A Brief Study of China English

《A Brief Study of China English》由会员上传分享，免费在线阅读，更多相关内容在学术论文-天天文库。

ABriefStudyofChinaEnglish1.IntroductionOftheoverfivethousandlanguagesintheworld,Englishisthemostwidelyusedlanguage.Sincethepasthalfcentury,EnglishhasbecomeaLinguaFranca.ItisestimatedthatthetotalnumberofthepersonsspeakingEnglishintheworldhadreachedtwobillionbytheendofthetwentiethcentury(Todd1995:41).FromtheEasternHemispheretotheWesternone,peoplecanhearvarious“Englishes,”whichmeansthatEnglishhasmanyvarieties.Apartfromthe“standard”BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish,thereareotherEnglishessuchasCanadianEnglish,AustralianEnglish,NewZealandEnglish,IndianEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,SingaporeEnglish,MaltaEnglish,ZambiaEnglish,HongkongEnglish,JapaneseEnglish,ChinaEnglish.WecanseeclearlythatEnglishhasbecomeaninternationallanguage.ThefactthattheEnglishvarietiesservevariousfunctionsofsocialcommunicationrequiresustomakeafullinvestigationandresearchinthevarietiesandtheirdistinctivecultures.Onlybydoingso,canEnglishasaworldlanguagesuccessfullyserveitscommunicationfunctionacrossculturesandnationalboundaries.31 2.ABriefAccountoftheStudyofChinaEnglish2.1AchievementoftheStudyonChinaEnglish.Englishhasbeenwidelyusedallovertheworldasacommunicativelanguage.Insomeway,itisaninternationallanguage.Ithasbeenmorethan200yearssinceRobertMorrison,thefirstmissionaryfromBritain,cametoChinatoteachEnglishin1807.Nowadays,EnglishhasrootedonChinasinceHongKongwascededtoBritainin1841.EnglishismorewidelyusedinChinathaneverbeforewiththedevelopmentofthesocialistmarketeconomy.SoitisveryimportanttofocusonthestudyofEnglishinChina.Languageiscloselyrelatedtoculture.Everylanguageispartofitsculture.Meanwhile,itisatoolusedforculturalexchange.Ontheonehand,agivenlanguageisinseparablefromitsculturalsettings.Thespecificlanguagepatterncanrepresentitsculturalpatterns.Ontheotherhand,onelanguagecanbecombinedwithanotherculture.Oncethereconstructionofagivenlanguagewithanotherculturedivergesfromthelanguagepatternsofapriorculture,thenewvariantisdifferentfromtheoriginallanguage.ChinesecultureisdifferentfromEnglishculture.Ithasitsowncharacteristics.Accordingly,onceEnglishiscombinedwithChineseculture,itbecomesanewlanguagewithChineseculturalfeaturesthatisnolongerStandardEnglish(StandardEnglishmeanstheEnglishwhichisusedbyEnglishmenandtheAmericans).ThelanguageiscalledChinese/Sanitized/ChinaEnglish.31 2.2Foreigners’researchesForeignscholarshavenoticedthephenomenonofChinaEnglish.Buttheyusethetermof“ChineseEnglish”insteadof“ChinaEnglish.”Thephrase“ChineseEnglish”islistedinthebookInternationalEnglishUsagecoauthoredbyBritishscholarToddandAmericanscholarHancock(1986)whoexpoundChineseEnglishintheaspectsofphonology,lexiconandgrammarwithinclusionofChinaEnglishandChineseEnglish.AllthelivingexamplesinthebookareaboutChineseinterference.ThefollowingarethecharacteristicsofChineseEnglishinthebookbythetwoforeignersmentioned:Inphonology,thephonologicalvariationofChineseEnglishresultsfromtheChineselanguageandthedialectsoftheChinesespeakers.SinceChineseisalanguagewithfourtones,ChinesepeoplefeelthatitisveryhardtomasterEnglishintonationwell,andtheyeitherbringChinesetonestoEnglishorhavenoobviousintonationwhenspeakingEnglish.Inlexicon,theauthorscitemanyEnglishwordsconcerningChinesefood,philosophyandhistoricaldynasties.Ingrammar,thetwocasesarementioned.OneisthatChinesepeopletendtouseactivesentencestructureinsteadofpassiveonethatisfrequentlyusedinEnglish;theotherreferstothemistakesintenseduetoChineseinterference.31 3．ChinaEnglishandChinglish3.1HistoricalstudiesGeChuangui(1980)isthefirstscholarwhocoinstheterm“ChinaEnglish”inaparagraphofaboutsixhundredChinesecharacters.Inthisparagraph,hesuggeststhatmuchattentionshouldbedrawntodistinguishChinaEnglishandChinglish.GealsoholdsthattheEnglishlanguageoriginallyisthelanguageofEnglishpeople.OtherpeopleswhouseEnglishshouldfollowtheidiomaticandconventionalwaysoftheEnglishpeople.However,eachnationhasitsspecificculture.AsinChina,theremustbetypicalChinesecultureandwayoflifetobeexpressedinEnglish;thatis,ChinaEnglishistoexpressChinesephenomenaandideas.Gepointsout:“Everycountryhasitsownsituation.AsforourChina,beitoldornewone,ithasmanythingswithChinesecharacteristicsthatneedtobeexpressedwhentheyarespokenorwritteninEnglish.”Tosupporthisidea,hecitestheexamplesasfollows:Imperialexamination(科举),Hanlingyuan(翰林院),MayFourthMovement(五四运动),Mr.Science(赛先生),Mr.Democracy(德先生),Xiucai(秀才),eight-leggedessay(八股文)Baihuawen(白话文),twohundredpolicies(双百方针),ideologicalremolding(思想改造),fourmodernizations(四个现代化),andsoon.AccordingtoMr.Ge,alltheseEnglishversionswithChinesecharacteristicsarecorrectEnglishandshouldbelongtoChinaEnglish(GeChuangui1980:91-92).WangRongpei(1991),inhisarticleTheObjectiveExistenceofChinaEnglish,holdsthatthedefinitionofChinaEnglishshouldincludethefollowingthreeaspects:31 