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1、TheProblemsofPhilosophyBertrandRussellPREFACEInthefollowingpagesIhaveconfinedmyselfinthemaintothoseproblemsofphilosophyinregardtowhichIthoughtitpossibletosaysomethingpositiveandconstructive,sincemerelynegativecriticismseemedoutofplace.Forthisreason,theoryofknowledgeoccupiesalargerspacethanmetaph
2、ysicsinthepresentvolume,andsometopicsmuchdiscussedbyphilosophersaretreatedverybriefly,ifatall.IhavederivedvaluableassistancefromunpublishedwritingsofG.E.MooreandJ.M.Keynes:fromtheformer,asregardstherelationsofsense-datatophysicalobjects,andfromthelatterasregardsprobabilityandinduction.Ihavealsop
3、rofitedgreatlybythecriticismsandsuggestionsofProfessorGilbertMurray.1912CHAPTERIAPPEARANCEANDREALITYIsthereanyknowledgeintheworldwhichissocertainthatnoreasonablemancoulddoubtit?Thisquestion,whichatfirstsightmightnotseemdifficult,isreallyoneofthemostdifficultthatcanbeasked.Whenwehaverealizedtheob
4、staclesinthewayofastraightforwardandconfidentanswer,weshallbewelllaunchedonthestudyofphilosophy,forphilosophyismerelytheattempttoanswersuchultimatequestions,notcarelesslyanddogmatically,aswedoinordinarylifeandeveninthesciences,butcritically,afterexploringallthatmakessuchquestionspuzzling,andafte
5、rrealizingallthevaguenessandconfusionthatunderlieourordinaryideas.Indailylife,weassumeascertainmanythingswhich,onacloserscrutiny,arefoundtobesofullofapparentcontradictionsthatonlyagreatamountofthoughtenablesustoknowwhatitisthatwereallymaybelieve.Inthesearchforcertainty,itisnaturaltobeginwithourp
6、resentexperiences,andinsomesense,nodoubt,knowledgeistobederivedfromthem.Butanystatementastowhatitisthatourimmediateexperiencesmakeusknowisverylikelytobewrong.ItseemstomethatIamnowsittinginachair,atatableofacertainshape,onwhichIseesheetsofpaperwithwritingorprint.ByturningmyheadIseeoutofthewindowb
7、uildingsandcloudsandthesun.Ibelievethatthesunisaboutninety-threemillionmilesfromtheearth;thatitisahotglobemanytimesbiggerthantheearth;that,owingtotheearth'srotation,itriseseverymorning,andwillcontinuetodosoforanindefinitetim
