創造力的解析

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CreativeProcessChao-MingChengDepartmentofPsychologyNationalTaiwanUniversity MihalyCsikszentmialyi(1999).Creativity:Flowandthepsychologyofdiscoveryandinvention.Chapter1:SettingthestageChapter2:Whereiscreativity?Chapter3:ThecreativepersonalityChapter4:TheworkofcreativityChapter5:TheflowofcreativityChapter6:Creativesurroundings Csikszentmihalyi(1996)andhisassociatesconductedinterviewswith91exceptionallycreativeindividualsbetween1991and1995forthreecriteria:1.Havemadeadifferencetoamajordomainofculture2.Stillactivelyinvolvedinthatdomain3.Hadtobeatleast60yearsold Figure1.1Theincreasingpaceofchange:twoexamples(reproducedwiththekindpermissionofDr.EdgarMitchell) 從人類的歷史來看，有關文化（包括文學與與藝術）的發展、文明的設計與科學的推動無一不涉及人類創造力的運作，而未來更將是一個「腦力」與「科技」競爭的時代。因此，創造力的研究極具重要性與前瞻性以此趨勢來看，它必將是本世紀最重要的研究領域之一。 Meanlocationofthethreecareerlandmarksfor2026contributorstoninescientificdisciplines.FromSimonton(1994).OthersEarthScienceTechnologyMedicineBiologyChemistryPhysicsAstronomyMathematics7570656055504540353025AgeDeathContributionsDiscipline+++++++++ CreativityWhatitlookslikeHowitworksHowitdevelopsWhoiscreativeWheredoesitcomefrom 創造力的解析1、創造力的定義2、創造的性格特徵3、創造的認知特徵3、創造力與情境因素4、創造性思考的特徵5、三個矛盾6、創造性思考的原則7、學校教育與創造力的培養 一、創造力的定義1.新奇性(Novelty)：產生新奇事物、理念或成果的能力。因此，其思考方式不是一般的、傳統的或習慣的思考方式2.適切性(Appropriateness)：思考的結果是適切的、有意義的、有價值的或對社會有益的 WhereisCreativity?Thereisnowaytoknowwhetherathoughtisnewexceptwithreferencetosomestandards(domain).Thereisnowaytotellwhetheritisvaluableuntilitpassessocialevaluation(field).Therefore,creativitydoesnothappeninsidepeople’sheads,butintheinteractionbetweenaperson’sthoughtsandasocioculturalcontext. Creativitycanbeobservedonlyintheinterrelationsofasystemmadeupofthreemainparts.Domain:asetofsymbolicrulesandprocedures.E.g.,mathematics,algebra,numbertheory.Domainareinturnnestedinwhatweusuallycallculture,orthesymbolicknowledgesharedbyaparticularsocietyorbyhumanityasawhole. 2.依賴豐富的過去知識Gardner（1993）:AlbertEinstein:logic-spatialabilitySigmundFreud:languageandhumannatureWeisberg（1995）PabloPicasso:Guernica(Basue)Watson與Crick（1952）:DNA雙股螺旋源於LinusPauling角質蛋白的螺旋結構TomasEdison:電燈的發明源於瓦斯燈與電弧燈 Field:Alltheindividualswhoactasgatekeeperstothedomain.Itistheirjobtodecidewhetheranewideaofproductshouldbeincludedinthedomain.E.g.,fieldofvisualart:artteachers,curatorsofmuseums,collectorsofart,critics,andadministratorsoffoundationsandgovernagenciesthatdealwithculture.Person:Someonewhosethoughtsoractionchangeadomainorestablishanewdomain(e.g.,GalileoorFreud).However,adomaincannotbechangedwithouttheexplicitorimplicitconsentofafieldresponsibleforit. SocialSystemFIELD(SocialOrganizationofDomainRetainsSelectedVariantsDOMAIN(symbolsystem)ProducesVariationandChangeTransmitsStructuredInformationandActionPERSONGeneticPoolandPersonalExperiencesCultureCsikszentmihalyi(1999)Whereisthecreativity?Cognitiveflexibility,Motivation,Anunusualandinspiringlifeexperience 