1)ChinaEnglishisusedbyChinesepeopleinChinesenativeland.2)ChinaEnglishshouldhavetheStandardEnglishasitscore.3)ChinaEnglishhasitsuniquefeatures.LiWenzhong(1993:19)challengesWangRongpei’sdefinitionofChinaEnglishbypublishinghisarticleChinaEnglishandChineseEnglish.HereareLi’sargumentsaboutthepoint:1)TheuseofChinaEnglishisnotrestrictedtoChinesenativeland.ManyEnglishwordsfromChinesehaveenteredEnglishbymeansoftransliterationandloantranslation,forexample,tea(茶),kowtow(叩头),GreatLeapForward(大跃进),GangofFour(四人帮),andsoon.AlltheseEnglishwordsorphrases,betheyusedinChinaorabroad,areChinaEnglish.Hethinksthatevensuchexpressionsas“LittleRedBook”and“CommunistChina”mightbeconsideredasChinaEnglish,whicharecoinedbythewesternersandareneverusedinthenativelandofChina.Furthermore,ChinaEnglishisnowmainlyfortheinternationaluse,anditsnativizationdoesnotmeanthatitmustbeusedinthelandofChina.2)Thewordingof“StandardEnglish”seemsquestionable.ConsideringthefactthatneitherBritishEnglishnorAmericanEnglishisregardedasthe“StandardEnglish,”butjustasavarietyofEnglish,so-called“StandardEnglish”ceasestoexistandshouldbereplacedby“NormativeEnglish”whichcomplieswiththegeneralrulesoftheEnglishlanguageandcanbeacceptedandunderstoodbyEnglish-speakingpeoples.Basedonhisargument,LiWenzhongmakeshisdefinitionofChinaEnglishbelow:“ChinaEnglishisanEnglishvarietythathasNormativeEnglishasitscore,expressesthesocialandculturalmattersspecificinChina,freesfromChinese31 interferenceorinfluence,enterstheEnglishlanguagebymeansoftransliteration,loantranslation,semanticregenerationandreflectsChinesefeaturesattheaspectsoflexis,syntaxanddiscourse.”LithinksthatChinglishisdeformedEnglishandiscausedbytheinterferenceofChineselanguagewhichdoesnotfollowtheuniversalrulesofthenativeEnglishlanguage,cultureandcustom.Inotherwords,Chinglishreferstothe“SinicizedEnglish”whichcanbeseeninsound,vocabularyandtextduetothelinguistictransferortherigidtranslationbyChinesepeople,thusitisnotacceptedbythenativeEnglish-speakingpeople.Itscompositionandusescopeareunstableandlimited;itcancauseobstructiontoforeigncommunicationandcultureexchange.WithfrequentcommunicationandcultureexchangebetweenChinaandthewesterncountries,thiskindofunaccepted“English”willbelessandless.Inbrief,althoughChinaEnglishandChinglishareinterrelatedinsomeaspects,thereisafundamentaldistinctionbetweenthem.TheformerisregardedasanacceptedEnglishvarietythatcanenrichtheEnglishlanguage,whilethelatterisunacceptableandwillbringbarriersandmisunderstandingininternationalcommunication.3.2WhatisChinaEnglish?TheauthorinthepresentpaperthinksthattheabovedefinitionsofChinaEnglishhaveaconcentrationonthefollowingfourpoints:Thefirstisaboutthe“standardEnglish.”Theauthorholdsthatthe“standardEnglish”doesnotexistatallsinceneitherBritishEnglishnorAmericanoneisregardedasa“standard”English,buteachofthemasanEnglishvariety.However,wemayrefertosuchEnglishesasBritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglishandSingaporeEnglishas“normative”EnglishwhichconformtothegeneralrulesofEnglishlanguageandcanbeunderstoodbythenativeEnglishspeakers.31 ThesecondconcernsthescopeofChinaEnglish,thatis,whetherithasbeenuseinnativeChineseland.ModernsociolinguistsdivideEnglishvarietiesintotwokinds—internationalandinternationalintermsoftheirpurposeandfunction(SunLi1989).ThisdivisionclearlyindicatesthatanyEnglishvarietycanbeusedbeyonditsnativelandandenterinternationaluse.ChinaEnglishismainlyaninternationalvariety.WetakeChineseborrowingsforinstance.Fromtheseventeenthtotwentiethcentury,manyChineseborrowingsdirectlyenteredEnglishthroughtransliterationsuchastea(茶),kowtow（叩头）,yamen（衙门）,GreatLeapForward（大跃进）,GreatCulturalRevolution（文化大革命）,GangofFour（四人帮）,FourModernizations（四个现代化）.AlltheseEnglishversionsofcoursebelongtoChinaEnglishnomatterwheretheyareused.ThethirdiswhetherChinaEnglishhastheinterferencefromChinese.Asiswellknown,therelationbetweenlanguageandthoughtisofdialecticalunity.Languagedevelopmentcanpromotethatofthought,andviceversa.Anaccomplishedlanguageacquisitionmarkstheformationofacertainthinkingmode.One’sEnglishinevitablyhasChinesefeaturesonceheorshehasacquiredChineseandformedthewayofChinesethinking.Accordingly,theChinesefeaturesofChinaEnglishareunavoidablycausedbytheintrinsicthinkingmodelspecifictoChinesepeopleandculture(JiangXiaohong2001).ChinaEnglishdoesnotexistwithoutChineseinterference.Whenone’sEnglishproficiencyisimproved,one’sChineseinterferencemaybeless,butitcanneverdisappearcompletely.ThisisevensoforanexpertinEnglish.SolongasonehasChineseasone’snativelanguageandthinksinChineseway,one’sEnglishisdefinitelycharacteristicofChineseflavour.ProfessorYangZijianonceaskedChina’sfamoustranslatorYeJunjian,“YouhavewrittenmanynovelsinEnglish,anddoyouthinkthereisChinglishinyournovels?”Yerepliedwithnohesitation,“Yes,thereis;however,itisnotcalledChinglishbut31 sinicizedEnglish(汉化英语).(WecallitnowChinaEnglish).IamaChineseandIcannotbefreefromChinesethinkingwhenusingEnglish.”