从翻译目的论角度评析《道德经》英译的补偿.pdf

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中图分类号Ｈ３１５．９学校代妈１０２２４密级公开学号１２１２１０９巧硕女学ｔｔ论文从翻译目的论角度评析《道德经》英译的补偿—二Ｉ—？？￡，量誦譲議；巧醒罪；ｇ削謂＂？ｒｒｖＴ？？？；；．．岂语亩；門音；听作者么伟伟导师张晶教授学位类别文学硕±所在学院文法学院一级学科外国语言文学二级学科英语语言文学：；；：二〇—五年六月 独创声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。据我所知，除了文中特别加Ｗ标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含未获得（注：如没有其他需要持别声明的，本栏可空）或其他教育化构的学位或证书使用过的材料一。与我同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示谢意。学位论文作者签名：日期：乎月日＾／＾＾］令学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，学校有权保留并向国家有关部口或机构送交论文的复印件和磁蟲，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权学校可Ｗ将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行捡索，可凹采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。（保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书）学位论文作者签名；供体日期：＾＾月＾！＾；／导师签名；日期年＾月亦六—户 ClassifiedIndex：H319.5Code：10224Confidential(yes/no)：noNO.：121210975DissertationfortheMasterDegreeOntheCompensationfortheEnglishTranslationofTaoTeChingfromthePerspectiveofSkoposTheoryCandidate:CongWeiweiSupervisor:ProfessorZhangJingDegreeCategory:MasterofArtsCollege:NortheastAgriculturalUniversityFirstleveldiscipline:ForeignLanguageandLiteratureSecondleveldiscipline:EnglishLanguageandLiteratureHarbinChinaJune2015 目录摘要...............................................................................................................................................................I英文摘要....................................................................................................................................................Ⅲ1引言..........................................................................................................................................................11.1研究目的...........................................................................................................................................11.2研究背景及意义..............................................................................................................................11.3文章结构...........................................................................................................................................21.4研究方法...........................................................................................................................................32文献综述..................................................................................................................................................42.1《道德经》及其英译.......................................................................................................................42.1.1老子与《道德经》..................................................................................................................42.1.2国内外《道德经》英译实践及研究.....................................................................................52.2翻译缺失与补偿.............................................................................................................................82.2.1翻译缺失...................................................................................................................................82.2.2国内外翻译补偿研究...........................................................................................................103理论基础...............................................................................................................................................153.1翻译目的论的发展........................................................................................................................153.2翻译目的论基本理论....................................................................................................................173.2.1翻译三原则............................................................................................................................173.2.2翻译委任.................................................................................................................................183.2.3对等与充分............................................................................................................................184基于翻译目的论的《道德经》英译补偿研究................................................................................204.1两个译本及其译者........................................................................................................................204.1.1亚瑟·韦利与《道德经》....................................................................................................204.1.2许渊冲与《道德经与神仙画》............................................................................................214.2《道德经》翻译补偿研究.............................................................................................................224.2.1意义补偿..................................................................................................................................224.2.2诗学补偿..................................................................................................................................264.2.3文化补偿..................................................................................................................................304.3《道德经》翻译补偿启示.............................................................................................................334.3.1意义补偿翻译策略.................................................................................................................334.3.2诗学补偿翻译策略.................................................................................................................334.3.3文化补偿翻译策略.................................................................................................................335结论........................................................................................................................................................35I 5.1研究发现.........................................................................................................................................355.2研究局限性及建议........................................................................................................................36致谢............................................................................................................................................................37参考文献....................................................................................................................................................38攻读硕士学位期间发表的学术论文.....................................................................................................40II CONTENTSAbstractinChinese.................................................................................................................................ⅠAbstractinEnglish.................................................................................................................................Ⅲ1Introduction............................................................................................................................................11.1ThePurposeofThisStudy...............................................................................................................11.2TheBackgroundandSignificanceofThisStudy..........................................................................11.3TheOrganizationofThisThesis.....................................................................................................21.4TheResearchMethodologyofThisThesis....................................................................................32LiteratureReview..................................................................................................................................42.1TaoTeChingandItsEnglishTranslation......................................................................................42.1.1LaoTzuandTaoTeChing........................................................................................................42.1.2PreviousPracticesandStudiesontheEnglishTranslationofTaoTeChingatHomeandAbroad..............................................................................................................................52.2TranslationLossesandCompensation...........................................................................................82.2.1TranslationLosses.....................................................................................................................82.2.2StudiesonTranslationCompensationatHomeandAbroad..............................................103TheoreticalFoundation.......................................................................................................................153.1TheDevelopmentofSkoposTheory............................................................................................153.2BasicAspectsofSkoposTheory...................................................................................................173.2.1ThreePrinciples......................................................................................................................173.2.2TranslationCommission.........................................................................................................183.2.3AdequacyandEquivalence....................................................................................................184CompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChingBasedonSkoposTheory………...........204.1OntheTwoTranslatorsandTheirTranslationVersions.............................................................204.1.1ArthurWaleyandTaoTeChing.............................................................................................204.1.2XuYuanchongandLawDivineandHumanandPicturesofDeities................................214.2StudyonCompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChing....................................................224.2.1CompensationforMeaning....................................................................................................224.2.2CompensationforPoetics.......................................................................................................264.2.3CompensationforCulture......................................................................................................304.3EnlightenmentontheCompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChing…………..……..…334.3.1TranslationStrategiesforMeaningCompensation..............................................................334.3.2TranslationStrategiesforPoeticsCompensation................................................................334.3.3TranslationStrategiesforCulturalCompensation...............................................................33Ⅲ 5Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................355.1MajorFindings................................................................................................................................355.2LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherStudy...........................................................................36Acknowlegement......................................................................................................................................37References.................................................................................................................................................38PapersPublishedinthePeriodofPh.M.education........................................................................40Ⅳ 摘要《道德经》记录了道家学派创始人老子的主要思想,对中国哲学的发展和历代中国人性格的塑造具有深远影响。作为重要的汉语典籍之一,《道德经》在中国思想史上和文学史上占据着举足轻重的地位。因此,《道德经》外译对中华文化的发扬传播和中国在世界中的形象的树立，都有不言而喻的重要性。但《道德经》年代久远，语言形式独特，为翻译带来不小的挑战。翻译目的论认为翻译行为所要达到的目的决定整个翻译行为的过程,包括译本类型，翻译方法，和翻译策略的选择，即目的决定手段。翻译目的论强调译文的充分性而不是对等性，认为译文与原文的对等只是为满足特定的翻译目的,因此忠实原文不是评判翻译的唯一准则。此外，目的论强调译者与读者的关系。可以说，目的论为翻译批评提供了一种动态多元的视角。为那些虽违反某些现存翻译标准但经实际检验十分成功的翻译实践提供了理论依据和基础,也为翻译学科的探索增加了一个崭新的维度。在对《道德经》两个译本的研究过程中,本文分析了译者的翻译目的，译语读者和翻译实践的历史文化背景等因素对译本所产生的影响,从而给译本采取的翻译补偿策略进行更为全面，合理的评价。同时，作者重点分析了在翻译过程中译者由于不同的翻译目的以及预期的译语读者而采取的不同翻译补偿策略,取得的不同的补偿效果。本文从三个方面，即意义，诗学和文化层面，对两个英译本中应用的翻译补偿策略进行了梳理和总结，得出主要补偿策略包括直译、注释、释译、代替、概括、平行结构、重组等，或者其中两者结合使用。从总体而言,这两个译本满足了读者不同的期待,实现了跨文化交际的目的,对今后的《道德经》英译提供了很多借鉴和帮助。总之,本文以德国功能主义学派的翻译目的论为指导,对《道德经》两个译本中的补偿翻译进行分析研究,探讨其补偿过程中的翻译策略，同时从目的论的角度理解这些翻译策略的合理性。最终总结出值得借鉴的《道德经》的翻译补偿策略。