2.VincentvanGoghbeganpaintingin1880.Hisadaptationsoftheimpressioniststylewereconsideredstrangeandeccentric,andhispersonallifewascomplicatedbyillnessandpoverty.Hesoldonlyonepaintingbeforehisdeathin1890(Fichner-Rathus,1986).BecausevanGogh’sworkswerenotacceptedbythepublicofhistime,weretheyinappropriate?Iftheyhadneverbeenaccepted,wouldtheyhavebeencreative?However,worksbyvanGoghthatwererejectedby19th-centuryaudiencesareconsideredmaster-piecestoday. Culturesdifferintheirconceptionsofthenatureofcreativityitself.Westerncultures:product-oriented,originality-basedEasterncultures:aprocessofindividualgrowthorself-actualization.InHinduism,creativityisseenasspiritualexpressionratherthaninnovationorproblemsolving.Timeandhistoryareseenascyclical.Tomaketraditionaltruthscomealivebyfindinganewinterpretation-ratherthanseekingtobreakwithtradition—isthefocusofcreativeactivity. IfEasterncreationcanbecharacterizedasacircularmovementinthesenseofsuccessfulreconfigurationofaninitialtotality,thentheWesternviewofbothcreationandhumancreativityseemstoinvolvealinearmovementtowardanewpoint. CreativityandCultureValuesItisinterestingtothinkaboutwhichareasinourculturearemosttiedtoourculturalvalues(inwhichcreativityisnotencouraged)andhowthatmayaffectouropennesstocreativity.e.g.,InBali,themoreserioustheartform,likesculpturesofgodsorritualdances,thelessthepermittedchange,andthelessserioustheartform,likecarvingsofkitchengods,thetheatricalperformancesofclowns,theplayingofinstrumentsortheweavingofcontainer,thegreatertheoriginalitycanbe. CreativePersonality1.Sternberg與Lubart（1992）勤奮工作願意冒險忍受模糊、複雜與不對稱2.人格特質：獨立性、不從眾、言行與思想不因襲傳統、具叛逆性、具憂鬱性格、善於變通、感到安寧與幸福、自我接受但缺乏自我控制、不太關心在別人面前是否有好印象 CreativePersonality(Csikszentmihalyi,1996):Finding:Experiencingtheexistenceofcontrastorparadox,e.g.,nurturingandprecarious,supportiveandmarginal.Thistypeofbimodalearlyexperience,providingbothsupportandchallenge,appearedtiedtolatercreativity.Complexity:Tendenciesofthoughtandactionthatinmostpeoplearesegregated. TenDimensionsofComplexity(Yin-Yangandparadoxicalpersonality)Agreatdealofphysicalenergy,butquietandatrest.Smart,butnaïveatthesametime.Playfulnessanddiscipline,orresponsibilityandirresponsibility.Alternatingbetweenimaginationandfantasy,atoneend,andarootedsenseofrealityattheother.ExtroversionandintroversionHumbleandproudatthesametime 7.Psychologicalandrogyny:masculinity/femininity;aggressiveandnurturant,sensitiveandrigid,dominantandsubmissive,regardlessofgender8.Rebellious/traditional-conventional9.Bothpassionateandobjective.10.Sufferingandpainyetalsoagreatdealofenjoyment. PersonalityCharacteristicsWillingnesstoTakeIntellectualRisks(tothinkthoughtsothersareunwillingtothinkorexpressideasthatareofthebeatenpath)(MacKinnon,1978).Creativerisktakingopensanindividualtocriticism,ridicule,orfeelingoffoolishness.E.g.,GregLouganis’s1990Olympicdiving.Perseverance,Drive,andCommitmenttoTask.Manyrisksinvolvefailureorless-than-completesuccessthatrequirescontinuing,persistentefforts.Willingnesstocontinueinthefaceofobstacles,tomaintainmotivationwithoutimmediatereward,andtosayfocusedonataskforlongperiodsoftime. Curiosity:wanttoknowwhy,how,andwhatOpennesstoExperienceToleranceforAmbiguity:Creativesolutionsrarelyspringfromfullblown.Moreoftentheyemergeoveraperiodoftimethatincludesmomentsofinsightandtimeofstruggle,persistence,andconfusion. BroadInterestsValueOriginalityIntuitionandDeepEmotions:MacKinnon(1978)Intuitiveorimplicitperception25%Generalpopulation90%Creativewriters92%Mathematicians93%Researchscientists100%Architects