(XieZhijun1995).XieZhijun(1995)oncemakesacontrastbetweenthetwoEnglishversionsofaveryfamousChinesenovelADreamofRedMansionstranslatedbyMr.YangXianyiandhiswife,andbyD.HawkesandJohnMinfordrespectively;hefindsthattherearemanycasesaboutChinaEnglishinYang’sversion,forexampletherearealotofshortsentencepatternsandlessrelativewords.ThefourthisonthescopeofthefeaturesofChinaEnglish,thatis,whetherChinaEnglishhasthefeaturesatthelevelofphonology.Theoretically,sinceChinaEnglishisanEnglishvariety,itsfeaturesshouldbeshownatallthelinguisticlevels:phonology,lexis,syntaxanddiscourse.Inpractice,ChinesealwayshavetheChinesetalkwhenspeakingEnglish.Forexample,eventheEnglishannouncersintheprogramofCCTV(ChinaCentralTelevision)InternationalutterEnglishwiththeobviousChineseaccent.Onthebasisoftheargumentabove,theauthorinthepresentpaperdefinesChinaEnglishinthisway:ChinaEnglish,withNormativeEnglishasitscore,isanEnglishvarietyusedbyChinesepeople;ithastheChinesefeaturesunavoidablyinfluencedbyboththeChineselanguageandthewayofChinesethinking;itpossessesthelinguisticcharacteristicsshownatthelevelsofphonology,lexis,syntaxanddiscourse.3.3WhatisChinglish?Chinglish,orChineseEnglish,isadeformedEnglishphenomenonmisusedbyChinesepeople,anditobviouslyviolatesthegeneralEnglishrules,cultureandcustom;itscompositionandusescopeareunstableandlimited;besides,itdoesgreatharmtointernationalcommunicationandthespreadingofChinesecivilization.Therefore,Chinglish31 isnotacceptedbynativeEnglishspeakers.MostsentencesofChinglishareproducedbymisunderstandingsemanticmeaningorlogicrelations,andsomeareevenarrangedinChinesestructures.ThefollowingsentencesaregoodexamplesaboutChinglish:Mystomachishungry.“我的肚子饿了.”Myageisveryyoung.“我的年龄很轻.”Hisbrainisclever.“他的脑子聪明.”AlltheEnglishversionsaboveareorganizedinChinesestructuresandarepubliclythoughtofasnon-normativeEnglish.TherearemanyChinglishsentencesdirectlytranslatedfromChinesewiththeChineseterms,cultureandtaste;andallofthemareChinese-flavouredEnglish.Thesentencebelowcanwellexemplifythispoint:Whatevermencomradescanaccomplish,womencomradescantoo.“凡是男同志能做到的,女同志也能做到.”ThenormativeEnglishsentenceforitshouldbe:“Womencanalsoaccomplishwhatevermencando.”3.4TherelationshipbetweenChinaEnglishandChinglishChinaEnglishandChinglishareinterrelatedinsomeaspects:bothofthemaretoexpressChinesethingsandhaveChinesefeatures.Yetthereisanessentialdistinctionbetweenthem:ChinaEnglishisnormativeEnglishandamemberoftheworldEnglish;itscompositionandusescopearemuchricherandwiderthanChinglish.ChinaEnglish,withitsincreasingpublicitytotheworld,willexertagreatinfluenceontheEnglishlanguage.However,Chinglishisadeformedlanguagewiththeunstablecompositionandnarrowuse31 scope;itcancausebarriersinChina’sinternationalcommunicationandculturespreading.SomeChinglishsentenceshaveenteredEnglish,forinstance，thesentence“Longtimenosee.”(好久不见了。)originallyisapidginEnglish,butnowitisutteredbymanynativeEnglishspeakers.Nevertheless,suchcasesareveryrare.Itshouldbenotedthatthereisagreatdealofpragmaticerrorsinthematerialspublicizedtooverseascountriesandareas.AccordingtothestatisticdatamadebyDuanLiancheng(1990),bytheendof1990,therehadbeenover2000sortsofbookletstoforeigncountriesjustinShandongProvinceofChina.ThecorrectuseofChinaEnglishisagoodsolutiontothedifficulttranslationproblem.Therefore,thescientificstudyofChinaEnglishisofgreatimportancetobothlinguistictheoriesandsocialreality.31 4．TheLinguisticFeaturesofChinaEnglishAnintensivestudyofbilingualmanagementshowsthatthedominantlanguagehasagreatinterferenceontheweakerone,andthiskindofinterferenceisofnolimitationtotheexpressionofthespecialthingsinthedominantlanguage(WenZhijun1993).AccordingtoKachru,English,onceadoptedinanarea,beitforscience,technologyandliteratureorforthegainofreputation,statusandmodernization,willundergoaprocessofregenerationpartlyfromlanguageandpartlyfromculture(SunLi1989:19).ThisprocessofregenerationmeansthenativizationorlocalizationofEnglish.F.deSaussure(1986)alsopointsout,“Thespiritofanationornationgroupwillcontinuouslyleadalanguagetosomecertainroads.”The“spirit”referstothefeaturesshowninthoughtandculture,and“certainroads”meansthefixedmodelofanativelanguagereflectingthoughtandculture.Theaccomplishedacquisitionofalanguagemarkstheformationofathinkingmanner.IfonefirstlyacquiresChineseandformsthewayofChinesethinking,itisimpossibleforonetoavoidtheChinesefeaturesinhisorherspokenorwrittenEnglish.Asfortheformoflanguage,theChineseinterferencecanbeshownatallthelinguisticlevels:phonology,lexicon,syntaxanddiscourse.4.1ThefeaturesofChinaEnglishatphonologicallevel4.1.1SomerelatedtheoriesandresearchesLeather(1983:198-9)maintainsthatonlyaspy’spronunciationneedstomixthefalsewiththetrue,andonlythatofasecondlanguageteacherneedstoapproximatethenativespeakers;butforthemoststudentsandadults,itisOKforthemtobeeasilyunderstoodby31 foreigners.Medgyes(1992:342)believesthatitisimpossibleforasecondlanguagelearner,howeverhardheorshetries,toacquireandmasteralanguageasproficientlyasanativespeakerdoes.AccordingtoHeZhaoxiong(1999:40),thephonologicalfeaturesoflanguagearereflectedintwoaspects:segmentalandsuprasegmental.Healsoindicates,“Sofarwehavebeendealingwiththephonemes－soundsegmentsthatdistinguishmeaning.Butdistinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone(HeZhaoxiongandMeiDeming1999:40).ThefeaturesshownatthesegmentalaspectmainlybelongtoChineseEnglish,andthoseatthesuprasegmentalarebasicallyatthesuprasegmentalaspects:thestress,juncture,gradation,assimilation,liaison,etc.