关键词道德经；翻译目的论；补偿；策略I OntheCompensationfortheEnglishTranslationofTaoTeChingfromthePerspectiveofSkoposTheoryAbstractTaoTeChingisarepresentativeworkofTaoistschool.ItwaswrittenbyLao-tzu,thefounderofTaoistschoolanditrecordsthemainthoughtsofhis.IthasaprofoundinfluenceonthedevelopmentofChinesephilosophyandtheformationofChinesecharacterandpersonality.AsanimportantpartofChineseclassics,ithasalwaysbeenattachedwithgreatimportanceinChinesehistoryofthoughtsandliterature.Therefore,itgoeswithoutsayingthattheEnglishtranslationofithasanextremeimportanceforthedisseminationofChinesecultureandtheestablishmentofinternationalimageofChina.Butitstranslationalworkmeetsgreatchallengesbecauseofitsancientryanduniqueculture-loadedlanguage.AccordingtoSkopostheory,thewholeprocessofthetranslationactisdecidedbythetranslationaimsbehind,thatis,theendjustifiesthemeans.Andtheprocessoftranslationactincludesthetypeofthetargettext,thetranslationmethods,andthechoiceoftranslationstrategies.Skopostheorypreferstoadequacyratherthanequivalence,insistingthattheequivalenceisjusttomeetsomecertainaim,andthereforeequivalenceisnottheonlystandardfortranslation.Italsoemphasizestheimportanceoftherelationshipbetweenthetranslatorandthereceivers.Inshort,Skopostheoryputsforwardanewperspectivefortranslationcritics.Itprovidestheoreticalgroundandbasisforsometranslationpracticeswhichgoagainstsometranslationstandardsbutareprovedtobesuccessfulinpractice,anditalsoopensupanewdimensionfortheexplorationoftranslationstudy.DuringthestudyoftwoEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing,theimpactofthetranslationskopos,targetreaders,andhistoricalandculturalbackgroundoftranslationonthetranslationactareanalyzed,whichhelpstocometoamorecomprehensiveandmorereasonablejudgmenttotheadoptedtranslationstrategiesforcompensation.Also,itemphasizesthestudyofdifferenttranslationstrategiesadoptedbydifferenttranslatorsattheconsiderationofdifferentaimsanddifferenttargetreceiversaswellasthecompensationeffectachievedindifferentdegrees.Thisthesisstudiesthecompensationstrategiesadoptedinthetwoversionsfromthreeaspects,namely,meaning,poeticsandculturallevel,andconcludesthatmajorstrategiesareliteraltranslation,annotation,interpretation,substitution,generalization,parallelarrangementconstructionoracombinationoftwostrategiestogether.Ingeneral,bothtranslationversionshavemettheneedoftheirtargetreceivers,andhaveachievedinter-culturalorinner-culturalcommunication.TheyhaveIII offeredgreathelpandpositivereferenceforthefurtherpracticeofEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChing.Inshort,thisthesis,undertheguidanceofSkopostheoryofGermanFunctionalistSchool,studiesthetranslationcompensationintwoEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing,discussesthetranslationstrategiesappliedforthepurposeofcompensation,andjustifiesthesestrategiesthroughtheperspectiveofSkopostheory.Intheend,thisthesissummarizessomemainstrategiesthatmeritattentionforthetranslationofTaoTeChing.Keywords:TaoTeChing;Skopostheory;Compensation;StrategiesCandidate:CongWeiweiSpeciality:EnglishLanguageandliteratureSupervisor:ProfessorZhangJingIV 1Introduction1.1ThePurposeofThisStudyThisthesisintendstomakeanintensivestudyonthecompensationfortheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingviaSkopostheoryproposedbyscholarsfromtheschoolofGermanFunctionalism.ThetranslationofChineseclassicsisattachedwithmoresignificanceasthewholeworldismorewillingtoknowaboutChina,andTaoTeChing,whichisimmersedintoprofoundChineseculture,isparticularlyfavoredinternationally.Specifically,thisthesisattemptstosolvethefollowingproblems:(1)HowcanSkopostheorybeappliedinjustifyingthetranslationcompensationfortheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChing?(2)WhatstrategieshavebeenadoptedincompensatingfortheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingbasedonearliersuccessfulexperience?1.2TheBackgroundandSignificanceofThisStudyEffortstopursueaftertranslationstudyhaveneverceased.Manyaspectsoftranslationstudy,suchasstudiesontranslationtheories,translationstrategies,translationhistory,interdisciplinarytranslationstudy,andappliedtranslationstudy,havegonethroughdifferentlevelsofdevelopment.Translationtheorieshaveexperiencedvariousstages,sometimesparallel,fromphilologicalperspectivetolinguisticperspective,fromtheculturalturntothedeconstructioninclination,fromfeminisminclinationtocolonialisminclination.Skopostheorymarksagreatstagefortranslationtheories’developmentforitsspecialperspectiveandwideapplicationeversinceitsappearanceinGermanyin1970s.SkopostheorywasnotintroducedintoChinauntil1980s.Nowmorethan30yearshavepast,theacademicaccomplishmentsachievedbyscholarsareprofound.AccordingtoarecentsearchingresultonCNKI(ChinaNationalKnowledgeInfrastructure),morethanthreehundredessayshavebeenpublishedonthisissue.Thereareseveralreasonstoconductingthisresearch.Theinitialconsiderationisbasedonthebackgroundwithenhancedinternationalization,andrisinginternationalstatusofChina.AstheworldismorecloselyconnectedandChinesenationalstrengthisgrowinggradually,ononehand,othercountriesaremorewillingtoknowaboutChina,ontheotherhand,wrongopinionsaboutChinaarespreadaroundandusedbyevilpurposes.TofitintoamoreinternationalizedworldaswellastomaketheworlddojusticetotheimageofChina,itisnecessarytopromoteexcellentChinesetraditionalculturetotheworldbymeansoftranslationworkstoenhanceculturaltransmission.Also,torevitalizeChinesetraditionalcultureisalwaysanambitionofChinesepeopleandChinesetraditionalcultureitselfisaninternationallyrecognizedtreasurehousewhichshouldbesharedbythewholeworld.Therestoftheworldrequiresacomprehensiveanddeeper1 understandingofexcellentChineseculturewhileChinaisatajointwherepromotingitscultureandgoinginternationalareinevitable.[1]Then,asthemostinfluentialChineseclassicintheworld,TaoTeChingischosentobethestudyobject.Undoubtedly,TaoTeChing,deeplyrootedinChineseculture,willbeaperfectrepresentativeofChinesethoughtsandimage.ButwhatmakesitsosignificantliesinthefactthatitisamostfrequentlytranslatedandthemostpopularChinesebookintheworld.Itisalmosttranslatedintoeverymainlanguageintheworld.Anditiscertain,astimegoesby,newversionsoftranslatedTaoTeChingwillkeepcomingintobeing.OnlyEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingamounttohundreds.FromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory,thisthesisattemptstomakeastudyofsomeEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing,andtoprobeintotheapplicationofSkopostheoryinthecompensationfortranslationofTaoTeChing.Skopostheoryisdifferentfromprevioustranslationtheorieswhichregardlinguisticequivalenceasthestandardfortranslation.Itbreaksthelimitationandputsforwardtheconceptofadequacyinstead.Ittakesmulti-dimensionalfactorsintoconsideration,includingtheinitiator,thetranslator,thereceiver,theintentionofthesourcetextandthepurposeofthetranslationactivity.BasedonthetranslatingfactsofTaoTeChing,itiscertainthatTaoTeChingisthemostpopularChineseclassicintheworld.AnditsdisseminationshouldbetakenasamodelofexportingChinesecultureintotheworld.ThestudyoncompensationfortheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheorywillimprovetheEnglishtranslationofChineseclassicsandgreatlypromotethedisseminationofChinesecultureintheEnglishworld.1.3TheOrganizationofThisThesisInthisthesis,theauthormanagestodosomeresearchoncompensationfortheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory.Thisthesisisdividedintothefollowingfiveparts:Chapter1istheintroductionpartwhichdealswithissuesconcerningthethemeofthethesis,includingageneralintroductionofthebackground,theobjectiveandsignificanceofthestudy,theorganizationandthemethodologyofthisthesis.Chapter2istheliteraturereview.Inthischapter,theEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingisfirstlyreviewed.ThenthestudiesonEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingfollowsuit.Aslast,thestudiesonlossesandcompensationfortranslationathomeandabroadarereviewed.Chapter3isthepartoftheoreticalfoundation,whichprovidesanoverviewofSkopostheory.Thedefinition,developmentandprinciplesofSkopostheoryarefirstlyintroducedinthischapter.ThecontentofSkopostheoryispresentedindetail,includingitsthreerules,namely,theskoposrule,thecoherenceruleandthefidelityrule,andNord’sfunctionplusloyalty.ItalsogivesoutotherconceptsofSkopostheory.Chapter4isthemainpartofthethesis.ItanalyzestheapplicabilityofSkopostheorytothetranslationofTaoTeChingandproposessometranslationstrategiesundertheguidanceofthis2 theory.Thischapterfirstly,fromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory,analyzesthecompensationformeaning,poeticsandcultureandtheninducescompensationstrategiesfromthepracticeofTaoTeChingtranslation.Chapter5drawsaconclusionofthethesis,whichgivesasummarytothewholepaper.Besidesthemajorfindingsofthestudy,italsoputsforwardssomeotherenlightenmentregardingthetranslationpracticeandcritic.1.4TheResearchMethodologyofThisThesisThisthesisstudiestwodifferentEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing,repectivelytranslatedbyXuYuanchongandArthurWaley,anddrawsonreleventpublications,includingarticlesandbooksaboutSkopostheoryandTaoTeChing.Methodsappliedinthestudyareasfollows:(1)ThemethodofdescriptivecasestudyTheauthorselectedplentyrepresentativedatafromtwodifferentEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingasthestudyobject,andattemptedtofindoutthemajortranslationcompensationstrategiesappliedinthesetwoversions.(2)ThemethodofinductiveanalysisBymeansofinductiveanalysis,theauthorsummarizedthemajortransaltioncompensationstrategies,categorisedthemintothreeaspectsaccordingtothepurposeofapplicationandattemptedtoprojectthecompensationstrategiesontootherEnglishtranslationsofChineseclassics.3 2LiteratureReview2.1TaoTeChingandItsEnglishTranslation2.1.1LaoTzuandTaoTeChingTheauthorofTaoTeChingisLaoTzu.ButtheidentityofLaoTzuisadisputablequestionintheacademicworld.ScholarshavededucedthreeidentitiesforLaoTzuaccordingtoancientrecords,namely,LiEr,LaoLaizi,andTaishiDan,butmostly,peoplecometotheconclusionthatLaoTzuisLiEr,themanwhowasagreatthinker,philosopher,andfoundedphilosophicalTaoismSchool.LaoTzu,whosefamilynameisLi,givennameEr,andhonorificnameBoyang,wasborninChuState,inSpringandAutumnperiod(770-476BC).Hislifetimewasapproximatelyinthe6thcenturyBC.Heservedasarecords-keeperatthecourtofZhou.AfterlivinginZhouforalongtimeandwitnessingthedeclineofZhou,hedepartedonablackox.Whenhereachedthenorthwestborder,HanguPass,whichseparatedChinafromtheoutsideworldthen,YinXi,theofficialinchargeaskedhimtoputhisthoughtstowriting.Theresultwasashortbook,TaoTeChing,alsoknownasLaoTzu,consistingofsomefivethousandChinesecharacters.[2]Judgingbyitsname,TaoTeChingmainlydiscussesTaoandTe.Accordingtothemostcirculatedversion,ithas81chapters,amongwhich,thefirst37chapterstalkaboutTao(therefore,thispartisalsocalledTaoChing)whilethelatter44chapterstalkaboutTe(whichiswhythispartisalsocalledTeChing).TaoTeChingisoneofthegreatestChineseclassics,andhasagreatinfluenceonChinesephilosophy,science,religions,andpolitics.Italsoshedssomelightsonpreservinghealthandmilitaryarts.Itsinfluencespreadswidely,reachingbeyondChinaandtotheoutsideworld.Itisamongstthemosttranslatedworksinworldliterature.ByTaoTeChing,LaoTzutriedtoconveyhisownthoughtsabouttheoriginoftheworld,whichisTao.TaoisoneofthemostbasicandcomprehensivesymbolsintheChineselanguage,thecenterofallphilosophicalandspiritualdiscourse.Itmaymeanapath,away,aprinciple,amethod,adoctrine,asystemoforder;anditalsomaymeanthematrix,structure,andrealityoftheuniverseitself.Everyartandscienceiscalledatao,oraway;butthesourceofeverything,thefountainofallartandscience,iscalledtheTao,ortheWay.[3]Itisalsoregardedasareferencebookaboutguidanceforsocialconducts,whichismainlyWuwei,ornoneintervention.FollowersofTaoismthusbranchedoutintomanydifferentfieldsofresearchandwork,thoseinterestedprimarilyintheessentialTaocontinuedtofocusonperfectingthemasteryofhumannatureandlifeinthreecriticalareas:individualwell-being,socialharmony,andacceleratedevolutionofconsciousness.Thesethreebaseswerebelievedtoformthefoundationofoverallhumandevelopment,theguidinglightsoftheartsandsciences.ThroughgenerationsofapplyingtheTaotothesethreebasicdomainsoflife,extraordinary4 accomplishmentsinthemaintenanceofphysicalvitality,fosteringofsensitiveandeffectiverelationsbetweenpeople,anddevelopmentoflatentmentalpowers,includingspontaneousinsightandforeknowledge,cametoberecognizedasby-productsofworkingwiththeWay.ItisnecessarytomentionthatTaoTeChingmighthavethemostsignificantversionproblem.TherearesomanyversionsofTaoTeChinginChinese.Thenumberhasamountedto103beforeQingDynasty.Beforethemiddleof20thcentury,TaoTeChingannotatedbyWangbiisthemostpopularversion.ButIn1973,twoversionsofsilkmanuscriptsofTaoTeChingwerediscoveredinChangsha.In1993,abamboomanuscriptofTaoTeChingwasfoundinHubei.ThesenewlydiscoveredversionsbroughtmuchnewinformationandheatedthestudyofTaoTeChing.2.1.2PreviousPracticesandStudiesontheEnglishTranslationofTaoTeChingatHomeandAbroad“NexttotheBibleandtheBhagavadGita,theTaoTeChingisthemosttranslatedbookintheworld.WelloverahundreddifferentrenditionsoftheTaoistclassichavebeenmadeintoEnglishalone,nottomentionthedozensinGerman,French,Italian,Dutch,Latin,andotherEuropeanlanguages”,accordingtoVictorH.Mair.Accordingtoaroughcalculation,asmanyas300hundredEnglishversionsofTaoTeChinghavebeenpublished.