Theuseofintuition,combinedwithopennesstoemotionalexperience,canleadtoveryintenseemotionsoffeelingsbeingrealBeingInternallyOccupiedorWithdrawn:Quietloners,creativeactivitiesdemandsagreatdealofalonetime. TheIPARStudies(TheInstituteofPersonalityAssessmentandResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,1950-1970UndertheDirectionofDonaldMacKinnon)CreativePeopleIntelligent:willingtotakearisk,totry,andseewhatmightwork,ahighlevelofenergy,akindofcognitiveflexibility.Original:associatedwithfluencyofthought(manyideas). Independent:opentoexperience,bothoftheinnerselfandtheouterworld.Curious,receptive,andwillingtoearn.Intuitive:lookingforhiddenmeaningspotential,metaphors,implications,oralternateusesinthethings.Astrongsenseofdestiny Gardner(1993,1994)notedthreeadditionalthemesFirst,thematrixofsupportthatsurroundedthecreatorsatthetimeoftheircreativeactivitiesSecond,Faustianbargain:Madeenormoussacrificestotheirwork,sometimessacrificesinterpersonalrelationshipsThird,10-yearrule:ittook10yearstoproducecreativeproducts CognitiveCharacteristicsMetaphoricalThinking:Theabilitytofindparallelsbetweenunlikeideas.FlexibilityandSkillinDecisionMaking:Theabilitytolookatasituationfrommanypointsofviewortogeneratemanycategoriesofresponses.IndependenceinJudgment:Donotfeelcompelledtoseekapprovalfromothersorfollowthelatesttrends. CopingWellwithNoveltyLogicalThinkingSkills:Differentfromconventionalthinking.VisualizationEscapingEntrenchment:Escapeentrenchedthinking,impatientwithroutines,repetitiousassignments,orpracticeactivities.FindingOrderinChaos TheWorkofCreativity:Thefive-stageviewTheemergenceofproblems:Threesourcesa)PersonalexperiencesWeareaperverserace,onlysufferinginterestsus.Theexperiencesofscientistsarerelevanttotheproblemstheydealwith.b)RequirementsofthedomainWithinorcrossdomainsc)Socialpressures Thethirdsourceofideasandproblemsisthefieldoneworksin.2.PresentedandDiscoveredProblemsProblemfinding 3.問題發現（problemfinding）甚於問題解決（problemsolving）Einstein:newproblem,newpossibility,newangleofregardE.g.,replacingaflattedtireGetzels與Csikszentmihalyi（1972,1976）Paintingofarticlesselectedfrom27things TheWallas(1926)FourStepsforCreativityPreparationIncubationIlluminationVerificationTheTorranceandtheParnes-OsbornModel PREPARATIONProblemdefined:ClearobstacleorspecificgoalInformationfromdomainINCUBATIONParallelprocessingINSIGHTSolutiontoproblemenvisionedEVALUATIONSolutionattemptedorappliedInteractionwithfieldInformationfromdifferentdomainsPREPARATIONProblematicsituation:vague,unease,diffusegoalINCUBATIONSynthesisofdifferentinputsprocessedinparallelINSIGHTFormulationofproblemenvisionedELABORATIONANDEVALUATIONConsequencesofproblemderivedandtested,solutionsandapplicationattemptedInteractionwithdifferentfieldsPresentedProblemDiscoveredProblemCsikszentmihalyi&Sawyer(1993) 3.TheMysteriousTimeThefunctionsofidletime(incubation)Thefield,thedomain,andtheunconsciousEvenintheunconsciousthesymbolsystemandthesocialenvironmentplayimportantroles.4.The“Aha”Experience5.The99PercentPerspiration Torrance(1988)SensingproblemsordifficultiesMakingguessesorhypothesesabouttheproblemsEvaluatingthehypotheses,andpossiblyrevisingthemCommunicatingtheresultsTheParnes-OsbornModel,revisedbyTreffinger,Isaksen,&Dorval(2000) GeneratingIdeasAppraisingTasks(open-ended)GENERATINGIDEASDesigningProcessPLANNINGYOURPPROACHConstructingOpportunitiesExploringDataFramingProblemsExploringDataFramingProblemsDevelopingSolutionsBuildingAcceptance(1)UNDERSTANDINGTHECHALLENGEPREPARINGFORACTIONCreativeProblemSolving(CPS)Components(Treffinger,Isaksen,&Dorval,2000)Constructing0pportunitiesUsingtheknowledgetoselecttheCPScomponentsorstagesTheproblemofthelackofavailableparkinginthecampus(2)(3) A.UNDERSTANDINGTHECHALLENGING(involvesinvestigatingabroadgoal,opportunity,orchallenge)1.ConstructingOpportunities:“Iwanttoimprovetheparkingsituationoncampus”2.ExploringData:Gatheringdataabutthenumberofspacesavailable,thenumberofclassesheldatvarioustimesofday. 