(DuRuiqingandJiangYajun2001:39).JiangYajun(1995:52-53)observesthefollowingsoundvariationsasthefeaturesformanyChinesepeopletospeakEnglish:(1)ChineseEnglishlearnerssometimesaddafinal/?/tothewordsendingwithconsonants.(2)Theyhavetroubledistinguishingtheshortvowelsfromthecorrespondinglongonesandoftenprolongtheshortvowelsandmakethemthecorrespondinglongones,forexample,both“ship”and“sheep”arepronouncedas/i:p/.ThisisbecausethelongandshortcontrastisnotadistinctivefeatureandmakesnodifferenceinmeaninginPutonghua.(3)InmanyareasinChina,peopledonotdistinguishbetween/l/and/n/,thelateralandthealveolarnasal.Intheirdialects,thesetwosoundsarenottwophonemes,butallophonesofonephoneme.ThetransferofthisfeaturetotheirEnglishcreatesconfusionbetweenwordpairslikenight/lightornap/lap.(4)Chinesestudentstendtoignorethelinguisticphenomenondescribedas“shifting31 stress.”InEnglish,anumberofwords,especiallycompounds,mayhaveashiftinstresswhentheyareusedbeforenouns.ButChinesestudentsalwaysusethestresswhenthewordissaidbyitself.Whencomingto“ThesoldiersareChineseintheChinesearmy,”theydonotshiftthepositionofprimarystresspatternsincompoundnounsandmodifiernouns,distinguishedbystress.ItishardtotellinaChineseclassroomwhetherastudentistalkingabouthis“girlfriend”or“girlfriend.”(5)ForChinesespeakers,therearevariousproblemswithpitchesandterminals,ofwhichthe“individualquestionword”isacommonone.Whenemployingaquestionwordtomakearequest,theytendtousethe“fadingterminal,”allthetimeandforallpurposes.Yousay“JanehasanewEnglishteacher,”andtheymayrightlyask“Who?”whentheywanttoknowfurtherinformationabouttheteacher.Theproblemisthattheyusethesameintonationcontourwhiletheywant“Jane”repeated.LoretoToddandIanHancock(1986)coauthorabookwiththetitleInternationalEnglishUsageandinwhichtheystate:“ThesoundvariationofChinaEnglishiscausedbyChinesedialectsandthepronunciationsofforeignteachersfromdifferentcountries.”Theyputforwardthesoundvariationslike“non-rsound”andanothersixones.Sofar,thestudyofcomparisonandcontrastbetweenChinesephonologyandEnglishphonologyhasonlyfocusedonthesegmentalphoneme.ItmaybeinstructivetothesoundteachingofelementaryEnglish.ButitseemstobeirrelevanttoChinaEnglish.4.1.2SomeobviousphonologicalfeaturesofChinaEnglishChinesepeopleknowingEnglishcannotgetridoftheirChinesetalkwhentheyspeakEnglish;theirEnglishspeakingisobviousinChinesestyle.Howeveritishardtohavea31 systematicstudyofandanalysisonthephonologicalfeaturesofChinaEnglish.Uptonow,noonehassucceededintheestablishmentofthesystemofthephonologicalfeaturesofChinaEnglish.TheauthorinthispaperviewsthatChinaEnglishatleasthasthefollowingfeaturesinthephonologicalaspect.(1)Chinesepeopletendtostresssomefunctionalwordsandthereisalackofassimilationandliaisonintheirspeech.WetakethehostsofEnglishprogramsonCCTV(ChinaCentralTelevision)Internationalforinstance.EventhehostsmentionedwhohaveaveryhighEnglishproficiencyoftenstressthearticles,prepositionsandconjunctions,andthereisalackofassimilationandliaisonintheirspeech.(2)ChineseandEnglisharetwodifferentlanguages.OurmothertongueChineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Tonesarepitchvariations,andarecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Sothetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Chinesehasfourtones:thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声),andthefourthfall(去声).Therolesofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundcombinationsuchas“ma”inthefourdifferenttones:ma(妈),ma(麻),ma(马),ma(骂)Incontrast,Englishisanintonationlanguage.Pitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,andtheyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-fall31 tone.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.BecausethevariationsofChineseintonationarelessobviousthanEnglish,Chinesepeople,influencedbyChineseintonationortone,havetheirChinesetalkwhentheyspeakEnglish.ThisChinesetalklacksthechangeablerise-and-fallintonationandhasabalanced,rhythmicflow.(3)ThephonologyofChinaEnglishischaracterizedbythemixtureofBritishsoundandAmericanone.Atpresent,thestudyofthephonologysystemofChinaEnglishisstillinthefirststage.MoreresearchonitsphonologicalsystemisexpectedtobedonesoastoestablishthesystemofphonologicalfeaturesofChinaEnglish.4.2ThefeaturesofChinaEnglishatthelexicallevelThelexicalfeaturesofChinaEnglisharemainlyshownintheChineseborrowingsenteringinEnglish;theyaremorenoticeablethanthoseshownatotherlevelsandbecometheproofoftheexistenceofChinaEnglishinmanyissuedarticlesconcerningthestudyofChinaEnglish.ThemostpresentarticlesaboutChinaEnglishinvolvethismatter.Intheaspectoflexis,thereisaninevitabledepartureofChinaEnglishfromnativeandothernon-nativeEnglishvarietiesbecauseofthelifestyle,cultureandsocietyspecifictoChina.ThisisalsoaverypersuasiveevidenceoftheexistenceofChinaEnglish.ManywordsandexpressionshavetobecoinedtoexpressChinesetypicalcultureandsociety.TheEnglishlanguageenrichesitselfbyabsorbingChineseborrowedwords.AccordingtoCannon(1988),thenumberofChineseborrowingscollectedinEnglishstandarddictionariesandotherreferencebooksisnolessthan997bythemid-1970’s.InWebster’sNewInternationalDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(1934),therearemorethan100Chineseborrowingwordsexceptthe31 