[4]ButtranslatingTaoTeChingisnotaneasywork.Mr.FengYoulanoncesaidthatallthehintsinChinesephilosophers’remarksandbooksarehardtotranslate.WhenwetranslateonesentencefromTaoTeChingintoEnglish,wearestatingitsmeaningaccordingtoourunderstanding.Thetargettextusuallycouldconveyonlyonemeaningwhilethesourcetextmighthasmanyothermeanings.Thesourcetextcansuggestideaswhilethetargettextcanneverdothat.[5]Thetranslatorisalsooneofmanypotentialreaders.Thestartingpointofhisorhertranslationishisorherpersonalunderstandingoftheoriginaltext,hisorherinferenceoftheauthor’sintention,thefeaturesandstyleoftheoriginaltext,andsecondhandinformation.[6]Thankstoalltheeffortsoftranslatorsathomeandabroad.Ithasbeencontinuallyundergoingalienationanddeformationwhileobtainingnewlives.[7]2.1.2.1EnglishTranslationPracticeofTaoTeChingatHomeandAbroadEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingwasstartedbyprotestantmissionarieswhocametoChinabytheendofQingDynasty.ButtheydidnotpaymuchattentiontoTaoTeChingwhentheyfirstarrivedinChina.Instead,theyattachedgreatimportancetothetranslationoftheBiblefromEnglishtoChinese.Likemissionariesfromothercountries,theyalsostudiedConfuciusideas,hopingtheycouldfindaconnectionbywhichtopromotetheirownreligion.However,theisolationnatureofConfuciusideassetthemback,whiletheopennessofTaoTeChingofferedawayforthem.ItisthentheyturnedtheireyestoTaoTeChing.In1868,TheSpeculationsonMetaphysics,PolityandMoralityofTheOldPhilosopher,Lau-tszebyJohnChalmerswaspublishedinEngland,whichisregardedasthebeginningofEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChing.Afterthat,EnglishversionsofTaoTeChingkeepsbeingproduced,whichfinallymakesTaoTe5 ChingthemostfrequentlytranslatedandthemostpopularChineseclassicintheworld.TheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChinghasexperiencedthreeupsurges.Thefirstupsurgeisfrom1868-1905.Thisupsurgeisalongwiththeinvasionofforeigncountries,especiallyBritain.Toassisttheworkofmissionaries,theempirestartedtheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChing.Duringthisperiodoftime,14EnglishversionsofTaoTeChingwerepublished.AstheirmainfunctionistoassistthespreadofChristianity,mostversionswereheavilyinfluencedbytheBible.TheywerejusttoolswhichservedtothespreadofChristianity.Thesecondupsurgeisfrom1934-1963.Thisupsurgewasdrivenbythebreakofwars,deconstructionofreligionsandinvasionintoChina.Sufferingfromtraumaleftbywarsandchangesofchurches,westernscholarsweredisappointed.TheyturnedtotheEastcultureforhelptobuildupanewmentalworld.ThedenialofwarsandimpulsionproposedbyTaoTeChingwassofitfortheirexpectationandgotespeciallyfavored.25versionscameintobeing.Duringthisperiod,theEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingismorerational.Itisimportanttosay,thatduringthisperiod,thesituationthatonlyEnglishspeakingpeopletranslatingTaoTeChingwasbroke.ChinesepeoplebegantotranslateTaoTeChingintoEnglish.Thethirdupsurgeisfrom1973-2004.ThisupsurgeisstartedbythediscoveryoftwosilkmanuscriptsofTaoTeChingin1973inChangsha.[8]NewChineseversionscomingupneedsnewreeditionsofEnglishversions,countriesininternationalizedworldneedunderstandingfromeachother,andeveryfieldneedsnewbreaksandenlightenment.Morethan70versionscameup.ComparedwithEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingtranslatedbywesterners,versionstranslatedbyChinesescholarsweremuchlater.Athome,theEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChingstartedduringthesecondupsurgementionedabove.ThefirstEnglishversionofTaoTeChingtranslatedbyChinesescholarwaspublishedin1936,translatedbyHuZilin.ThenversionstranslatedbyChuDagao,LinYutang,WangPeirong,GuZhengkunandXuYuanchongfollowingsuit.Thosecameupagainstdifferentbackground.Withdifferenttranslationalcommissionsinmind,theyadopteddifferentstrategies,whichhaddifferentinfluenceuponreaders.Forexample,duringthe1930sand1940s,thewestboresomemisunderstandingandprejudicesagainstChina,LinYutangchosesomeChineseclassics,includingTaoTeChing,topromoteChineseculture,tojustifyChina’simage,andeasethestressthatthewesternersweresufferingintheindustrialsociety.What’smore,Lingrewupinabi-culturalbackground,bornandraisedinaChristianfamily,educatedinAmericaandFrench,andlivedmorethan30yearsinabroad.Hismastershipofbothculturemadehisversionverypopularinthe1930sinthewest.OverthecenturiesTaoTeChinghascastedamagicspellonreadersintheuniversewhopursueafterthemeaningoflifeandwhoarethinkingaboutsocietyandtheworld.ThereisnodoubtthatmoreandmoreTaoTeChingtranslationswillbecontinuouslyproduced.2.1.2.2StudiesontheEnglishVersionsofTaoTeChingatHomeandAbroadStudiesonTaoTeChingintheEnglishworldmainlyfallintwoaspects:studieson6 translationsofTaoTeChingandstudiesonthecontentofTaoTeChing.Itisunavoidabletofirststudyonthetranslationswhencomestoforeignculture,anditisalsothemajorstudyintheearlyEnglishworld.[9]Asmoreandmoretranslatedversionscomeintobeing,researchesfromdifferentperspectivesandindifferentformscomealong.Theauthorwouldhavedevelopedthistopicthroughtwolines,namely,thestudyabroadandthestudyathome.ButthentheauthorrealizedthestudiesontheEnglishversionsarequitesimilar.Thescholarsathomeandabroadseemtobefollowingthesamepaths.Therefore,theauthorpreferstoextendthistopicbycategoryandineachcategory,relatedsourceshomeandabroadwouldbelisted.ThestudyoftheEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingcanbeclassifiedintofourcategories.First,comparativeandanalyticalstudiesofdifferentversions.ComparativestudyisverycommonseeninthestudyofEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing.Backto1885,anarticletitledTheRemainsofLao-tzu:RetranslatedwaspublishedbyHerbertA·Giles,afamousBritishSinologist.Inthisarticle,GilesmadecomparativestudiesoffourtranslationsoftheTaoTeChingbyJohnChalmers,StanislasJulien,JamesLeggeandFredericHenryBalfour.NotonlyinBritain,thestudyofEnglishtranslationsofTaoTeChingwasalsocaughttheeyeoftheAmericans.HolmesWelch,anAmericanSinologist,publishedThePartingoftheWay:LaoTzuandtheTaoistMovementin1957.Inthebook,helistedsomemajorEnglishtranslationsofTaoTeChingandconductedacomparativestudyofthem.DamianJ.BellandShannonM.Ferain2000publishedanessayentitledComparisonandAnalysisofSelectedEnglishInterpretationsofTaoTeChing.Athome,manycomparativestudiesofEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingarecarriedout,too.CuiChangqingin1997madeacomparativestudyoftheversionstranslatedbyWaley,PaulJ.Lin,H.G.Ostwald,andVictorH.Mair.FeiXiaopingin2001publishedthearticleReviewsonSixEnglishVersionsofLaoZiandReflectionsonRe-translationofTraditionalChineseCulturalClassicstocomparesixEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingin2001.Second,studyingoneormoreversionsthroughoneormorespecifictheoriesorperspective.TheTranslationofTaoTeChinginBritainandAmerica:aPerspectiveofReceptionTheorybyYiMing(2006)studiesdifferentversionsofTaoTeChingthroughreceptiontheory.LeiQiong(2007)appliesNida’sfunctionalequivalencetoanalyzeArthurWaley’smistakesintranslation.YangJing(2010),takeaculturalperspectivetoexplainthewholeprocessofTaoTeChing’stranslationandtransmissioninEnglishworld.MiaoLingling(2002)inherarticleproposestheeffectofthesubjectivityoftranslatorsduringtheprocessoftranslation,suchasthechoiceofdifferentvocabulary.InDaoDeJing:aPhilosophicalTranslationpublishedbyBallantineBooks,AmesandHall(2010)providedaphilosophicalstudyofthetranslation.Third,studyingonthetranslationofspecificcharactersandstyle.Thestudyofthetranslationof“Tao”and“Te”keepsscholarsinterested.TheAnalysisoftheEnglishTranslationoftheCoreConceptof“Tao”in“DaoTeChing”byGuoYandiscussesthetranslationof“Tao”.WangJinxiastudiesthenumbersinTaoTeChingforculturalpurpose.YangLiuandHengLiuhua(2011)study7 thepoeticsofthetranslatedversion.[10]InTheTaooftheTaoTeChing:AtranslationandcommentarypublishedbySUNYPress,MichaelLaFargue(1992)interpretedTaoasaspiritualstateofmind.Fourth,thedisseminationofEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingintheEnglishworld.StudiesofthiscategoryaremainlycarriedoutamongChinesescholars.Inherdoctorpaper,XinHongjuan(2007)wroteTaoTeChingintheEnglishWorld-TextTravellingandtheAcceptedImagery.ChenQiaoling(2011)wroteStudyfromVariousPerspectivesonTaoTeChingTranslationCommunicationandItsEffect,whichdemonstratesthesignificanceofthetranslationofTaoTeChingforChinaandtheworldaswell.[11]Also,YangYuying(2013)hadherbookStudyonEnglishTranslationsofTaoTeChingintheEnglishWorldpublishedbyChineseSocietyandSciencePublisher.ObviouslyTaoTeChing’stranslationisakindofcommunicatingactivity,soapurposefulstandpointwouldbemorepropertouncovertheessenceofitstranslationprocess,methodsorprinciplesanditsinfluenceintheEnglishworld.Besides,itisthesameforthetranslationofotherChineseclassicswhicharecarriersofChineseculture.ThestudyonthesuccessfultranslationandtransmissionintheEnglishworldcanprovidesomereferenceforthetranslationofotherChineseclassics.2.2TranslationLossesandCompensation2.2.1TranslationLossesAccordingtoCarford,textsaretranslatable,buttherearestillfactorsofuntranslatabilityinthelinguisticlevelandculturallevel.Onthelinguisticlevel,untranslatabilityoccurswhenthereisnolexicalorsyntacticalsubstituteintheTLforanSLitem….whereasculturaluntranslatabilityisduetotheabsenceintheTLcultureofarelevantsituationalfeaturefortheSLtext.[12]Thestudyofcompensationindicatesuntranslatability,orlimitedtranslatability.Eitherway,itprovestheexistenceoftranslationlosses.Languageisadistinctivecreationofhumanbeing.[13]Therearethousandsoflanguagesintheworldaround,sharedbydifferentpeoplesandnationalitiesandfunctiontocommunicate.Eachlanguagehasitsuniqueestheticsystem,includingphoneticfactors,rhythmicfactors,symbolicfactorsandmorphologicalfactors.Therefore,absoluteequivalenttranslationisnotpossibletoachieve.What’smore,translationismorethanlanguagetransformation.Itisalsoculturalcommunication.Eachlanguageishugelyextendedwhencombinedwithitsuniqueculture.Therefore,eachtranslationpracticeinvolvessomekindoflossofmeaning.[14]TakingthedialectsinChinaforexample,thoughtheyareallderivationsofChinese,itisdifficulttofindtwoequivalentdialectsbecausethecultureswhichthedialectsrootedinarequitedifferent.Thus,theremustbeagreatmanylossesintranslatingbetweendifferentlanguages.Compensationthereforebecomesanecessaryeffort.Thetranslationlossescanhappeninseveralaspects.Itcouldbealossofmeaning,of8 communicativefunction,ofculturalfactors,andofaestheticbeauty.Ifwelookattranslationfromonelanguagetoanotheroneasanactivityofreplacement,aperfectoridealtranslationshouldbelikethis:eachpartoftheoriginalisreplacedbyanequivalentsubstitutionwhichfunctionsexactlythesameastheoriginalinmeaning,function,grammaticallevel,andculturalaspects.Butthefactiseverymoveoftranslationfromonelanguagetoanotherriskssomekindoflosses.Thatistosay,translationlossesareunavoidable.Besides,translators’personalpreferenceandunderstandingalsoleadtranslationtodifferentdirections.Eachtranslatorhashisorherownbackgroundandacademicaccomplishment.Theymayovertranslateorunder-translateorevendistortthetextwhichwouldresultintomisleadingorlosses.Translationlossesareanundeniableprobleminthewayoftranslation.Itisthelossesthatmaketranslationdifficultandworthstudying.Lossescouldhappeninalllevelsoflanguages,thatisthelossofsentencemeaning,thelossoflexicaltypes,thelossofgrammaticalstructures,andthelossofculturalinformation.ThisthesisstudiestheEnglishtranslationofTaoTeChing.Therefore,itwoulddiscusstranslationlossesfromacomparisonbetweenEnglishandChinese.Firstofall,ChineseandEnglisharefromdifferentfamiliesoflanguage.ChinesebelongstoSino-Tibetanlanguagefamily,whileEnglishisinIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.Thelinguisticdifferencedaregenerallyinfouraspects:phonetic,lexical,grammatical,andrhetorical.Phoneticsystemisveryimportantandfundamentalforalanguage.Eachlanguagehasitsownphoneticsystemwithitsownfeaturesandcharacteristics.ForChineseandEnglish,oneistonelanguagewhiletheotherisintonationlanguage.Chinesehasfourdifferenttones.Manycharacterssharethesametone,andonecharactermighthavemorethanonetones.Thedifferenceofthetonesindicatesdifferentmeanings.WhileinEnglish,intonationplaysthesameroleastoneinChinese.Itcandivideasentenceintodifferentstructuresbydifferentintonationunites.Therefore,thephoneticdifferenceisresponsibleforthelossesoftranslationinsomedegree.Butonmostoccasions,itisthelexicaldifferencethatmakesabigobstaclefortranslatability.Chinesehasahugelexicalsystemwithahistoryofmorethan5000yearsofhistory.Sometimes,whataChinesecharacterdescribesjustdoesnothaveacounterpartinEnglish.Forexample,ChinesecharactersthatdescribewindofdifferentstrengtharemuchmorethenthoseofEnglish.Hencethelossesoccur.Grammarisanotherelementwhichshouldberesponsiblefortranslationlosses.Grammardeterminesthearrangementofwords.ThegrammaticaldifferencebetweenEnglishandChineseisprominent.IfEnglishiscomparedasatresswhoseroot,trunksandleavesarecloselyrelatedandwellorganized,thenChinesecouldbecomparedasisolatedboxeswithloosestructurebutconciseandlogicalinmeaning.Technicallyspeaking,EnglishishypotacticandChineseisparatactic.OnesignificantsignofsuchgrammaticaldifferenceisthatEnglishsentencesusesomanycohesivedevicestohighlightthelogicofthesentencewhilecomponentsofChinesesentencesdonotseemtobecloselyarrangedbuttheirmeaningareconnectedbyconciselogicwiththehelpofthe9 context.ItwouldbedifficultfortranslatorstotranslateiftheyhavenoawareofthegrammaticaldifferencebetweenEnglishandChinese.