个符号极易引起笔误，稍有疏忽，其后果是不堪设想的。