propernouns.EspeciallysinceChina’sreformandopeningtotheworld,thereisadramaticincreaseinthenumberofChineseborrowingwords.AConciseChinese-EnglishDictionaryofChineseProperNamesandTermscollects30,000Chineseborrowedwords(ZhangZhengjiuandYuanXianjun,1994).NearlyalltheChineseborrowingsareuniqueandcannotbesubstituted,andtheyarecharacteristicofloweliminationrateandaccuratemeaningexpression.4.2.1ClassificationofChineseborrowingsEarlyintheseventeenthcentury,alotofwordswithChineseuniquefeaturesenteredtheEnglishlanguage.AConciseChinese-EnglishDictionaryofChineseProperNamesandTermswithZhangZhengjiuandYuanXianjun(1994)asthechiefeditorscollectsasmanyas30,000Chineseborrowedwords.Generally,theChineseborrowingsfallintotwocategories:thosebytransliterationandthosebyloantranslation.1)TransliterationEarlyinthe1800s,somewordswithChineseuniquefeaturesenteredtheEnglishlanguage.TheearlyChinesetransliterationwordsenteringEnglisharereferredtotheCantoneseborrowings,andthelateroneshaveChinesePutonghua(thestandardChinesepronunciation)asthestandardwithatendencyoffixedspelling.QuitealotofwordsandphrasesinChinaEnglisharedirectlytransliteratedfromChinesePutonghuaandotherdialectsespeciallyCantonese.Theexamplesareclassifiedasfollows:(1)Abouthistoryandculturexiucai(秀才),yamen(衙门),dazibao(大字报),putonghua(普通话),fenghuang(凤凰),etc.31 (2)Aboutrecreationandsportspipa(琵琶),erhu(二胡),gongfu(功夫),wushu(武术),taichi(太极拳),yangko(秧歌),mahjong(麻将),qigong(气功),sampan(舢板),etc.(3)Aboutfood,clothing,shelterandtransportation(basicnecessitiesoflife)changsam(旗袍，长衫),jiaozi（饺子）,baozi（包子）,chowmein（炒面）,wonton（馄饨）,tea（茶）,congou（功夫茶）,maotai/moutain（茅台酒）,WuLiangYe（五粮液）,ketchup（蕃茄酱）,litchi（荔枝）,ginseng（人参）,kaoliang（高粮）,etc.(4)Aboutlocalconditionsandcustomsfengshui(风水),kang（炕）,kowtow（叩头）,Cantonese（广东话/广东人）,Chingming（清明），typhoon（台风）,Beijinger（北京人），etc.(5)AboutgeographicalnamesInnerMongolia（内蒙古）,Lhasa（拉萨）,Hongkong（香港）,Maca(门）,Kowloon（九龙）,etc.(6)Aboutmeasurementunitsyuan（元）,jiao（角）,fen（分）,mu（亩）,Li（里）,liang（两）,jin（斤）,etc.2)LoantranslationCannon(1988)collectsforty-nineChineseborrowingsinhisarticleChineseBorrowingsinEnglish.Herearesomeexamples:barefootdoctor（赤脚医生）,GreatLeap（大跃进）,loseface（丢面子）,papertiger（纸老虎）,etc.ButifthenewonesinthelasttwocenturiesespeciallysinceChina’sreformand31 opening-upprogramareincluded,thetotalnumberofChineseborrowingsinEnglishfarexceedsthenumber(49)listedbyCannonmentionedabove.OnlythenumberoftheChinesephrasesinEnglishbymeansofword-by-wordtranslationamountstomorethanonethousand(LinTianwen2002).Belowaresomeexamples:(1)AboutChinesehistoryandcultureFourBooks（四书）,FiveClassics（五经）,Eight-leggedEssay（八股文）,Eight-powerAlliedForce（八国联军）,papertiger（纸老虎）,GreatLeapForward（大跃进）,leftist(左派),rectification(整风),CulturalRevolution（文化大革命）,LittleRedBooks（毛主席语录/小红书）,capitalistroader（走资派）,GangofFour（四人帮）,Chineseherbalmedicine（中草药）,beancurd（豆腐）,springrolls（春卷）,etc.(2)AboutChinesereformandopening-upprogramlaid-offworkers（下岗工人）,twocivilization（两个文明）,fourmodernizations（四个现代化）,oneChinapolicy（一个中国的政策）,triangledebts/chaindebts（三角债）,constructcleanpolitics（廉政建设）,reformandopening-upprogram（改革开放）,floatingpopulation（流动人口）,vegetablebasketproject（菜篮子工程）,plannedcommodityeconomy（计划经济）,fairlycomfortablestandardofliving（小康水平）,ironricebowl（铁饭碗）,spiritualpollution（精神污染）,onecountrytwosystems（一国两制）,etc.4.2.2TheuseandtranslationofChineseborrowedwordsDuetolackofguideandnormsbothintheoryandpractice,currentlytheuseofthemisquiteconfusing.TherearenoEnglishequivalentsformanyChinesewordswithChineseuniquecultureinmostofthepublishedChinese-Englishdictionaries.Forexample,“饺子”31 hasdifferentEnglishversionsindifferentChinese-Englishdictionaries;and“fengshui(风水)”hasbeenincludedinTheMacquarieDictionaryofNewWords(1990)andTheOxfordDictionaryofNewWords(1997)(ShaoZhihong1999:55-56);however,athomeitisstilltranslatedas“thelocationofahouseortomb,supposedtohaveaninfluenceonthefortuneofafamily;geomanticomen”(WuGuanhua1997).Anothertypicalinstanceistherenderingof“太极拳,”whichisalwaystranslatedinto“shadowboxing”withnoexceptioninChina.ButtheEnglishversionhasneverbeenacceptedbyBritishandAmericanpeople.Ironically,therecentdictionariespublishedinBritainandtheUnitedStateshaveitlistedas“taichi”(DuRuiqingandJiangYajun2001).So,furtherresearchesshouldbemadeonthetranslationmethodsandtheacceptabilityoftheChineseborrowedwordsofChinaEnglish.Forthis,thearticleentitledHowtoTranslateintoEnglishNewChineseWordsorWordswithNewMeaningsbyZhangJianandTangJianduan(1996:14-16)andanotheroneTranslationofChineseNewWordsandExpressionsintoEnglishbyYangQuanhong(1999:20-22)aregoodexamplesforustoexploredifferentwaystodealwiththenewwordsandexpressionspeculiartoChina.AsthetranslationfromChinesetoEnglishisamediumtopublicizeChineseculture,LiGuolin(GuoJianzhong2000:327-334)holdsthatthetranslatorsengagedinChineseliteraryworksshouldkeepitinmindthattheybeartheresponsibilityfortheintroductionofChineseculturetoforeigners;andaccordingtoYangXianyiandGladysYang’stranslationpractice,itispossibleforthemtodoso.Infact,Chinesescholarshaveneverceasedtodothisjob;theirgreatcontributionwillpromotethehealthydevelopmentofChinaEnglish.LiWenzhong(1993)arguesthatthelexisofChinaEnglishshouldincludenotonlythe31 