[15]RhetoricaldifferencebetweenChineseandEnglishcreatesbarrierswhentranslate.Consideringthefigureofspeech,bothlanguagessharesameones,suchassimile,metaphor,exaggeration,personification,etc.However,sometimesthereproduceoffigureofspeechjustcontradictswiththetranslationofmeaning,therefore,ifapriorityischosen,thelosseshappen.Cultureandlanguageareinseparable.Languagesareapartofcultureaswellastheembodimentofit,andcultureispartlyexpressedbylanguages.Thecloserelationshipremindsscholarstostudythetranslationlossesfromaculturalperspective.[16]Thedifferencebetweendifferentculturalentitiesmakesthetranslationmoredifficult.Someculture-relatedinformationisimpossibletotranslate,letalonethelosses.Still,thelossescausedbyculturalfactorsarestudiedinthreeaspects,namely,absenceofterms,differenceoftermsanddifferentpragmaticuse.Absenceoftermsisaveryfrequentlydetectedintheprocessoftranslation.Forexample,馒头isusuallytranslatedassteamedbread.Infact,thereisnoequivalentwordtotranslateit.Breadofquitedifferentfrom馒头.Thatistosay,intranslation,wecannotfindthecounterpartintargetlanguages.Thiskindoflossesisbasedondifferentlifeexperienceandlivinggeologicaldifferences.Asfordifferenceofterms,itcanbeunderstoodthroughtheconnotationsofterms.Forexample,thefactthat龙istranslatedintodragoniswellaccepted.Butlookingintotheculture,youwillfindthatthedragonhereisnotwhat龙refersto.theconnotationofdragonisevilspiritwhile龙inChinesecultureareroyalsymbol.Therefore,somescholarstranslateditintoChinesedragontocompensatefortheloss.ManyexpressionsinbothChineseandEnglisharerichandprofoundandnowandthen,theydonotoverlapwitheachother.EvenbetweenBritainEnglishandAmericanEnglish,therearesometerms,sameintheformbutdifferentinmeaning.Differentfromabsenceoftermsanddifferenceofterms,inpragmaticlevel,thedesignativeandassociativemeaningofsometermsmightbesimilarinbothtwolanguagesbuttheirpragmaticusesareabsolutelydifferent.Forexample,whenChinesepeoplegreettoothers,theywouldliketosay“didyouhavedinneryet”.Itfunctionsasagreetingactually,butthetranslationofitshouldbeconsidered,becauseliteraltranslationwouldfulfillthefunction.2.2.2StudiesonTranslationCompensationatHomeandAbroadItcanbeconcludedthatsamenessoftwolanguagesisnotpossible.Therefore,itisnaturaltomovetothenextlevelinthetranslationprocess,thatis,thecompensation.Spendingtoomuchtimeonstudyingwhatislostduringthetranslationprocessisaveryprimaryandlowstatusintranslationcriticism.Whentransferringthesourcetexttotargettext,lossesareunavoidable,butthetranslatorcanalsosometimesenrichthesourcetext.Attentionsshouldgotowhatislostaswellaswhatisgained.Althoughtheapplicationoftranslationcompensationisinevitableduringthetranslationprocessbecauseofdifferencesinlanguages,culturesandturnofwords,thestudyontranslation10 compensationdidnotcatchmuchattention.Itisnotuntilthe1960sand1970sthatsomescholarsputforwardssomethoughtsaboutit.Asayoungdevelopedfieldofstudy,thedefinitionsoftranslationcompensationhavenotreachedacommonground.Severalscholarsputforwardstheirownunderstandingofit.AccordingtoBaker,this(compensation)meansonemayeitheromitorplaydownafeaturesuchasidiomaticityatthepointwhereitoccursinthesourcetextandintroduceitelsewhereinthetargettext.[17]HatimandMasonintheirDiscourseandtheTranslatorstatedthatcompensationisawayofsubstitutingequivalenteffectsforsometranslationloss.[18]NidainhisLanguageandCulture:ContextsinTranslatingcommentedthattranslationcompensationcouldberegardedasameanstoreproducetheexactmeaningofsourcetext.[19]NewmarkinhisApproachestoTranslationwrotethatcompensationwastooccurwhenlossesofmeaning,soundeffect,metaphororpragmaticeffectinonepartofasentencewascompensatedinanotherpartorinanadjoiningsentence.[20]FawcettinTranslationandLanguage:LinguisticTheoriesExplainedregardedtranslationcompensationasatechniqueusedbysometranslatorswhensomethinginthesourcelanguagecannotbetranslatedintotargetlanguage.[21]AccordingtotheEncyclopediaofTranslationStudieswrittenbyHarveyandBaker,translationcompensationisatechniqueofmakingupforthelossofasourceeffectbyrecreatingasimilareffectinthetargettextthroughspecificmeans.[22]KePingoncestatedinhisthesisthatcompensationforlossofmeaningoccurswhentranslatingthetextliterally.[23]AccordingtoLiuShusen,translationcompensationisatechniquetobeutilizedbythetranslatortoreducethelosstominimumwhenthetextcomesacrosssomewhatlosses.[24]Asitisstillanimmaturefieldofstudyandnosystematictheoriesarefoundedyet,thispartwillbeextendedbypresentingsomemajorscholar’sopinions.2.2.2.1ScholarsinAbroadInabroad,translationcompensationismentionedbymanyscholars.Butinmostcases,itiscombinedwithothertheories.Noresearchesareyetcarriedoutforitsownmatter.InLanguageandCulture:ContextsinTranslating,Nidadiscussedcompensationwhenheexplainedfunctionalequivalence.Hebelievesthatcompensationisameanstoachievesomebalancewiththesourcetext.Forexample,metaphorsarehardtofindcounterpartsinthetargetlanguage.Itisnecessarytoexplainthemetaphorswithplainlanguage,buttoomanyplainexplanationswouldharmthestrengthofthesourcetext,especiallyforpoems.Tocompensateforthelosses,translatorscouldusemetaphorstotranslatenonemetaphorssoastostrikeabalancewiththesourcetextinsomedegrees.[19]ItcanbeseenthatNida’sopinionsontranslationcompensationisbasedonfunctionalequivalence.Accordingtohim,compensationisbeyondwordforwordmeaninglosses.He11 suggestedapplyingfiguresofspeecheventhatareonlyplainwordsinthecounterpartinthesourcetext,namely,compensationcanbeachievedindifferentplacesbydifferentmeans.Steineristhefirstscholarwhoexplicitlyproposedtheideaoftranslationcompensation,anddevelopedsomeinspiringtheoriesoftranslationcompensation.InthebookAfterBabel,hestatedhisopinionsontranslationindetails.Accordingtohisownunderstand,translationisaprocessof4steps:trust,aggression,importandrestitution/compensation.Hebelievedthatafteraggressionlossesarecaused.Toregainabalanceaswellastoreducethelosses,compensationisneeded.Asfortranslationcompensation,hebelievedthatitconsistsoftwolevels.Thefirstlevelisthecompensationforlossesbythetranslationorduringtheprocessoftranslation,thatistosay,compensationofthislevelmainlyaimsatthetranslator’sdeficiencyandawrongchoiceofthetext.Thedeficiencycouldbemisunderstandingofthesourcetextbecauseofthetranslator’sinsufficientmasterofthetargetlanguage.Thesecondlevelcompensationismoremeaningful.Itisaboutthecompensationforthelossescausedbytemporalandspatialdifferences.Hebelievedthatcompensationisafunctionoftranslation,andsuccessfulcompensationcancontinuethelifeofthesourcetext,beyondtemporalandspatialbarriers.Hencethetargettextcanbepowerful.[25]Headmittedthattranslationlossesareinevitableintheprocessoftranslation,butthetranslatorsbearthemostresponsibility,becausethedisqualificationofthetranslatorswouldmakeunnecessarylosses.Hedidnotadvisetocompensatebysimplyincreaseordecreasewordsbuttoputmoreimportanceonthequalityofthetargettext.NewmarkisanAmericantheoristwhostudiedmuchoftextstyleandfunction.Andhisviewsoncompensationarebasedonthetwoaspectstoalargedegree.Headvocatedadoptingdifferentcompensationstrategiesaccordingtodifferenttextstylesandfunctions.Hebelievedthatthetypeandfunctionsofthetextarethestartingpointsofcompensation.Someobjectsinatextmightalsorequirecompensation.Textswithdifferentfunctionsshouldbecompensatedwithdifferentstrategies.Whentranslatingatextwithexpressionalfunction,theoriginalformshouldberespectedandgivenenoughattention,andthelossescausedshouldbedealtwithcarefulness.Asfortextswithappeals,thetranslatorshouldfocusonachievingemotionalrespondfromthereaders,thatistosay,theemotionaleffectshouldbereproduced.Healsoadmittedthatcompleteequivalencebetweentheoriginallanguageandthetargetlanguageisnotpossible.Therefore,duringtranslation,lossesareunavoidable.Butthetranslator,toalargedegree,candeterminewhethertopursueafterstyleorfunctions.Thetranslatorshoulddecidewhatlossestomakeandwhichparttobecompensated.AccordingtoHervey,compensationisinthepragmaticlevel.Hebelievedthatalthoughlanguagescanusuallyfulfilltheirschematicfunctionsthroughtheuseoftones,orderofwordsorsomeothermethods,butforonespecificlanguage,itintendstofavorsomecertainmeanstoconveyitsschematicmeaning.Therefore,whenthetargetlanguagetriestoreproducetheschematicmeaningconveyedbythesourcelanguage,formsarelessimportant.Thetargettextcanusemeansthataredifferentfromthoseofthesourcetexttocompensate.Thereareotherscholarswhoalsomakecontributionstothedevelopmentoftranslation12 compensation,suchasWilss,Hatim,Masonassoon.Mostofthembelievethatcompensationisforthecommunicativelosses,formsareinferiortocontent,thecontextandgenreareresponsibleforthelossesandthelossesshouldbeachievedbythereproduceoftextualeffectinsteadofawkwardcontraposition.2.2.2.2ScholarsatHomeCompensationstudiesinChinastartedinthe1980s.Sincethen,moststudiesontranslationcompensationarepresentedinthesis,andonlyonebookdiscussescompensationcomprehensively,thatis,TranslationCompensationStudiesbyXiaTingde.ButXiaisnottheearliestscholarwhosteppedhisfootontothisfieldofstudy.KePingisamongthepioneers.Hisviewsoncompensationarebasedonthestudyofmodernsemioticsandlinguistics.KePingbelievesthatthereasonsoftranslationlosseslieinthedifferencesbetweensourcelanguagecultureandtargetlanguageculture.Itisbecausethedifferencesmakethesourcelanguageandtargetlanguagehardtofindcounterpartsinthreelevels,namely,referentialmeaning,pragmaticmeaningandintralanguagemeaning.Hebelievedthatculturaldifferencescancauselossesinmeaningbecauseitmakesithardtofindsemanticcorrespondences.Andtechniquestocompensatearemainlyaimatmaintainingthemostimportantmeaninginthesourcetext.Therefore,compensationisabsolutelynecessaryfortranslation.Inhisthesis,hemainlydiscussed8compensationalstrategies,namely,annotation,specification,adaptation,shiftofperspective,generalization,paraphrase,contextualamplification,andbacktranslation.TranslationCompensationStudiesbyXiaTingdeisnowthemajorbookpublishedinChinawhichintroducestheoriesabouttranslationcompensationcomprehensivelyandsystematically.Inthebook,hestatedtheimportanceofcompensation,redefinedtranslationcompensation,provedtheinevitabilityofitandthenecessaryofitwithsufficientcasestudies.What’smore,Xiaexplainedthemechanismofcompensationthroughtheperspectivesoflinguisticsandaesthetics.Xiaclassifiescompensationintoeightcategories,includingcompensationbyintegration,compensationbyisolation,compensationwiththesamedevice,compensationwithadifferentdevice,compensationinaparallellocation,compensationinadisplacedlocation,synchronouscompensation,andcompensationindifference.[26]MaHongjunisanotherscholarwhodidasystematicstudyoncompensation.Hemadeanintroductionaboutthedevelopmenthistoryofcompensationstudies,listedoutthecategoriesofcompensationalmethods,andraisedhisnewviewsontheclassificationofcompensationstrategies,namely,explicitcompensationandimplicitcompensation.AccordingtoMa,differenttranslatorshavedifferentunderstandingsaboutcompensation.Therefore,duringtheprocessoftranslation,differenttranslatorsadoptdifferentcompensationalstrategies,usingdifferentmethods.Butwhethertheadoptedcompensationalstrategyisagoodonedependson,toalargedegree,thefactwhetherthetranslatorshaveacomprehensiveknowledgeaboutthestrategies,thelocationtobecompensated,theeffectequivalence,thetranslationunits,andthedefinitionofcompensation.He13 pointedoutthatnomatterwhichstrategyisadopted,thegeneralspiritofthesourcetextshouldbemaintained.Aslossesareunavoidable,makesurethemostimportantmeaningismaintained,andsometimesthetranslatorshavetomakecompromises.Compensationgivestranslatorsmorefreedom,butatthesametime,itrequiresthetranslatorstohavebettercreativityandflexibility.