3.FramingProblems:BuildmoreparkinglotsCreatemoreparkingspacesoncampus?Limitthenumberofstudentsparkingoncampus?Limitthenumberofvehiclesoncampus?Matchthenumberofvehiclestothenumberofspacesavailable?Providestudentswholiveoutsidewalkingdistanceeasyaccesstocampus? B.GENERATINGIDEASIdeasaregeneratedfortheselectedproblemstatement(s)usingavarietyoftoolsforproducingdivergentideasC.PREPARINGFORACTIONExploringwaystomakethepromisingoptionsintoworkablesolutions—translatingideasintoaction. 1.DevelopingSolutions:Appliesdeliberatestrategiesandtoolstoanalyze,refine,andselectamongideas.Developingsolutionswillentailusingcriteriatosystematicallyevaluateeachoftheproposedideas.Howmuchwoulditcost?Isitlegal?Isthetechnologyavailable?Woulditbeconvenientforstudents?Woulditbeconvenientforstaff?Woulditbeacceptabletotheuniversityadministration? Chapter5TheFlowofCreativityTheconceptofflow:thestateinwhichpeoplearesoinvolvedinanactivitythatnothingelseseemstomatter;theexperienceitselfissoenjoyablethatpeoplewilldoitevenatgreatcost,forthesheersakeofdoingit(Csikszentmihalyi,1990).Happiness,infact,isaconditionthatmustbepreparedfor,cultivated,anddefendedprivatelybyeachperson.Activitieswerenotrandombutgoal-directedactivitiesthatdemandedsometypeofenergyandskill.Optimalmatchbetweenchallengeandskill.Discoveryisapleasureexperience,stimulatingbrain’spleasurecenter. Chapter6.CreativeSurroundingsGreatCentersofLearningandCommerce(forinsight)Onemustbeinapositiontoaccessthedomaininwhichoneplanstowork.Informationisclumpedindifferentgeographicalnodes.Certainenvironmentshaveagreaterdensityofinteractionandprovidemoreexcitementandagreatereffervescenceofideas.Accesstothefieldisnotevenlydistributedinspace.Oftensuddenavailabilityofmoneyatacertainplaceattractsartistsorscientiststoanotherbarrenenvironment. InspiringEnvironments(adelightfulsetting)CreatingCreativeEnvironments(placesandinstitutions)(forpreparationandevaluation)Preparationandevaluationbenefitfromfamiliar,comfortablesettingsandsocialinteraction(sharingthoughts,experimentingwithideas,andaskingquestionsofpeersareimportantpartsofindividualcreativity).PatterningActivitiesreflectingyourneedsandyourtastes. 四、創造力與情境因素Isen,Dauban與Nowicki（1987）Effectsofcomedicmoviesoncandle-problemsolvingandRATMozart’sexperiencesEdison Examinedbiographiesofeminent19th-centurycreatorsacrossdomainsHighlycreativeindividualsaremorelikelytobefirstbornandtohavelostoneorbothparentsearlyinlife.Theyarerearedinstimulating,diversified,andenrichinghomeenvironments,exposedtoawiderangeofideas.Theylikedschool,enjoyedbooks,hadmanyhobbies,andlearnedoutsideofschool. Whereassomereportwarm,supportivepeergroups,othersreportsomemarginalityinsocialsituationsComefromhomeswithclearexpectationsbutfewrules,thattheirparentshavewell-establishedinterests,andthattheyhavemorechildhoodtraumasthanless-creativestudents. AssociationandCreativity:Mednick’sAssociativeTheoryIntelligenceandCreativity:ThresholdTheoryBelow120IQ,HighlycorrelatedLargerthan120IQ,weakcorrelatedPerkins(1981,1988