Chineseborrowings,oldornew,transliteratedorloaned,butalsothosewithnewmeaningsproducedfromtheChinesecontextthroughgeneralization,specialization,amelioration,pejoration,andsoon,whichimpliesthatChinaEnglishshouldcontainboththeChineseborrowingswithnoexistenceintheEnglishlanguagebeforetheyareborrowedandthosewiththemeaningschangedintheChinesecontext.Herearetwoexamples:(1)“药店”(drugstore)isashopjustforthesaleofmedicinesinChina.However,“drugstore”issuchashopwherebothmedicinesandothergoodssuchasdrinksandsnacksaresoldinNorthAmerica.Ashopfromwhichyoucanonlybuymedicinesiscalled“pharmacy”or“chemist’sshop.”(ChenXiaowei,1998).So,ChenXiaoweisuggestssubstituting“pharmacy”or“chemist’sshop”for“drugstore.”(2)“个人主义”(Individualism)hasaderogatorymeaninginChina,anditsequivalentinEnglishis“egoism”(LüJun,1992:27-30).Buttheword“individualism”ispositiveinEnglishwhichmeans“theideathattherightsandfreedomoftheindividualarethemostimportantrightsinasociety.”(cf.LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish,NewEdition,1998,3).Therefore,theEnglishversionof“个人主义”shouldbe“egoism”insteadof“individualism.”4.2.3TheforegroundofthelexisofChinaEnglishLanguagemainlyperformstwofunctions:oneisforsocialcommunication,andtheotherisforhumanthinking.Languagechangeoccursinalllinguisticcomponents－changesinthephonological,lexical,syntacticandsemanticsystems.Althougheverypartofalanguageissusceptibletochange,someaspectsofalanguagearemorevulnerabletochangethanothers.Commonly,linguisticchangeinthevocabularyofalanguageismorenoticeable31 thanthoseinothersystemsofthelanguage(HeZhaoxiongandMeiDeming1999:131).EnglishvocabularyexpandsextremelyquicklyespeciallysincetheSecondWorldWar.Withthedevelopmentofthesocietyandscienceandtechnology,alargeamountofwordswithnewmeaningsappearinEnglish.Forthepasttwodecades,ChinahasbeencarryingoutherReformandOpening-upProgramandshehasreachedanunprecedentedstageofcross-culturalandmultilingualcommunication.Inthisperiod,manyChinesewordsareintroducedinEnglish.Over30,000ChinesewordsarelistedinaChinese-EnglishdictionarycoeditedbyZhangZhengjiuandYuanXijun(1994).4.3ThefeaturesofChinaEnglishatthesyntacticlevelChinaEnglishatthesyntacticlevelbearstheinfluencefromthewayofChinesethinkingandChinesesentencestructures.BelowaresomenoticeablesyntacticfeaturesofChinaEnglish.4.3.1HypotaxisandparataxisThemaindifferenceinsentencestructurebetweenEnglishandChineseisthatEnglishisalanguageofhypotaxiswhileChineseisalanguageofparataxis.“Hypotaxis”meansthatsentencesareorganizedbythegrammaticalrelations;“parataxis”referstothatthesentencesarestructuredbythelogicrelations.Therefore,Englishsentencesarewellknitted,andChineseonesareterseandlucid.SomeshortenedsentenceformsareadoptedinChinesesoastomakesentencesconcise(ChenDingan,1998:5-14).Consequently,thisfeatureofChinesesentenceisreflectedinChinaEnglishconsistingofmanyshortsentenceforms.Thefollowingsentenceexamplescanwellillustratethispoint:(1)Safetyisfirstandpreventionismost.31 Chineseversion:安全第一，预防为主。(2)Lifeisaboveandserviceisfirst.Chineseversion:生命至上，服务第一。(3)Thehigherauthoritieshavepoliciesandthelocalitieshavetheircounter-measures.Chineseversion:上有政策，下有对策。(4)Tenthousandyearsaretoolong,seizetheday,andseizethehour.Chineseversion:一万年太久，只争朝夕。(5)AChinesediplomatshouldbefirminstance,broadinvision,swiftinwit,qualifiedinprofession,outstandingintalent,nobleincharacter.Chineseversion:中国外交人员应立场坚定，眼光远大，头脑敏捷，业务熟练，才华出众，风格高尚。AlltheseEnglishversionsmentionedaboveareclosetothestructureandstyleoftheoriginalChinese,andeveryphraseconformstoEnglishsyntax.AseriesofthesymmetricshortformsreflectthefeaturesofChinesesentencestructure.4.3.2ThethinkingmodelandlinearsequenceThedifferencesbetweenthewayofthinkinginEnglishandthatinChinesearenoticeablyshownintheirlanguagelinearsequence:TheEnglishthinkingsequencereflectingactualelementsis:thesubjectofaction→theactionofsubject→theobjectofaction→thevariousmarksofactionShowninEnglishlinearsequenceis:subject→predicate→object→variousadverbials31 example:John/had/agooddinner/yesterday.AndtheChinesethinkingsequencereflectingactualelementsis:thesubjectofaction→themarkofaction→theactionofsubject→theobjectofactionor:themarkofaction→thesubjectofaction→theactionofsubject→theobjectofactionShowninChineselinearsequenceis:subject→adverbial→predicate→objector:adverbial→subject→predicate→objectexample:约翰/昨天/吃了/一顿大餐/.TheEnglishversionis:Johnhadagooddinneryesterday.ButChinesepeopleprefertheversioninthisway:YesterdayJohnhadagooddinner.BoththesentencesbelowarenormativeEnglish,butChinesepeopleareinclinedtousethesecondone.