[27]Thesescholarsmentionedabovedidsystematicstudiesontranslationcompensation.Thereareotherscholarswhostudycompensationthroughaspecificperspective.Somestudyitfromauxiliarywordoftone,somefromculture,somefromforeignizationstrategiesanddomesticationstrategies.WangEnmianclassifiescompensationstrategiesintosixcategories,namely,amplification,extension,division,blending,substitutionandtransfer.[28]OuHongalsodivideshiscomprehensionoftranslationcompensationstrategiesintosixtypes:equivalence,interpretation,concession,literaltranslation,transliteration,andmodification.[29]Thoughscholarshomeandabroadputforwardsdifferentviewsoncompensation,theysharesomecommonideas.First,theyallagreethatcompensationisunavoidableandnecessary.Second,compensationisforsomebalancebetweensourcelanguageandtargetlanguage.Third,compensationisnotforwordtowordcorrespondence,butforthewholetext,toachievefunctionaloreffectsequivalence.Fourth,culturedifferencesareanimportantfactoraffectinglossesandcompensation.14 3AnOverviewofSkoposTheory3.1TheDevelopmentofSkoposTheoryGermanfunctionalisttranslationtheoriesareatheorysystemproposedbyKantharinaReiss,HansVermeer,JustaHolzMantari,andChristaneNords.Ittookfourstagestogrowintoamaturetheorysystem.FourrepresentativetheoriesofmilepostsignificancearefunctionalcategoryoftranslationcriticismproposedbyKantharinaReiss,SkopostheorieandbeyondbyHansVermeer,theoryoftranslationactionbyJustaHolzMantari,andfunctionplusloyaltybyChristaneNords.[30](1)KantharinaReissandFunctionalCategoryofTranslationCriticism.In1971,KantharinaReissfirstproposedtheconceptoffunctionalapproachinPossibilitiesandLimitationsinTranslationCriticism.Hencetheconceptoffunctiontypeswasfirstintroducedintotranslationtheoriesandthefunctionsoftextswereregardedasastandardfortranslationcriticism.Sheproposedthatspecifictranslationbriefwasneededintranslatingaswellastranslationcriticismmodebasedonfunctionalrelationshipbetweenoriginaltextandtargettext.Sometimes,tomeetspecialneeds,thetargettextcouldhavedifferentfunctionsfromthoseofthesourcetext.Anidealtranslationworkshouldbelikethis:thetargettextsetsupequivalencewiththesourcetextinthelevelsofcontents,languagestyle,andcommunicativefunctions.HerPossibilitiesandLimitationsinTranslationCriticismisregardedasthestartingpointofGermanfunctionalisttranslationtheory.Buthertheoriesarebasedonafunctionalequivalencebetweenthetargettextandthesourcetext.(2)HansVermeerandSkoposTheoryVermeerwasastudentofKantharinaReiss.Basedonhisteacher’sideas,Vermeerbrokethelimitationofequivalenceaswellasthesourcetext-centeredtheory,andproposedthatthepurposeofthetextisthefirstprinciplefortranslationactivities.Therefore,theSkopostheorywasfirstputforwardwhichlaterbecamethefundamentaltheoryofGermanfunctionalisttranslationtheory.ThewordSkopos,then,isatechnicaltermfortheaimorpurposeofatranslation.[31]ThecoreconceptofSkopostheoryisthattranslationmethodsandtranslationstrategiesaredecidedbytheexpectedpurposeorfunctionsofthetargettext.Vermeerbelievedthatallhumanactivities,includingtranslationactions,shareacommonthing:theyareactionswithpurposesinfluencedbycertainbackground.Thatistosay,translationactivityisapurposefulactivity.TheSkopostheoryproposedbyVermeerfreestranslationstudyfromthesourcetext-centeredperspective.Itbelievesthattranslationisaresultthatbasedonthesourcetextandbearsapurpose.Andthisactivityhastobenegotiated.Importantly,itbelievesthattranslationshouldfollowaseriesofprinciples,amongwhichtheSkoposruleistheleadingprinciple.Thatistosay,thetargettextisdecidedbythepurpose.ExceptforSkoposrule,thetranslationactivityshouldalsoobeytheintra-textualcoherencewhichmeanstomakethetargettextunderstandableforthereceivers,and15 theinter-textualcoherencewhichmeanstothetargettextshouldbecoherentwiththesourcetext.Afterthethreeprincipleswereputforward,standardfortranslationcriticismisnolongerequivalencebutadequacyabouthowthetargettextfulfillsthepurpose.Vermeeralsoproposedtheconceptoftranslationcommission,thatis,itisthetranslatorwhodecideswhether,whenandhowtocommitthetranslationtask.Inotherwords,thetranslatorshouldadoptdifferenttranslationstrategiesaccordingtodifferenttranslationSkopos,anddecidewhethertokeepcertaincontentormakeadjustmenttocertaincontent.VermeerbelievedthatSkoposruleistheprimaryprinciplefortranslation.Withdifferenttranslationpurpose,differenttranslationstrategiesandmethodsshouldbeadopted.Thatistosay,thetranslationSkoposdecidesthetranslationmethodsandstrategies.Italsosolvedproblemsaboutthedebatesoverforeignizationanddomestication,andoverformalequivalenceandfunctionalequivalence.AstheSkoposruleistheleadingprinciple,anytranslationactivitieshavepurposesandthereisnoneedtodistinguishforeignizationanddomestication,orformalequivalenceandfunctionalequivalenceaslongastheyaretofulfillcertainpurposes.TheSkopostheoryalsoattachesmoreimportanceonthetranslatorandthereceiver.AccordingtoSkopostheory,thetranslatorisnolongersomeonewhotriestohidehimselfintheprocessoftranslation,butanexpertwhomakesdecisionsingivensituationaboutwhethertoacceptacommissionandhowtorealizeatranslation.[32]Andtherequirementsforthetranslatorarealsoraisedbecausethepersonalunderstandingofthetranslatorwillaffectthetranslationresultinalargerdegree,andthetranslationworkisnolongerareproductionoflinguisticsignsorcode.Thereceiverisalsorespectedandistakenasanevaluationstandardfortranslationworks.Itisbelievedthatthereceiverplaysasignificantroleinmakingthetextmeaningful.Eveninthesameculturalenvironment,differentreceiverswithdifferentlifeexperienceandindifferenttimesmightfinddifferentmeaningsinonesametext.Therefore,thereceiverisseriouslytakenintoconsideration.(3)JustaHolzMantariandTheoryofTranslationActionJustafurtherdevelopedVermeer’stheory,pointingoutthattranslationisacomplexactionthatusedtoachievecertainpurpose.TranslationisnolongerinitscommonsenseinthetheoriesofJusta.Shepointedoutthattranslationisdifferentfromtranslationaction;theformeristhelatter’soperation.Shealsoattachedgreatimportanceonthebehavior,therolesoftheparticipants,andtheenvironmentduringthetranslationprocess.Gradually,thefunctionalisttranslationtheoryinterpretsthetranslationactivitiesfromanewperspectiveandfreestranslationfromthelimitationofthesourcelanguage.(4)ChristianeNordandFunctionPlusLoyaltyAsthesecondgenerationrepresentativeofSkoposTheory,NordfurtherdevelopedtheSkopostheoryproposedbythefirstgeneration.She,forthefirsttime,systematicallyandcomprehensivelyintroducedtheoriesoffunctionalisttranslationtheoryinEnglish,andexplaineditstermsandacademicideas.Inherwork,shestatedallkindsofcriticismagainstfunctionalist16 translationtheorysinceitcameintobeing,andmadearespondtothem.Furthermore,toimprovethetheories,sheproposedfunctionplusloyaltyprinciple.Functionplusloyaltyprincipledemandsthetranslatortoberesponsibleforalltheparticipantsduringthetranslationprocess,andtodothebesttonegotiatetherelationshipwithalltheotherparticipants.Shebelievesthatthetargettextshouldmaintainsomecontactwiththesourcetextandembodytheexpectedfunctions.Hence,thetranslatorcantranslatetofulfillcertainpurpose,andatthesametimemaintaincontactwiththesourcetext.NordmakesgreatcontributionstothedevelopmentanddistributionofSkopostheory.SheintroducesSkopostheorysystematicallyandcomprehensivelyinEnglishandproposedfunctionplusloyaltyprincipletoimprovethetheory.3.2BasicAspectsofSkoposTheory3.2.1ThreePrinciples(1)SkoposRule:AccordingtoSkopostheory,skoposruleistheleadingruleforalltranslationactivities.Thatistosay,translationshouldfunctioninaccordancewiththewaythattargetreadersexpectinthetranslatedlanguagesituationandculture.Theaimsthattranslationactivitiestrytofulfilldecidethewholeprocessoftranslation.Inotherwords,theendjustifiesthemeans.[6]However,translationactivitiescouldhavemultipleaims,Vermeerclassifiedthemintothreecategories:thegeneralpurposeaimedatbythetranslatorinthetranslationprocess(perhapstoearnaliving),thecommunicativepurposeaimedatthetargettextinthetargetsituation(perhapstoinstructthereader)andthepurposeaimedatbyaparticulartranslationstrategyorprocedure(forexample,totranslateliterallyinordertoshowthestructuralparticularitiesofthesourcelanguage).[31]Inmostcases,theskoposreferstocommunicativepurposeofthetargettext.Itemphasizesthecommunicativefunctionthetargettextcausesintargetlanguagesocialculturalcontext.Therefore,thetranslatorshouldbeclearaboutthespecificpurposeundercertaintranslationcontext,andadoptsuitabletranslationstrategiesbasedonthepurposeorpurposes.Freetranslation,literaltranslationorthecombinationofthemallcanbejustifiedthen.(2)CoherenceRuleandFidelityRuleCoherenceruleandfidelityrulearealsocalledintra-textualcoherenceandinter-textualcoherencerule.Intra-textualcoherencemeansthetargettextmustfitthestandard:thetargettextmustbereadableandacceptable,beingabletomakethereceiversunderstoodandmakesenseinthetargetlanguagecultureandinitscommunicativecontext.Fidelityrule,alsotheinter-textualcoherencerule,requiresthatthetargettextshouldbefidelitytothesourcetext.Itisnotthesamewithothertheorieswhichpromoteloyaltytothesourcetext.Thesourcetextissimplyregardedasasourceofinformation,andthetranslatorhastherighttochoosewhichinformationtobetranslated.ThedegreeofloyaltyinSkopostheoryishighlydecidedbytheskoposandthe17 translator’sunderstandingofthesourcetext.(3)LoyaltyRule:ThisruleisproposedbyNord.ShefoundtwodefaultsinSkopostheory;first,withculturaldifferences,peopleunderdifferentculturalbackgroundshavedifferentviewsaboutwhatagoodtranslationis;second,if,accordingtotheSkopostheory,thecommunicativefunctionofthetargettextisdifferentfromthatofthesourcetext,thetranslatorwillobeytheSkoposruleanddisobeythecoherenceandfidelityrule.Therefore,Nordproposedloyaltyruletosolvetheculturaldifferencesandrebalancetherelationshipbetweenparticipantsinvolved.Nordbelievesthatthetranslatorbearsmoralresponsibilitytothereceiver,andthetranslatormustexplainhisorherbehavior.Ontheotherhand,thetranslatormustbeloyaltotheauthorofthesourcetext.Thetranslatorshouldrespecttheauthorandnegotiatewiththeauthor’sintentions.Loyaltyherereferstoasocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.Itisnotthesamewithfidelityorfaithfulnesswhichmeanstheequivalencebetweenthesourcetextandthetargettext.Therefore,theloyaltyrulefocusesonthetranslator’srelationshipwiththeauthor,theclient,thereceiverandotherparticipantsduringthetranslationprocess.Hence,thetranslatorshouldfulfillthetranslationcommissionandrespecttheoriginaltext,refrainingfromtranslatingaccordingtohispersonalpreference.[33]Thesethreerulesmentionedabovearecloselyrelevanttoeachother.Amongthesethreerules,skoposruleisinthefirstplace,theothertwoaresubordinatetoit.Duringthetranslationprocess,skoposruleshouldbefirstlyobeyed,ifnecessary,atthesacrificeoftheothertworules.3.2.2TranslationCommissionTranslationcommission,ortranslationbrief,isanotherimportantconceptinSkopostheory.Atranslationcommissionconsistsofthetargetreceiver,conditionsinwhichthetextwillbereceived,functionsofthetargettext,themediumoverwhichthetargettextwillbepresented,anddetailedinformationabouttranslationpurpose.Itcanbeseenasaninstructiongivenbytheinitiatoroftranslationtothetranslator.Inmostcases,atranslationcommissionisgivennotexplicitly.Butexperiencedtranslatorscanalwaysconstructoneaccordingtothetranslationcontext.Sometimes,theinitiator,orthecommissionershouldnegotiatewiththetranslatoraboutthecontentofthetranslationcommission,becausetheclientmighthasanimpreciseorfalsepictureofthewayatextbereceivedinthetargetculture.Andthetranslator,whoisregardedastheexpert,isresponsibletogiveargumentativesuggestions.Itistruethatthetranslatorshouldconsideropinionsfromallsides,butheorshehastherightto,basedonthetranslationpurpose,choosetranslationmethodswhichmightnotbethesamewithwhatisexpectedbyothers.[34]Aqualifiedtranslationworkshouldbeadequatetotherequirementsofthetranslationcommission.Inshort,translationcommissionisadynamicconceptthatsetlimitationsfortheprocessoftranslation.Itmakesthetranslationactionapurposefulselectionwhichdecidesthemostappropriatesignsforthetext’spurpose.