,1994)Self-reports,memory,andhonestyofcreativeindividualsarequestionable. Perkinsalsoexaminedtheeffectivenessofphysicalevidenceofthehistoryofacreativeeffort(e.g.,Picasso’sGuernica)Immediateself-reportsaremorereliable.Perkinsdidnotfindevidenceforincubation;heviewedthecreativeprocessashavingmadeupofordinarymentalprocessesusedinextraordinaryways.Thekeytocreativityisnottheprocessbutthepurpose. Weisberg(1986,1988,1993,1999)Hequestionedtheideaofcreativeleapsorflashesofinsightbycitingresearchinwhichsolutionstoproblemscome,notinasuddenchangeofdirection,butingradualincrementsbasedonexperience.GuernicaBeethoven’sNinthSymphonyDNACreativitydoesn’texists,atleastnotasauniqueprocess. Creativitymayemergefromtheinteractionofanindividual’spastexperiencesandtheproblemathand.Creativitymightbecomparedtotheproverbialstrawthatbrokethecamel’sback.Creativitycanbeenhancedintwobasicways:increasingexpertiseandincreasingcommitmentandpersistence.Anewideamaynotseemnewatall,butmaymerelybealogicalextensionofexistingideas. Ward,Smith,andVaid(1997)Fourgeneralcategoriesofcreativecognition:Conceptualcombination:bridgingtogetherofdiverseideasinnewwaysConceptualexpansion:Stretchingofexistingconceptstoaccommodatenewexperiencesorchallenges,orinventionsbasedonpreviousexperience.Metaphors,analogies,andmentalmodelsuseexistingideastounderstand,interpret,orextendseeminglydiverseconcepts.Insight,imagery,andresponsetorecentlyactivatedknowledge TheSternbergandLubart(1991,1993)InvestmentModelBuylow(pursueideasthatarenoveloroutoffavor)andsellhigh(thenconvincethefieldofthevalueofthoseideas.Oncetheideasgainfavor,theyallowotherstopursuethemwhiletheygoontopursueotherendeavors).Sixtypesofinteractingresourcescontributetocreativeperformance:intellectualprocesses,knowledge,intellectualstyle,personality,motivation,andenvironmentalcontext(TriarchicTheoryofIntelligence).Theroleofknowledgeincreativeperformanceisanupside-downU. 五、創造性思考的特徵1.高智力特質？Sternberg,Conway,Ketson與Bernstein（1981）專家把「創造力」看成是「語文智力」的一部分。創造力與頓悟是智力的重要成分Guilford創造力是一種「擴散性思考」Getzels與Jackson（1962）創造力與智力無關 Barron(1963);Gardner（1993）IQ<90r=.8890130r=－.09Sack（1995）自閉症兒童在視覺藝術上的創造力 RemoteAssociationTest（RAT）（Mednick&Mednick,1967）e.g.1RIVERNOTEBLOODe.g.2BOARDDUCKDOLLARe.g.3FILEHEADTOEMednick與Mednick（1967）RAT分數預測化學工廠的研究人員、研究生與IBM技術人員的創造力表現Andrews（1975）與Baron（1988）RAT不穩定 2.依賴豐富的過去知識Gardner（1993）:AlbertEinstein:logic-spatialabilitySigmundFreud:languageandhumannatureWeisberg（1995）PabloPicasso:Guernica(Basue)Watson與Crick（1952）:DNA雙股螺旋源於LinusPauling角質蛋白的螺旋結構TomasEdison:電燈的發明源於瓦斯燈與電弧燈 類比思考（analogicalthinking）（Dunbar,1994）局部類比（localanalogy）區域類比（regionalanalogy）e.g.1.WeberandPerkins（1992）心臟導管手術與水電工人的輸通水管原理一樣e.g.2.Archimedes的排水解題 3.問題發現（problemfinding）甚於問題解決（problemsolving）Einstein:newproblem,newpossibility,newangleofregardE.g.,replacingaflattedtireGetzels與Csikszentmihalyi（1972,1976）Paintingofarticlesselectedfrom27things 4.不是既存知識的再生（reproduction），而是既存知識的重組（restructuring）Weisberg（1995）:RestructureofpastPicasso的畫LesDemoisellesCalder的雕塑Pollock的潑色畫風二元聯想（bissociation）（Koestler,1964）兩個思想或理念，原來是無關的，最後被連結成為相關，而產生創造e.g.1:潮汐與月球的運動e.g.2:Gutenberg印刷術的發明:seal,winepress T.M.Amabile(1989)DOMAINSKILLSCREATIVETHINKINGANDWORKINGSKILLSe.g.,lookingsituationsfrommanypointsofview,usingmetaphors,problemfindingINTRINSICMOTIVATIONFeelmotivatedbytheinterest,enjoyment,challenge,andsatisfactionoftheworkitself 六、三個矛盾1.