(1)IwentoutforawalkafterIhadmydinner.(2)AfterIhadmydinnerIwentoutforawork.(ChinaEnglish:CE)Englishnativesareusedtoplacingthemostimportantelementinthebeginningofasentenceandthenaddotherelementsonebyone,thuscreatingalinearchainwithsmallheadandbigbody.Chinesepeople,onthecontrary,firstlyintroduceotherelements,andthenprovidethecentralinformationelement,aformationofasentencepatternwithbigheadandsmallbody.Herearesomeexamples:(1)Itispossibleformetogettherebefore9:00.CE:Formetogettherebefore9:00ispossible.31 Chineseversion:我要在9点以前到达那里是不可能的。(2)Itisuncertainwhetherhewouldjointhearmy.CE:Whetherhewouldjointhearmyisuncertain.Chineseversion:他是否愿意参军，值得怀疑。(3)Thereisnousecryingoverspiltmilk.CE:Cryingoverspiltmilkisnouse.Chineseversion:面对已泼出的牛奶哭叫是徒劳的。(4)Nowisthebesttimefordoingit.CE:Thebesttimefordoingitcomesnow.Chineseversion:做此事的最好时机到了。TheobjectofactioninEnglishoftenhaslongpostmodifiersplacedatthebackpartofasentenceinordertoavoidtheirmuchheavinessandlength.Thesentencebelowisagoodexample:“Robinsonbuildsaraftandtriesbyallmeanstocarrytoshorethestoreofnecessitiesontheship,whichconsistofbread,rice,barley,planks,leadandgunpowder,anaxandtwosaws.”IncontrastwithEnglish,thelongobjectivepartismovedinthefrontpartofaChinesesentence,veryclosetotheactionofsubject.SothecorrespondingChineseversionis:鲁滨逊编扎了一块木排，想尽办法，把船上的日用必需品：米、麦，黍、面包、铅弹、火药、斧头、锯子等等都运上岸。AccordingtothewayofthinkinginChinese,alongsentenceisdividedintoshortones,andthelongobjectiveisputcloselytotheactionofsubject.SothesentenceofChinaEnglish31 isorganizedinthefollowingway:CE:Thereisastoreofnecessitiesontheship,whichconsistofbread,rice,barley,corn,planks,leadandgunpowder,anaxandtwosaws.Robinsontriesbyallmeanstocarrythemtotheshore.TheillustrationofthecauseandresultaboutathinginChineseisinthereversedirectiontothatinEnglish.Generally,theresultinEnglishisfirstlygivenandthenthecause,whichhasanoppositeorderwithChinese.Thesentencebelowbetterexemplifiesthiscase:“Theoldladythought①Rebeccathemildestcreatureintheworld.Soadmirablydidsheperform②thepartofamodest,innocentlittlegirlonthefewoccasionswhenshecame③withherfathertotheschool.”TheChineseversionofthesentenceaboveis:有几次丽蓓卡的父亲带她到①（平克顿小姐的）学校去，她就装扮②成一个举止端庄、天真烂漫的孩子，这个角色（她扮演得）好极了，老小姐真以为③她是天下最温顺的小人儿呢。Chinesepeopletendtoarrangethesentenceinthewaybelow:CE:OnthefewoccasionswhenRebeccacame①toPinkerton’sschooltogetherwithherfather,sheperformed②thepartofamodest,innocentlittlechildsoadmirablythattheoldladythought③herthemildestcreatureintheworld.ThissentenceisconsideredasthesampleinfluencebyChinesethought.YetitisnotChinglishbutChinaEnglishthatcanbeacceptedbynativeEnglishpeople.HereareanotherthreeexamplesinwhichthetraceofChinesethoughtcanbeclearlyseen:(1)Hegavemeapenheboughtyesterday.31 CE:Heboughtapenyesterdayandgaveittome.(2)IgavemybooktotheteacherwhohadjustarrivedfromShanghai.CE:TheteacherhadjustarrivedfromShanghaiandIgavehimmybook.(3)Ishallexplaintoyouthedetailofthewholeplandiscussedyesterdayafternoon.CE:Thewholeplanwasdiscussedyesterdayafternoon,andIshallexplaintoyouthedetailofit.Inoldtimes,humanbeingsdidnotunderstandsomephenomenaexistinginnature.Sotheywerereplacedbyavaguepronoun“it”inEnglish,asaresult,therearemanyEnglishsentenceswith“it”asemptysubjects.ButthiskindofpronoundoesnotexistinChinese.Forexample,“Itrains.”isanEnglishsentence,andyetinChinesewesay,“(下雨了)。”BelowareseveralpairsofsentencesinwhichthefirstonesaregenerallyusedbyEnglishnativepeoplewhilethesecondarepreferredbyChinesepeople.(1)Itstruckeighto’clock.CE:Theclockstruckeight.（钟敲8点了。）(2)ItisSundaytoday.CE:TodayisSunday.(今天是星期天。)(3)Whattimeisitnow?CE:What’sthetimenow?(现在几点了？)(4)Howisitwithyou?CE:Howareyouthesedays?(你近况如何？)ThepositionsofinterrogativesaresometimesdifferentinEnglishandChinese.Theexamplesareasfollows:31 (1)Whendoyouthinkhewillcome?CE:Doyouthinkwhenhewillcome?(2)Wheredoyoubelieveheis?CE:Doyoubelievewhereheis?(3)Idon’tbelievehewillcome.CE:Ibelievehewillnotcome.4.4ThefeaturesofChinaEnglishatdiscoursallevel4.4.1ThinkinginmothertongueandwritinginforeignlanguageTheparticipationofmothertonguethoughtintheprocessofthesecondorforeignlanguagewritinghasbeenprovedandconfirmedbythefollowingempiricalstudies:Bosher(1998),Cumming(1989)andRaimes(1985)findthatthesecondlanguage(SL)learners,betheirSLproficiencieshighorlow,havethehabitofthinkinginmothertongueintheprocessofSLwriting.Raimes(1985)examinedeightESL(Englishasasecondlanguage)studentsatlowESLlevelwithquerypapersandfoundthatsevenofthemfrequentlyturnedtotheirmothertongueforhelpintheESLwritingprocess.Cumming(1989)notesdowntheESLwritingprocessesofthetwenty-threestudentsatmiddleESLlevelwiththemethodofsoundthinking.Thenotesindicatethatallthetwenty-threestudentstransformgrammarbetweenEnglishandtheirparentlanguages.AsurveymadebyUzawaandCumming(1989)oftenAmericancollegestudents’foreignlanguagewritingshowsthatthemoststudents(80percent)workouttheplotandstructureofthearticleintheirparentlanguages,andevensomeofthemwritetheoutlineintheirmothertonguesbeforetranslation.ThestudymadebyBosher(1998)indicatesthatmanystudentsfirstlyperformtheirwritingworkintheirmother31 