[35]18 3.2.3AdequacyandEquivalenceSkopostheorytakesadequacyinsteadofequivalenceasthestandardforevaluationofthetargettext.AccordingtoSkopostheory,adequacymeansthatthetargettextfulfillstheskopos.Equivalencemeansthatthetargettextandsourcetextachievesimilarcommunicativefunctionsagainstdifferentculturalbackground.Theadequacyisadynamicconceptwhichisrelevanttothetranslationprocess,whileequivalenceisastaticconceptwhichisoneformofadequacy,oronekindofdescriptionoftranslationresult.AccordingtoSkopostheory,equivalenceisnolongerthesuperiorstandardfortranslation.Theexpectedpurposeswhichreflecttheexpectationsfromtheclient,thereceiverandthetranslatorarethebaselineforthejudgmentoftheeffectivenessofthetargettext.Theconceptofadequacymakesthedebateoverfreetranslationandfaithfultranslation,dynamictranslationandequivalencetranslationmeaningless.Becauseanychoiceoftranslationstrategiesisbasedonthetranslationpurpose.Eitherfreetranslationorfaithfultranslationistofulfillaspecifictranslationpurpose.AfterabriefoverviewoftheSkopostheory,itcouldbeconcludedthattheSkopostheoryisnotaperfecttheory.Someofitstermsareconfusing,forexample,initiatorandcommissionerintheconceptoftranslationcommissionoverlapwitheachother.Itsprinciples,especiallytheprincipleofloyaltyishardtofindaclearstandard.[36]Butitexpandsthepossibilityoftranslation,increasestherangeofpossibletranslationstrategies,andreleasesthetranslatorfromthecorsetofanenforcedandhenceoftenmeaninglessliteralness.[37]19 4CompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChingBasedonSkoposTheory4.1OntheTwoTranslatorsandTheirTranslationVersionsTwoversionsofTaoTeChingareanalyzedinthisthesis.OneisTaoTeChing,translatedbyArthurWaleyandpublishedbytheForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPressforthe14thtimein2013.Infact,ArthurWaley’sversionofTaoTeChingwasfirstpublishedin1934.TheotheroneisLawDivineandHumanandPicturesofDeities,translatedbyXuYuanchongandpublishedbytheIntercontinentalPressforthethirdtimein2009.4.1.1ArthurWaleyandTaoTeChingArthurDavidWaley,1888-1966,wasoneofthemostprominentBritishsinologistandtranslatorinthe20thcentury.HedevotedmostofhislifetotranslatingChineseandJapaneseworksandhisworkswerehighlyregardedbyhispeersandwonagreatpopularityamongwesternreadersforaverylongtime.HistranslationsplayedanimportantroleinpromotingChinesecultureinthewesternworld.JonathanSpencewroteofhistranslationsthathe“selectedthejewelsofChineseandJapaneseliteratureandpinnedthemquietlytohischest.Nooneeverdidanythinglikeitbefore,andnoonewilleverdoitagain.TherearemanywesternerswhoseknowledgeofChineseorJapaneseisgreaterthanhis,andthereareperhapsafewwhocanhandlebothlanguagesaswell.Buttheyarenotpoets,andthosewhoarebetterpoetsthanWaleydonotknowChineseorJapanese.Alsotheshockwillneverberepeated,formostoftheworksthatWaleychosetotranslatewerelargelyunknownintheWest,andtheirimpactwasthusallthemoreextraordinary.”Tobetterunderstandhistranslationworks,weshouldlookintothreeaspects.First,theculturalandhistoricalbackground.ArthurWaley’stranslatingpracticestartedintheearly20thcenturywhenadiscoveryofChina,ortheOrientalRenaissancewhichregardedChineseartasanewtaste,wasgoingon.ArethinkaboutChinawentwithoutsayingafteraseriesofhistoricalevents.Imperialistpractices,especiallymilitaryinvasionandartsplunder,carriedoutbyBritainalsobroughtChineseculturenearertowesternworldanddrewthescholars’attention.Alltheseculturalandhistoricalfactorsmadethesinologiststudythrive.WesternpeoplewantedtoknowmoreaboutChina.Second,thetargetreaders.MorethanonceinArthurWaley’sprefaceforhistranslationworks,hedeclaredthathisworksareforgeneralreaders.InAhundredandSeventyChinesePoemspublishedinthe1918,hedeclaredintheintroductionpartthathisworksweretargetedatthegeneralreader.“Ihavethereforestatedmyviewssimplyandcategorically,andwithoutenteringintocontroversieswhichareofinterestonlytoafewspecialists”.[38]IntheprefacetoTheWayandItsPower,hestatedthat“oneofmyaimsinthisbookistosupplythegeneralanthropologistwithatanyrateanimpetustowardsincludingChinainhissurvey.Thisdoesnothowevermeanthatthebookisaddressedtoasmallclassofspecialists;20 forallintelligentpeople,thatistosay,allthepeoplewhowanttounderstandwhatisgoingonintheworldaroundthemaregeneralanthropologists.”[39]Third,personalpurposes.Translationalaction,nomatterwhatformithas,canbeseenasanaction.Anyactionismotivatedbyanaimorapurpose.Infact,Arthur’sintentionwasstatedinhisprefacetoTheWayandItsPower:“Despitetheirimperfectionsmytranslationshaveinthepastdonesomethingtowardsinspiringanumberofpeoplewiththeideathat,forloversofpoetry,Chineseisalanguageworthlearning.IhopethatthisbookmayservethesamepurposeandinparticulardosomethingtodispelthecommonideathatallgoodChinesepoetrybelongstoaremoteantiquity.”[39]HeregardedhimselfasapopularizarofChineseliterature.Arthur’sversionofTaoTeChingwaspublishedintheyearof1934withthenameofTheWayandItsPower:AstudyofTaoTeChingandItsPlaceinChineseThoughts.It’shisfirsttranslationofChineseliteratureonphilosophy.HisversionofTaoTeChingismostwelcomedinthewesternworldandgotreprintedeveryfewyears.Ithasbeenreprintedfor14timesnow.Theremustbesomemeritsinhistranslationconsideringitsgreatpopularity.4.1.2XuYuanchongandLawDivineandHumanandPicturesofDeitiesXuYuanchongisagreattranslator.HeiswidelyrecognizedastheonlyexpertintheworldwhocantranslateChinesepoetryintoEnglishandFrenchrhyme.HisunceasingeffortsintranslatingexcellentChineseworksintoEnglishcanbeseeninhisTheSongsoftheSouthandTheRomanceoftheWesternBower,whicharehighlyvaluedworldwide.HeisalsothefirstChinesewhosetranslationworkgotpublishedbyBritishPenguinBooks.Xuisaproductivetranslator.MorethanonceheproclaimedintheprefacesorinterviewsthatheintendedtopromoteChinesecultureintheworldandtomakemorepeoplehaveaccesstoChineseculture.Also,inhispaperThePhilosophyofTranslation,Xuputforwardthetheoryofcomprehension,appreciationandadmirationwhichcanbeseenashispurposeoftranslation.Comprehensionisthefundamentalorlowestgoalfortranslation;appreciationisahigherone,andadmirationthesupremegoaloftranslation.Xuhasalwaysdoinghisbesttoachievethegoalofmakingreadersenjoyableanddelectabletohistranslatedworks.ItcanbeconcludedthathistargetreadersnotonlyincludeforeignerswhowouldliketohaveaglimpseofChineseculturebutalsoincludeChinesereaderswhoareinterestedinEnglishlearningoradmiration.LawDivineandHumanandPicturesofDeitiesisacombinationofwordsandpictures.Thebi-linguisticversionofTaoTeChingisillustratedwithalotofancientpaintingsandmuralswhicheitherarerelatedtotheideasofTaoTeChingoraredirectlythedescriptionoftheimmortals.Thosepicturesmightenhancetheaestheticalsensesorenlightenment,butforlimitedconditions,thisthesisonlyfocusesonword-relevantstrategies.Oneprominentcharacterofitisthearrangementofthewords.AlmostalltheEnglishsentencesareinthesamelayoutwiththeoriginalsentencewhichgreatenhancestheflavorofpoetry.21 4.2StudyonCompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChingOnefascinationwithTaoTeChingliesinthefactthatwithonlyaround5000words,ithasbeeninterpretedasagreatworkintomanydifferentlanguagesandregardedasguidanceinmanydifferentfields.Itisregardedasabookforhealthkeeping,formasteringleadership,forself-cultivationandsoon.Itislikearootoftreewhosetrunksstretchintodifferentdirections.Themoreconcisethebookis,themoremeaningsthatpeoplecanreadfromit.Tosendthemessagethatthetranslatorstrytoconvey,compensationcouldbeseennowandthen.BeforewegettotheanalysisofthetwoversionsofTaoTeChing,itisimportanttopointoutthatthetranslatorsherehavedifferentpreferenceswhichleadtotheadoptionofdifferenttranslationalstrategies.ArthurWaleypreferredmeaningandcultureoverpoeticsbecauseintheoldtime,thewestknewlittleaboutChina,andArthurwantedhispeerstoknowtheChinesethoughtsandChineseculturesoastolearnsomethingfromit.However,Xupreferredmeaningandaestheticvalueoverculture.Heisopen-mindedabouttranslationmethods.“Ithinkbothliteraltranslationandfreetranslationshouldputtheloyaltytotheoriginalcontentatthefirstplace.Literaltranslationputsthestyleofthesourcetextinthesecondplaceandthecoherencythethirdplace.Freetranslationputsthecoherencyinthesecondplaceandthestyleoftheoriginaltextthethirdplace.Ifthetargettextisloyaltothesourcetextinmeaningandcoherentatthesametime,thereisnoneedtodistinguishwhetheritisliteraltranslationorfreetranslation.”[40]Inthisinternationalworld,Chinaisnolongerastrangertothewest.Herthoughtsareknowntothewestmoreorless,andthebeautyofaestheticswhichcoveramysticveiloverChineseimagebecomesmoreprominent.Therefore,inthefollowingpart,threeaspectsofcompensationisanalyzed,namely,compensationformeaning,compensationforpoetics,andcompensationforculture.Wecanseethatthetranslatorspreferreddifferentstrategiestocompensateindifferentaspectstodifferentdegrees.4.2.1CompensationforMeaningInmosttranslationworks,toreproducetheoriginalmeaningisonefundamentalpursuit.Inthispart,basedontheaimsthatthetranslatorshadinmind,severalstrategiesareanalyzedthroughexamples.(1)是以圣人处无为之事,行不言之教。(Chapter2)XuYuanchong:Thereforethesagedoeseverythingwithoutinterference,teacheseveryonewithoutpersuasion.ArthurWaley:Therefore1theSagereliesonactionlessactivity,Carriesonwordlessteaching.Footnote:1)because“action”canonlymakeonethinghighattheexpenseofmakingsomethingelselow,etc.InXu’sversion,hepreferredtointerpretorparaphrasethesentence.Withoutcorrespondingwordsto无为and不言,whichinArthur’sversionaretranslatedas“actionless”and“wordless”,Xuused“withoutinterference”and“withoutpersuasion”toexplaintheoriginalmeaning.22 Footnoteisaverycommonandusefultranslationtechnique.Toconveythemeaninginaclearerway,footnotesarefrequentlyadopted.Inthissentence,astheword“actionless”firstappears,ArthurWaleyexplained“action”inanotetofurtherexplainthemeaningofactionlessandtojustifythe“therefore”inthesentence.Itiscountedthatthereare209piecesoffootnotesinArthurWaley’sversionofTaoTeChing.Almosteverychapterhasnotesunderneathtoexplain.However,footnotesarenotonlyusedtofurtherexplainthelogicbutalsotounveilindirectreferences,ortoclarifyunderlyingmeanings.(2)多言数穷，不如守中。（Chapter5）XuYuanchong:Ifmoreissaidthandone,itwouldbebettertotakethemean.ArthurWaley:Whereastheforceofwords2issoonspent,Farbetterisittokeepwhatisintheheart.Footnote:2)Lawsandproclamations.Apparently,XuandArthurhaddifferentunderstandingofthesentence.ItisbecauseXugaveageneralmeaningoftheoriginalsentence,whileArthurputitunderacertaincontext.FromArthur’sperspective,itisasuggestionforruling;thereforehelocatedthemeaningof“words”intothefieldoflawsandproclamations.Toclarifythemeaningofthesentence,orrather,toclarifyhisownunderstandingofthesentence,Arthurusedafootnotetoexplainthespecificmeaningof“words”implyinghere.Itiscommonthatdifferentindividualscouldhavedifferentunderstandingsofthesametext,eventhesameindividualcouldhavedifferentunderstandingofthesametextindifferenttimeandspace,butwhatimportanthereishowtheypresenttheirownunderstanding.Xualsousednotestocompensateforthemeaning.(3)我独异于人，而贵食母。(Chapter2)XuYuanchong:Differentfromothers,Ivaluethemother1whofeedFootnote:1)thedivinelawThisistheonlysentencewithanoteinXu’sversionofTaoTeChing.ItshouldbenoticedthatasXu’stargetreadersarelargelyChinese-speakingreaderswhohaveaninterestinadmiringEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingandatthesametimeunderChineseculturalbackground,sonotmanynotesareneededhere.Thisnotehereisusedtobeacompensationforunderlyingmeaning.Tobefaithfultotheoriginalsentence,Xutranslated母intomother.Buttobefaithfultothemeaningofthesentence,heputanoteheretoexplainthatthemotheractuallyreferstothedivinelaw.(4)知其雄，守其雌，为天下溪。(Chapter28)XuYuanchong:Learntobehardasman23 andremainsoftaswomenlikeastreamintheworld.ArthurWaley:Hewhoknowsthemale,yetcleavestowhatisfemaleBecomeslikearavine,receivingallthingsunderheaven1.Footnote:1)adaptedfromaLaoTansaying.SeeChuangTzu,XXXIII，5.Inthesentence,Xuusedthestrategyofamplificationtocompensate.Literally,雄meansthemalewhile雌meansthefemale.Buttocompensateforthemeaninghere,Xuinsertedconcepts“hardasman”and“softaswoman”intothetranslatedversionofsentences.Withthehelpofsuchcompensation,thesesentencescauselessconfusionandmakegoodsense.Incomparison,Arthur’sversionisblurryinsense.ButArthuralsoappliedamplificationtocompensateforthemeaning.(5)涤除玄览，能无雌乎？(Chapter10)XuYuanchong:Canthepurifiedmentalmirrorbefreefromblemish？ArthurWaley:CanyouwipeandcleanseyourvisionoftheMysterytillalliswithoutblur?Thisisanotherexampleaboutamplification.Itiscanbeseenthatsomeunderlyingmeaningissuggestedintheoriginalsentence.IntheChineseculturalbackground,itiseasytorelatemirrorstothestateofmind,butforforeignlanguagereaders,thissentenceseemsstrangeinthecontext.Tocompensateforthemeaning,Xuextendedmirrorintomentalmirror,andArthur,basedonhisownunderstanding,extenditinto“yourvisionoftheMystery”.Inbothcasesabove,thoughXuandArthurhaddifferentunderstandingoftheoriginalsentence,theybothappliedfortheamplificationstrategytocompensateforthemeaning.