矛盾1:創造性思考的歷程即是特殊的，又是一般的2.矛盾2:創造性歷程強調既存知識的影響，也在強調抗拒既有知識的影響3.矛盾3:竭盡心智與努力苦思一個問題的解決往往妨害創意的產生，降低注意與動機反而有助於創意的產生 七、創造性思考的原則1.警覺習慣想法的限制2.突破習慣的想法3.重新知覺與理解問題4.不輕易否決不可行的理念5.嘗試並列並尋求兩個看似無關的理念6.在可行的想法中旁出新的想法7.側翼思考 謝謝收聽 1.In1905anunknownclerkintheSwisspatentofficepublishedapaperinwhichheadvocatedabandoningtheideaofabsolutetime.Thisfundamentalpostulateofthetheoryofrelativity(therelationshipbetweentime,size,andmass,whicharesaidtochangewithincreasedspeed)suggestedthatthelawsofscienceshouldbethesameforallobservers,regardlessofspeed.Theclerk’snamewasAlbertEinstein(Hawkins,1988). 3.Infirstgrade,Michellewasgivenanoutlineofagiantshark’smouthonaworksheetthatasked,“Whatwillourfishyfriendeatnext?Shedutifullycoloredseveralfishandboats,andthenwrotethefollowingexplanation.“OncetherewasasharknamedPeppy.Onedayheatethreefish,onejellyfish,andtwoboats.Beforeheatethejellyfishhemadeapeanutbutterandjellyfishsandwich. 4.At19,Juanwashomelessandaseniorinhighschool.Onecoldeveninghethoughtthatawarmspaceinsidetheschoolwouldbeamoreappealingsleepingplacethanhecouldsee.Gettingintothebuildingwasnoproblem,butoncehewasinside,amotiondetectorwouldmakehimimmediatelydetectabletotheguardonthefloorbelow.Juanenteredastorageroomandcarefullydislodgedapileofbaseballbats.Theguardattributedthemotiondetector’soutbursttothefallingbatsandJuansleptuntilmorning. Newtowhom?IfaresearchattheUniversityofMichiganworksforyearstoengineeragenetransfertocureaparticulardiseaseonlytodiscoverthataresearcheratStanfordpublishedthesametechniquesonly2weeksbefore,istheMichiganresearcher’sworknolongercreative?Forsomeresearchers,onlyideasthatarenewtoaparticulardisciplineorculturearedesignatedcreative.Alternatively,tobeconsideredcreative,aproductorideamustbeoriginalornoveltotheindividualcreator. Appropriateness?IfIamaskedthetimeandIreply,“Thecowjumpedoverthecomputeryesterday,”myresponsewouldcertainlybenovel.WasJuan’slate-nightentrancetotheschoolappropriate?BecausevanGogh’sworkswerenotacceptedbythepublicofhistime,weretheyinappropriate?Iftheyhadneverbeenaccepted,wouldtheyhavebeencreative?However,worksbyvanGoghthatwererejectedby19th-centuryaudiencesareconsideredmaster-piecestoday. Whichbehaviorsarecreativeornotcreative?Inthemidstofadiscussionofplants,6-year-oldToshioraiseshishand.“Doyouthinktheplantswouldgrowtallerandstrongerif,insteadofwateringthem,wemilkedthem?Janedressedforthefirstdayofeighthgradeinlongunderwearwithablackhalf-slipoverthetop,apurplesatinblouse,andgrapeshangingasearrings. Mariawrotethebestessayonfederalismherteacherhadeverseen.Itwasclear,welldocumented,andthorough,includingimplicationsoffederalismseldomconsideredbyhighschoolstudents.Eduardo’sfirst-gradeclasshasbeentaughttosubtractbytakingawaythedesignatednumber.Therearenumerousmanipulativesavailableforstudents’use.Eduardorefusestousethemethodhehasbeentaught.Instead,heusedhisfingerstocountupfromthesmallertothelargernumber(minmodel). Samiswearingabaseballcaponhatday.Unbeknowntohisteacher,hehasinstalledamirrorunderthebrim.Whenthehatiscockedatthecorrectangle,hecanseethedesknexttohis.Thiswillbehandyduringthesixth-periodquiz.SusanisaskedtoillustrateascenefromthebiographyofFrederickDouglassbeingreadbyhersecond-gradeteacher.HavingheardthathetraveledthroughEnglandandWales,shedrawsFrederickDouglasswalkingacrossarowofsmilingwhales. Max’smusicclasshasbeengiventheassignmentofcomposingashortpieceinthestudyofoneoftheclassicalcomposerstheyhavestudiedtodate.MaxcreatesarapaboutBeethoven’shair(anditslackofstyle)usingtherhythmsofBeethoven’sFifthSymphony.Tzeenaisknownforhercaricatures.DuringEnglishclassshehasattimespassedaroundsketchesinwhichshehasdrawnherteacher’sheadattachedtothebodyofanostrich. Whydopeoplecreate?Individualsexercisedcreativethinkingnotonlytocommunicate,buttofindandtosolveproblemsIthinkIteachpeoplehowtofindmeaning.Iwriteaboutthemostchaotic,tragic,had-to-deal-withevents,andtheseeventsaresometimessoviolentandsohorriblethattheyburstthroughbundsofformandpreconceptions.I’mhopingthatreaderswillfindhowtogetthemeaningoutoftheseevents.Howdoyoufindbeautyandorderwhenwe’vehadthisbloodyhorriblepast?(MaxineHongKingston,inMoyers,1990,p.11) Idrewthemseveraltimesandtherewasnofeelinginthem.Thenafterwards—afterIhavedonetheonesthatweresostiff--cametheothers…HowithappensthatIcanexpresssomethingofthatkind?BecausethethinghasalreadytakenforminmymindbeforeIstartonit.Thefirstattemptsareabsolutelyunbearable.IsaythisbecauseIwantyoutoknowthatifyouseesomethingworthwhileinwhatIamdoing,itisnotbyaccidentbutbecauseofrealintentionandpurpose.(VincentvanGogh,inGhiselin,1985,p.47) In1873,ChesterGreenwoodreceivedapairoficeskatesforhis15thbirthday.Unfortunately,Chesterwasunabletoenjoytheskates,becauseeachtimeheventuredontheice,thechillFarmington,Maine,airmadehissensitiveearsuncomfortableenoughthathewasforcedindoors.TheearmuffsChesterdesignedtosolvethisproblemweresoldacrossNewEnglandbythetimeChesterwas19(Caney,1985) In1924Kimberly-ClarkbegantomarketCellucottonsheetsasdisposableclothesforremovingmakeup.In1929theypatentedthepop-upboxandrenamedtheproductKleenex.Saleswerestillonlymoderate.AmarketingsurveyrevealedthatoverhalfthepeoplepurchasingKleenexwereusingthem,nottoremovemakeup,butasdisposablehandkerchiefs.Anewmarketingstrategyandslogan,“Don’tputacoldinyourpocket,”ledtoa400%salesincreasein2years(Caney,1985)Problemsolvingprecededbyproblemfinding(Getzels&Csikszentmihalyi,1976) TheoriesandModelsofCreativityWhenIam,asitwere,completelymyself,entirelyalone,andofgoodcheer—say,travelinginacarriage,orwalkingafteragoodmeal,orduringthenightwhenIcannotsleep;itisonsuchoccasionsthatmyideasflowbestandmostabundantly.Whenceandhowtheycome,Iknownot;norcanIforcethem…NordoIhearinmyimaginationthepartssuccessively,butIhearthem,asitwere,allatonce.WhatadelightthisisIcannottell!Allthisinventing,thisproducing,takingplaceinapleasinglivelydream…ThisisperhapsthebestgiftIhavemyDivineMakertothankfor.(WolfgangAmadeusMozart,inGhiselin,1985,pp34-35) Generallyspeaking,thegermofafuturecompositioncomessuddenlyandunexpectedly.Ifthesoilisready—thatistosayifthedispositiontoworkisthere—ittakesrootwithextraordinaryforceandrapidity---Inthemidstofthismagicprocessitfrequentlyhappensthatsomeexternalinterruptionwakesmefrommysomnambulisticstate:aringatthebell,theentranceofmyservant,thestrikingofaclock…Dreadful,indeed,aresuchinterruptions.Sometimestheybreakthethreadofinspirationforaconsiderabletime…Insuchcasescoolheadworkandtechnicalknowledgehavetocometomyaid. Evenintheworksofthegreatestmasterwefindsuchmoments,whentheorganicsequencefailsandaskillfuljoinhastobemade…Butitcannotbeavoided.Ifthatconditionofmindandsoul,whichwecallinspiration,lastedlongwithoutintermission,noartistcouldsurviveit.(PeterIlichTchaikovsky,inVernon,1975,pp57-58)