tonguesandthenconvertthemintothesecondlanguagearticles.NotonlythestudentsoflowSL(thesecondlanguage)proficiencybutalsothoseofthehighusethistranslationmethodtowritetheirSLarticles.Consequently,wecanseethatthinkinginparentlanguageisaveryuniversalphenomenoninSLwriting.4.4.2TheinevitabilityoftheChinesethinkinginChinaEnglishInChina,manyEnglishteachersasktheirstudentsnottothinkinChinesebutinEnglishwhentheyspeakorwriteEnglish.Infact,thisrequestcannotbefulfilled.TheChineseinterferencescanbelessafterone’sEnglishproficiencyisadvanced,howevertheycannotbecompletelyeliminated.Thestudiesaboveshowthatifone’smothertongueisChineseandformsthewayofthinkinginChinese,itisimpossibleforonetoavoidtheChineseinferenceswhenusingEnglish.EvenforanexpertinEnglish,itisthecase.XieZhijunhasevermadeacontrastbetweenthetwoEnglisheditionsofafamousChineseclassicnovelADreamofRedMansionsrespectivelywrittenbyMr.andMrs.YangXianyiandbyD.Hawkes,JohnMinford;hefindsthatYang’sversionhassuchfeaturesofChinaEnglishasshortsentencepatternsandlessrelationalwords.XiecommentsonYang’sversioninthewayasfollows:“asmanyotherresearcherspointout,Mr.YangisaverylearnedmaninbothChineseandEnglish.HisEnglishversionisverywonderfulandfaithfullyreflectstheoriginalChinese.ThisexplainsthatChinaEnglish,ifusedinproperway,willhavetheuniquefunctionsinexpressingthethingspeculiartoChina.”(XieZhijun1995).TengChunhong(1993)makesaresearchontheEnglishwritingsbyChinesestudentsinKansasUniversityofUSAandfinds:Writingwiththeaidofmothertongueisanobjective31 realityisspiteofstudent’sforeignlanguagelevels.YangYuchengandWenZhaorong(1994)hasananalysisontheEnglisharticleswrittenbythesecond-gradestudentsatForeignLanguageDepartmentofNortheastNormalUniversityandconcludes:ChinesestudentshavetheirownparticularstyleinwritingEnglishessays.31 5.ConclusionThereisagrowingawarenessthatEnglishisjustaninternationalcommunicationtoolandisnotrestrictedtoaparticularcountryornationbutasaneutralinformationmedium.ChinaEnglishisanEnglishvarietyusedbythenative-Chinesepeopleforcommunicationunderthespecificlanguageenvironment.ItresultsfromthecombinationofChinesefeaturesandtheEnglishlanguage.TheChinesefeaturesshowninChinaEnglisharenotonlyhelpfultospreadChinesecivilizationandculturebutalsoofgreatsignificancetothesociety.ThestudyofChinaEnglishmeetstheneedofourtimes.China’sreformandopeningprogramspeedsupitsgreatdevelopmentineconomy,cultureandpolitics,anditalsopromotesthestudyofChinaEnglish.Chinaisplayinganincreasinglyimportantroleintheworldaffairs,whichcallsforacomprehensiveandintensivestudyofChinaEnglish.Thepaper,onthebasisoftheanalysisofEnglishusageinChinaandthetheoriesofworldEnglishvarietiesandAsianEnglishes,makesastatusconfirmationofChinaEnglish;meanwhile,itgivesanewdefinitionofChinaEnglishdifferingfromChinglish(ChineseEnglish):ChinaEnglish,withNormativeEnglishasitscore,isanEnglishvarietyusedbyChinesepeople;ithastheChinesefeaturesunavoidablyinfluencedbyboththeChineselanguageandthewayofChinesethinking;itpossessesthelinguisticcharacteristicsshownatthelevelsofphonology,lexis,syntaxanddiscourse.Besides,itmakesadescriptionandanalysisofthelinguisticfeaturesofChinaEnglish.Andfinally,IthinkthestudyofChinaEnglishespeciallyitslinguisticfeaturesisofgreatvaluetoforeignlanguageteachingand31 learninginChina.ThepresentstudyofChinaEnglishisstillinthefirststage.Theremustbemuchworktobedoneinthisfield.Ihopesthathisstudywillleadtofurtherresearchesinthisacademicarea.ThedefinitionofChinaEnglishinthepresentpaperisjustageneraldescription,sofurtheracademicresearchesneedtobedonetomakeamorescientificdefinitionofChinaEnglish.Moreover,itisdesiredtohaveasystematicdescriptionandanalysisofthelinguisticfeaturesofChinaEnglish,especiallythefeaturesshownatthephonologicallevel.Finally,sinceChinaEnglishisanormativeEnglishvariety,EnglishteachersinChinashoulddistinguishChinglishandChinaEnglish,andencouragetheuseofChinaEnglish.31 Bibliography［1］Bailey,R.W.&Gorlach,M.EnglishasWorldLanguage[M].Cambridge:CUP,1982.［2］“CummingA.Writingexpertiseandsecondlanguageproficiency”[J].LanguageLearning,1989.［3］EllisR.TheStudyofSecondLanguageAcquistion[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1994.［4］HockettC.TheProblemofUniversalsinLanguage[M].Cambridge,Mass:TheMITPress,1963.［5］Kachru,BrajB.InstitutionalizedSecondLanguageVarieties[M].OxfordPergamonPress,1985.［6］KobayashiH.RinnertC.Effectsoffirstlanguageonsecondlanguagewriting.［7］“Translationversuscomposition”[J].LanguageLearning,1992.［8］JiangYajun.“ChinglishandChinaEnglish”[J],EnglishToday,1995.［9］常宝儒.《汉语语言心理学》[M].北京:知识出版社,1990。［10］陈定安.《英汉比较与翻译》[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1998。［11］李文中.“中国英语与中国式英语”[J].《外语教学与研究》,1993。［12］汪榕培.“中国英语是客观存在”[J].《外语与外语教学》,1991。［13］张培成.“使用目的与国别变体”[J].《现代外语》,1995.31