(6)天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已；皆知善之为善，斯不善已。(Chapter2)XuYuanchong:Ifallmenintheworldknowwhatisfair,thenitisunfair.Ifallmenknowwhatisgood,thenitisnotgood.ArthurWaley:ItisbecauseeveryoneunderHeavenrecognizedbeautyasbeauty,thattheideaofuglinessexists.Andequallyifeveryonerecognizedvirtueasvirtue,thiswouldmerelycreatefreshconceptionsofwickedness.Xu’sversionreproducestheoriginalsentenceinmeaningandstylebysimplewords.However,Arthurhadmoreconcerns.Arthuragreedthatbeautyandugliness,andvirtueandwickednessgrowoutofeachother.ButthestressoftheoriginalsentenceisshiftedinArthur’sversion.Thepatternoftheoriginalsentenceistwosmallsentencesinparallel,whileArthurWaley’sversionisinthelogicofanalogy.Histranslatedversionbreakstheoriginallogicandreconstructsanewoneinorder24 toemphasisthelatterpartoftheoriginalsentence.Thepurposebehindiseasytounderstand.BecauseunderthebackgroundofthewesternerstryingtointroducesomeusefullifeadvicefromtheEast,ArthurWaleywastryingtoputmoreemphasisonpracticaladvicewhichisabout,inthiscase,virtueandwickedness.Itisnotonlyaboutrearrangingthesentence’spattern,butashiftofperspectivetocompensateformeaning.(7)大曰逝，逝曰远，远曰反。(Chapter25)XuYuanchong:Thegreatwillpassaway,passingimpliesalongway,andhoweverlong,thewaywillreturnintheend.ArthurWaley:NowtaalsomeanspassingonAndpassingonmeansgoingFarAway,Andgoingfarawaymeansreturning.2Footnote:2)returningto“whatwasthereintheBeginning”.Xuisanadvocatorofrhymesintranslation.Butstill,sometimeshehastoabandonthepoeticsandputthemeaningfirst.Inthiscase,Xubroketheoriginalpatternofsentenceandexplainsthemeaninginarelativelylongersentence.ItseemslikeparaphrasewhichArthurdidalotinhisversionofTaoTeChing.InArthur’sversion,hedidnotparaphrasethistimebutaddedwhatisnotfinishedinthesentencebytheuseofafootnote.(8)唯之于阿，相去几何？(Chapter20)XuYuanchong:Howfarawayisyesfromno?ArthurWaley:BetweenweiandoWhatafterallisthedifference?1Footnote:1)Weiandoweretheformalandinformalwordsfor“yes”,eachappropriatetocertainoccasions.Betrayalisacompensationstrategywhichisrarelyusedbutitcouldbeeffectiveifbeingusedwisely.Therearetwokindofbetrayalintheprocessoftranslationgiventhetranslator’sconsciousness:unconsciousbetrayalandconsciousbetrayal.[41]Itisboldandraretotranslateawordintoitsoppositemeaning.ButXuuseditveryclever.Literally,唯and阿bothmeanyesinChinese.Butbasedonthecontest,especiallythesentencefollowingsuit:“howfarawayisgoodfromevil”,themeaningthatLaoZiwastryingtoconveycouldbeacontradiction.Therefore,Xudisobeyedtheliteralmeaningandtranslatesitintoyesandno.Ofcourse,itisonlyapersonalunderstandofXu.ButXuusedthisdisobeynesstosendhismessage.Arthurhaddifferentunderstandingandusedacombinationoftransliterationandfootnotetocompensateforthemeaning.Arthurtranslated唯and阿intoweiando,andhadafootnotetoexplainthatthoughtheymeanthesamebuttheyareusedondifferentoccasion.25 Hencethecontradictionthattheoriginalauthortriedtoconveyisreproduced.4.2.2CompensationforPoeticsThepoeticsofTaoTeChingishardtoreproduce.Notonlybecauseofitsancientrywhichmakesitspoeticshardtoreproduce,butalsobecauseitisloadedwithmanyChinesefiguresofspeech,letalonethedifferencebetweenChineselanguageandEnglishlanguage.Buttheeffortstoreproducethepoeticsofitoratleast,thereliveofthefunctionofithaveneverceased.ThoughArthurWaleyputmoreemphasisonthemeaningandculture,orthefunctionofcommunicationofhisversionofTaoTeChing,healsowantedhisworksreadableandelegant.(9)持而盈之，不如其已;(Chapter9)XuYuanchong:Don’sholdyourfillbutrefrainfromexcess.ArthurWaley:Stretchabow1totheveryfull,Andyouwillwishyouhadstoppedintime;Footnote:1)Theexpressionusedcanalsoapplytofillingavesseltothebrim;but“stretchingabow”makesabetterparallelto“sharpening”asword”.Inthissentence,thetranslators’preferenceforpoeticisself-evident.Theoriginalsentenceisingoodandtidyarrangement,consistingtwogroupswithfourcharactersineach.Xu’sversionrelivestheconcisestyleoftheoriginal,translatingtheoriginalintotwogroupswithfourwordsineach.InArthur’sversion,footnoteshereareusedforapoeticpurpose.Asthefollowingsentenceisalsointhesamearrangement,tomakeabetterparallelto“Sharpeningasword”whichisinthefollowingsentence,Arthurchose“stretchabow”insteadof“fillingavesseltothebrim”whichmakesthesentencemorereadable.Andheexplainedhischoiceinthefootnotes.Thiscombinationofsubstitutionandfootnoteservesforthecompensationforpoetics.(10)虚其心，实其腹；弱其志，强其骨。(Chapter3)XuYuanchong:bypurifyingpeople’ssoul,fillingtheirbellies,weakeningtheirwillsandstrengtheningtheirbones.ArthurWaley:ByemptyingtheirheartsAndfillingtheirbellies,Weakeningtheirintelligence1Andtougheningtheirsinews.Footnote:1)Particularlyinthesenseof“havingideasofone’sown”.26 Theoriginalsentenceconsistsoffoursmallsentencesandeachhasthreecharacters.Thetranslationalversionshere,disregardoftheconjunctionwords,reproducethearrangementofwords.Butapparently,Arthurbelievedthatthepursuitafterpoeticscausessomeproblem.Therefore,hehadafootnotebelowtocompensateforthepoetics’sake.Inthissentence,ArthurWaleychosetopresentawellorganizedsentenceandhadanotebelowtoclarifyitsmeaning.Thecombinationofliteraltranslationandfootnotesheremakescompensationformeaningandpoeticsbothpossible.Hereisanotherexample.(11)是以圣人为腹不为目，故去彼取此。(Chapter12)XuYuanchong:Therefore,thesagesatisfiesthebellyratherthantheeye.Hepreferstheformertothelatter.ArthurWaley:ThereforethesageConsiderthebellynottheeye1Truly,“herejectsthatbuttakesthis”.2Footnote:1)Thebellyinthisinstancemeans“whatisinsidehim”,hisowninnerpowers.2)Forthisuseofthatandthis(i.e.theworldoutsideandthepowerswithinoneself)cf.KuanTzu,36,middle.Inthissentence,bellyandeye,thatandthisareusedascontradictions.Toleaveaconciseandtidyimagetothereaders,Arthurpreferredtotranslateliterallyandexplainthemeaningofspecificwordsinnotes.Incomparison,Xudidnothavemuchconcern,heappliedthestrategyofforeignizationandtranslated去彼取此into“preferstheformertothelatter”.(12)天地所以能长且久者，以其不自生，故能长生。(Chapter7)XuYuanchong:Thereasonwhytheyexistsolongisnotthattheywanttoexist;Wherethereisnowant,tobeandnottobeareone.ArthurWaley:Howcometheytobeso?Isitbecausetheydonotfostertheirownlives;Thatiswhytheylivesolong.Inthissentence,Xuputmeaningfirstanddidnotpaymuchattentiontopoetics.ButonthepartofArthur,thepoeticswasalsoconsidered.Itisanexampleofchangingtheoriginalsentencepatternandreconstructinganewonetofulfillthefunctionofthesentence.Theoriginalsentenceisinindicativemood,butinlogic,itisacombinationofaquestionandananswer.者intheoriginalsentenceisauniqueusageofoldChineselanguagewhichcanbetranslatedas“thereasonwhy…is…”.Butifthetranslatortranslateditthisway,thetargetsentencewouldbealongsentencewithoutbreakinsteadoftwopartsliketheoriginalsentence.Xu’sversionisagoodrepresentativeofit.Butlongsentencesdonot27 fitthestyleofTaoTeChingwhichisconciseandforceful.Tomakesurethetargetsentencetoreproducetheoriginalsentence’sstyle,Arthurmadeitaquestionandananswertobreakthesentence.(13)祸，福之所倚；福，祸之所伏。(Chapter58)XuYuanchong:Wealcomesafterwos;woeliesunderweal.ArthurWaley:Itisuponbadfortunethatgoodfortuneleans,upongoodfortunethatbadfortunerests.OneprominentmeritofXu’sversionofTaoTeChingisthathisversionusessimplewordsandsmallsentencestomakeprofoundsenses.TheconcisenessandprofoundmeaningarealsoimportantcharacteristicsofTaoTeChing.Inthissentence,twosmallsentencesareincludedwithtwonounsandoneverbineachsmallsentence.Xu’sversionalsousedtwonounsandoneverbineachsmallsentencetoreproducethepoeticsoftheoriginalsentence.ButArthurnoticedthateachsmallsentencehasastress.Thefirstsmallsentenceputsstresson祸whilethelattersmallsentenceputstresson福.Therefore,heused“Itis…that…”structuretoemphasisthisrelationship.祸and福areagainsteachother,and倚and伏correspondstoeachother.Eventhough倚and伏meanthesamething,Arthurtriedtousedifferentwordstotranslatethem,andputtheminparallelplacestotheoriginalcharacters.Thisadjustmentofsentencepatternsalsomakesthesentencemorereadable.Asmentionedbefore,XuputmoreimportanceontheaestheticbeautyofTaoTeChing.Andhiseffortstomaintainitspoeticbeautyareobvious.(14)名与身孰亲?身与货孰多？得与亡孰病？(Chapter4)XuYuanchong:Whichdoyoulovebetter,fameorlife?Whichdoyoulikemore,healthorwealth?Whichwilldoyoumoreharm,gainorloss?ArthurWaley:Fameorone’sownself,whichmatterstoonemost?One’sownselforthingsbrought,whichshouldcountmost？Inthegettingorthelosing,whichisworse?ItshouldbenoticedthatthearrangementofsentencesinXu’sversionofTaoTeChingisparalleltothatoftheoriginalversion.Itisanimportanttechniquetocompensateforthepoetic.ItisaprominenttechniquethatcanbeseeninalmosteverychapterofXu’sversion.ThoughArthur’sversionalsocopiesthearrangementoftheoriginalinthissentence,inmostsentences,itdidnotputequivalenteffortsonthearrangementbecausehisprioritytomeaningcausestoomuchinterpretationwhichmakessentenceslongerandhardtoreproducetheoriginalarrangement.HereisanotherexampletopresenttheparallelarrangementinXu’sversion.28 (15)三十辐共一毂，当其无，有车之用；埏埴以为器，当其无，有器之用。凿户牖以为室，当其无，有室之用。(Chapter11)XuYuanchong:Thirtyspokesradiatefromahub.Whenthereisnothinginthehub,thewheelcanroll.Turnclaytomakeavessel.Whenempty,thevesselcanbeused.Buildaroomwithdoorsandwindows.Whenempty,theroomcanbeusedasdwelling.ArthurWaley:Weputthirtyspokestogetherandcallitawheel;Butitisonthespacewherethereisnothingthattheusefulnessofthewheeldepends.Weturnclaytomakeavessel;Butitisonthespacewherethereisnothingthattheusefulnessofthevesseldepends.Wepiercedoorsandwindowstomakeahouse;Anditisonthesespaceswherethereisnothingthattheusefulnessofthehousedepends.InXu’sversion,sentencesarearrangedaccordingtotheoriginalsentences.Butthepursuitofpoeticsisatthesacrificeofmeaningtosomedegrees.ItisagoodthingthatthetargetreadersaremostlyChinesewhoarefondofEnglishanditisaninternationalage,becauseforEnglishreaderswithoutanyconceptofChineseculture,Xu’sversionmightbeconfusing.UnlikeXu,Arthurchosetoparaphrasethesentenceswhichcompensateforthemeaning,becausemeaningishispriorityduetohishistoricalmission.4.2.3CompensationforCultureAsArthur’stargetreadersareWesternerswhohadlittleideaaboutChina,andArthurhimselfaimedtopromoteChineseculture,itisnecessaryforArthurtotakestrategiestocompensateforculturalfactors.29 Xu,ontheotherhand,ismuchfreeronthis,becauseinthisinternationalworldwithmultimediawildlypopularized,ChinaisnolongerastrangertotheWest.Therefore,inthispart,moststrategiesarederivedfromthestudyofArthur’sversion.(16)无名，天地之始；有名，万物之母。(Chapter1)XuYuanchong:Inthebeginningheavenandeartharenameless;whennamed,allthingsbecomeknown.ArthurWaley:ItwasfromtheNamelessthatHeavenandEarthsprang;Thenamedisbutthemotherthatrearsthetenthousandcreatures,eachafteritskind.ArthurWaley,asasinologist,hadagreatsensitivityaboutChineseculture.HisdetailedexplanationaboutChineseculturecanbeseeninhisworks.Inthissentence,hepreferredtoliterallytranslate万物intotenthousandcreatures.Itmightcausesomeconfusiontosomedegreesbutstillunderstandable.ArthurtriedtoreproduceChinese’sturnofwords.Andthetranslatedsentencecreatesanexoticflavor.Thisstrategyjustfulfillshispurpose:toarousethewesterners’interestandtherebypopularizeChinesecultureinthewest.Xu,immersedintoChineseculture,simplytranslatedthephraseinto“allthings”withoutnoticingtheculturalfactors.Whentranslatingaforeigntextortranslatingatextintoforeignlanguages,sometranslatorsintendtodeliberatelyuseforeignizationtocausesomedistance,becausetheyaimatdeviatingfromprevailingdomesticvaluesbypreservinglinguisticandculturaldifferences.[42](17)六亲不和，有教慈。(Chapter18)XuYuanchong:Whenthefamilyisatodds,Filialsonsandkindparentsareneeded.ArthurWaley:Itwaswhenthesixnearones1werenolongeratpeaceThattherewastalkof“dutifulsons”;Footnote:1)father,son,elderbrother,youngerbrother,husbandandwife.InXu’sversion,hesimplytranslateditintofamily.六亲inChinesereferstofather,son,elderbrother,youngerbrother,husbandandwife.FamilyinEnglishmeansagroupofpeoplewhoarerelatedtoeachother,especiallyamother,father,andtheirchildren.Thesetwoconceptsaresimilartoeachother.Intranslationpractice,generalizationisacompensationstrategybywayofstatingageneralterm,anditmeansgivinguptheoriginalculturalimageandreplacingitwithplainlanguagebywaysofsummarization,wordsdecrease,etc.[26]Generalizationisusuallyappliedintwoconditions:first,thereisnocounterpartinthetargetculturebutsimilarconceptcouldhelptoinferwhatisexpressedinthesourcetext;second,whatisgeneralizedinthesourcetextcausesredundancyinthetargettext.Inthiscase,thestrategyofgeneralizationisappliedinthefirstcondition.If,inArthur’sversion,thelastsentencecausessomeunderstandableconfusion,thenthissentencehastohavefootnotestofillthegapsthatcausedbyliteraltranslation.Arthurliterallytranslated六亲intosixonesandhadafootnoteunderneathtoexplainitsmeaning.Thiscombinationofliteral30 translationandfootnotesmaintainstheculturalfactorandclarifiesthemeaning.(18)挫其锐，解其纷，和其光，同其尘。（Chapter4）XuYuanchong:wherethesharpisblunted,theknotsareuntied,theglareissoftened,alllooklikedust.ArthurWaley:Initallsharpnessisblunted,Alltanglesunties,Allglaretempered,Alldust1smoothed.Footnote:1)DustistheTaoistsymbolforthenoiseandfussofeverydaylife.AccordingtoArthur’sunderstanding,dustisanimportantsymboliciteminTaoistschool.Withculturalfactorsinconsideration,hepreferredtoexplainthemeaningofdustinanote.Again,hepreferredfootnoteasacompensationstrategy.Thiskindofcompensationstrategyiswidelyadoptedinhisversion.(19)吾不知谁之子，象帝之先。(Chapter4)XuYuanchong:Idonotknowwhenceitcame;ItseemstoexistbeforeGod.ArthurWaley:Wasittoothechildofsomethingelse?Wecannottell.Butasasubstancelessimage2itexistedbeforetheAncestor3.Footnote:2)Ahsiang,animagesuchasthementalimagesthatfloatbeforeuswhenwethink.3)TheAncestorinquestionisalmostcertainlytheYellowAncestorwhoseparatedEarthfromHeavenandsodestroyedthePrimalUnity,forwhichheisfrequentlycensuredinChuangTzu.Thiscaseisthesamewiththelastexample.象and帝arecultureloadedwordsandArthurexplainedtheminfootnotes.Xudidnotpointouttheculturalinformationbehindandtranslated帝intogod.Again,thetargetreaders’expectationdeterminesthewaytheytranslate.Xusimplysubstitutedtheconceptof帝withGod.(20)谷神不死，(Chapter6)ArthurWaley:TheValleySpiritneverdies.XuYuanchong:Thevalespiritneverdies.ThereisnoargumentaboutthemeaningofthissentenceforArthurandXu.ButinArthur’sversion,theValleySpiritiscapitalizedwhichmeansthatitisacertainconceptorsubstanceinChineseculture.ThoughnoexplanationwasgiveninArthur’sversion,hetriedtohighlighteveryconceptthatisunique31 inChineseculture.Thatis,tohighlightcultureloadedwords,Arthurcapitalizedthosewords.Inthethreeexamplesabove,Arthurpreferredtoliterallytranslatingthecultureloadedword,sometimeswithfootnotesofferingfurtherexplanation.Butthecombinationoftransliterationandfootnoteisalsoagoodstrategyforcompensation.(21)不尚贤,使民不争；(Chapter3)XuYuanchong:Honornomansothatnonewouldcontendforhonor.ArthurWaley:Ifwestoplookingfor“personsofsuperiormorality”(hsien)toputinpower,therewillbenomorejealousiesamongthepeople.Xuusedsimplewordstoreproducetheoriginalsentencebothinmeaningandstyle.Butculturaldifferencesfadeoutinhisversion.ForArthur,toproduceanexoticflavoraswellastointroduceChineseculture,heusedbothtransliterationandinterpretationtoexplaintheculturefactor.HereArthurregarded贤asacertainconcept.Toclarifythemeaningofit,Arthurinterpretedthemeaningof贤,whichispersonsofsuperiormorality,inserteditintothesentence,andtransliteratedhsieninapairofbrackets.Thiskindofinterpretationisobviousinasentenceasthecorrespondingwordisfollowed.Sometimes,interpretationcanbeundetectable,especiallywheninsertingadjectives.Itcanbeseenasanextensionoftheoriginalsentence.Transliterationandinterpretationareimportantstrategiesforcompensation.(22)为而不恃，功成而弗居.(Chapter2)XuYuanchong:Everythingisdonewithoutbeinghisdeed,andsucceedswithoutbeinghissuccess.ArthurWaley:Controlsthembutdoesnotleanuponthem.Achieveshisaim,butdoesnotcallattention2towhathedoes;Footnote:2)Literally,“doesnotplace（i.e.classify）himselfasavictor”.Cf.MenciusII,I;2.Somescholarsbelievethattranslatingpoemsisahardlabor,becausetheyareuntranslatable.Theyinsistthatconveyingthemeaningwouldbeenough.Butclearly,Arthurhadsomeotherambitionsinhismind.HealsowantedtospreadtheturnofwordsofChineselanguage.Inthiscase,heexplainedthemeaning,butinthenote,heliterallytranslatedthesentenceagain.Tosomedegree,hewastryingtospreadthewayChinesepeoplethink,whichisagreatimportantpartofChineseculture.Inthiscase,Arthurusedthecombinationofinterpretationandafootnotetocompensateforculturalfactors.4.3EnlightenmentontheCompensationfortheTranslationofTaoTeChingItcanbeseenthatArthurfavoredforeignizationstrategiesandXufavoreddomesticationstrategies.However,Skopostheorydoesnotclarifyitspositionoverforeingnizationanddomestication,butitmakesitsexplanations.Itholdsthattheselectionoftranslationstrategiesbytranslatorsisduetospecific32 translationalpurposes.Thatistosay,thepurposethattranslatorsorinitiatorswanttoachieve,leadstothecorrespondenttranslationsstrategies.Nomatterforeignizationordomestication,aslongastheycanhelptoachievethepurposes,itwouldbeperfection.[43]Sometimestheychosethesamestrategy;sometimestheydifferwitheachother.Theiradoptionofstrategiesisbasedondifferentaims.Inotherwords,toachievedifferentaims,differentstrategiesareadopted.4.3.1TranslationStrategiesforMeaningCompensationBasedontheanalysisabove,sixmainstrategiesformeaningcompensationareconcluded,namely,interpretation,annotation,literaltranslation,amplification,shiftofperspective,andbetrayal.Thecombinationofeitherofthemisalsoadopted.Preferringmeaningoverthesentencepatternisaverycommonstrategy.Strictlyspeaking,TaoTeChingisaprose.Butowingtoitsancientlanguage,delicaterhyme,andstructureofshortsentences,thedifficultyintranslatingitcanmatchthetranslationofpoetries.Wecanlearnfromthetwoversionsthatwhenfurtherexplanationisneed,iftheinformationcouldbeexplainedinafewwords,interpretationoramplificationisabetterchoice.Butifacoupleofwordsfailtodothat,annotationcouldbeappliedfordetailedexplanation.Shiftofperspectiveorgoingagainsttheoriginalwords’meaningisaboldtryandrarelyused.ButXu’sexperimentprovesthatitisagoodstrategyifbeingusedcarefully.4.3.2TranslationStrategiesforPoeticsCompensationForpoeticscompensation,strategiesmainlyusedareannotation,substitution,parallelarrangement(forbothwordsarrangementandsentencesarrangement),literaltranslation(usuallywithfootnotes),andreconstruction.Thecombinationofeitherofthemisalsoapplied.ChineseandEnglishdiffergreatlywitheachother.Chinesesentencesarelooseinstructureanditsmeaningdoesnotlieinthechangeofwordformationbutthewordorderandcontext.ThefivestrategiesareespeciallywelladoptedinTaoTeChing.Giventhedifferences,thecompensationforpoeticsisnottoreproducetheexactpoeticsoftheoriginal,buttotrytoreliveit,oratleastpartofit,ortomakeanewonetofulfillthesamefunction.4.3.3TranslationStrategiesforCulturalCompensationForculturalcompensation,strategiesmainlyusedareliteraltranslation,annotation,generalization,substitution,capitalizationandinterpretation.Thecombinationofeitherofthemisalsoapplied.Culturalfactorsareattachedwithgreatimportancewhentranslatingclassics,becausethetranslationofclassicsisalwaysmotivatedorpartlymotivatedbythepurposeofpromotingthecultureinthem,suchasthetranslationofTaoTeChing.Somehow,theseclassicsarejustcarriersofChinesecultureinsteadofthecultureitself,therefore,whentranslating,theculturalinformationisusuallyexplainedinfootnotes,oracombinationofliteraltranslationandfootnotes.Itisnecessarytopointoutthateachstrategycanfulfillonekindofcompensationormore.Eachstrategyhasitsownadvantages,butitdoesmeanthattheyshouldbeseparatelyusedintheprocessoftranslation.[44]Severalstrategiescanbeadoptedtogethertofulfillonekindofcompensationandonesinglestrategycanalsobeadoptedinmanyaspectstofulfilldifferentkindsofcompensation.33 5ConclusionThisthesisstudiestwoEnglishversionsofTaoTeChingwiththeapplicationoftheSkopostheory,analyzesthemaincompensationstrategiesfromthreeperspectives,namely,thecompensationformeaning,thecompensationforpoetics,andthecompensationculture,digsintotheaims,targetreadersandtranslators’personalpurposesbehindtheadoptionofsuchstrategies,andmakesasummaryaboutthecompensationstrategies.5.1MajorFindingsItcanbeconcluded:(1)Whenconductingtranslationalactivities,itisnecessarytokeepthetranslationalpurposeinmind.Skopostheorybelievesthattheendjustifiesthemeans.Thereforedifferentstrategiesshouldbecarefullyselectedandadoptedwhenconductingtranslationpractice.Butitisnecessarytofollowtheprincipleofloyalty.Ifthetranslationworkgoestoofarawayfromtheoriginal,thenitwouldnotbeatranslationworkbutanoriginalwork.Buttheloyaltyruleshouldbeflexiblyfollowedinsteadofrigidly.Theprincipleofloyaltyshouldbeco-consideredwiththerelationshipofthetranslatedversionandtheoriginalversion,translationaimsandtargetreaders.Itwouldbegreathelpfuliftakingtranslationaimsandtargetreadersintoconsiderationwhenconductingtranslationpractices.(2)ChineseclassicsaregreatworkstestedbytimeanddeeplyrootedinChina,richofChineseculturalfactorsandappearintheformofoldChineselanguage.TaoTeChingisnoexception.Therefore,themeaningofthecontent,poeticsandculture-loadedwordsrequiregreatattentionduringtranslation.Severalstrategiesareanalyzedinthethesis.Formeaningcompensation,strategiesaremainly,interpretation,annotation,literaltranslation,amplification,shiftofperspective,andbetrayal.Forpoeticscompensation,strategiesmainlyusedareannotation,substitution,parallelarrangement(forbothwordsarrangementandsentencesarrangement),literaltranslation(usuallywithfootnotes),andreconstruction.Forculturalcompensation,strategiesmainlyadoptedareliteraltranslation,annotation,generalization,substitution,capitalizationandinterpretation.Inmanycases,thesestrategiesarenotappliedalonebutareco-usedwitheachother.Throughexamplesitcanbeconcludedthatthoughdifferentpurposesleadtodifferentchoicesofstrategies,theadoptionofstrategiescanbeflexibleandchangeable.Thespecialtyandcomplexityofculturalfactorsdeterminetwocharacteristicsofthetranslationstrategiesforculturalloadedwords,thatis,flexibilityandchangeability.[44]Differenttranslators,withdifferenttargetreadersinconsiderationadoptdifferentstrategiestocompensate.Inthisinternationalworld,itisnotnecessarytoexplaineveryculturaldetailinatranslatedTaoTeChing,butsometimes,evenforChinesereaders,itisbettertohavesomecompensationforcultureinsteadofleavingtheproblemtoreadersthemselves.Itisimportantforthetranslatorstoconsiderreadersfromdifferentintellectualbackgrounds,andtotrytomakethecompensationadequate.(3)StudyingthetranslationstrategiesthroughSkopostheoryisnotonlyprovidinganewstandard34 fortheevaluationofEnglishtranslationsofTaoTeChing,butalsoagoodpracticeforthestudyoftheEnglishtranslationsofotherChineseclassics.Fortranslationstrategieswhicharenotquiteacceptableaccordingtosomeexistingstandards,Skopostheoryjustifiesmorepracticalstrategiesandinspiresthetranslationpractices.TranslationcriticismiselevatedintoanewlevelbytheapplicationofSkopostheory.5.2LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherStudyTherearehundredsofEnglishversionsofTaoTeChing.Therefore,itisreallydifficulttodoacomprehensivestudyontheappliedcompensationstrategieswithlimitatedtimeandenergy.Butthisthesisselectstwosuccessfulversionsfromthemandthestudyisstillworthtrying.Althoughthethesissummarizesandcategorizesthemajorappliedcompensationstrategiesinthetwoversions,itdoesnotmeanthatthestudyresultsshouldbestrictlyobservedinthefuturetranslationpracticeofTaoTeChing.ItwouldbegreatiffurtherstudyiscarriedouttoprojectthecompensationstrategiesontootherChineseclassics’translaiton.Duetolimitatedtime,energyandacademicability,thisthesismighthaveconductedthestudyinashadowlevel.Furtherstudiesonthisissuearewelcomeinthefuture.35 AcknowledgementIttookmemonthstocompletethisthesis,startingfromageneralideatoadraft,thenafternumerousreeditingthefinalversionfinallytookshape.Theprocessofconductingthethesisisjustmythreeyears’lifeinNEAUinminiature.Icameherewithambition,developedmyownunderstandingaboutlifeandstudy,thenstudyandlifeexperienceschangedmyviews,andfinallyIwouldleavewithallIgotfromhere.Butneitherthethesisnormylifehereisanisolatedconduction.Iwouldliketotakethisopportunitytoextendmygratitudetothosepeoplewhoareimportanttome.First,manythanksgotomyrespectablesupervisor,Prof.ZhangJing.Hergracefulnessanderuditionareworthyofmyworshipinmywholelifetime.Sheisaguiderinacademyandfriendindailylife.Thankstoherpatientguidanceandkindtrust,Iamimprovedbothinacademicabilityandinlifeexperience.Iwouldliketothankotherteachersaswellwhogenerouslyteachmeandkindlytreatme.TheyareProfessorHuJiaying,LiXiaolan,LiLi,LiZhongxia,LiDeyi,MiSha,SongBaomei,WangXiaodong,WangXiaowei,andYangYali.Second,Iwouldliketothankmydearclassmatesandroommates.WithouttheircompanymylifeinNEAUwouldnotbecomplete.Ishallgivemyheartfeltthankstoallmembersinclass17,especiallythoseEnglishmajorsandmyroommates.ManythanksgotomydearZhangXiangqi,LuoLi,TaoXue,FengWei,WangXiaoyu,WangYingying,andLiuJia.Thetimespentwithyouguysistreasuretomylife.Iwillneverstoplovingyouandwishyouagreatfuture.Third,Iwouldextendmysincerethankstomyfamily.Withouttheunconditionalsupportfrommyfamily,Iwouldneverhavegonethisfar.Iwillspendmywholelifetoshowmygratitudeformyfamily.Finally,IwishNEAUabrighterfuture!36 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