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1、HOFSTEDE:CulturesAndOrganizations-SoftwareoftheMindCultureasmentalprogrammingInWesternlanguages'culture'commonlymeans'civilization'or'refinementofthemind'andinparticulartheresultsofsuchrefinement,likeeducation,art,andliterature.Thisis'cultureinthenarrowsense;'cultureone'Cultureasmentalsoftware,h
2、owever,correspondstoamuchbroaderuseofthewordwhichiscommonamongsocialanthropologists:thisis‘culturetwo’.Insocialanthropology,'culture'isacatchwordforallthosepatternsofthinking,feeling,andactingreferredtointhepreviousparagraphs.Notonlythoseactivitiessupposedtorefinethemindareincludedin'culturetwo'
3、,butalsotheordinaryandmenialthingsinlife:greeting,eating,showingornotshowingfeelings,keepingacertainphysicaldistancefromothers,makinglove,ormaintainingbodyhygiene.CULTUREItisthecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthemembersofonegrouporcategoryofpeoplefromanother.Itisacollectivephenom
4、enon,becauseitisatleastpartlysharedwithpeoplewholiveorlivedwithinthesamesocialenvironment,whichiswhereitwaslearned.Cultureislearned,notinherited.Itderivesfromone'ssocialenvironment,notfromone'sgenes.Cultureshouldbedistinguishedfromhumannatureononeside,andfromanindividual'spersonalityontheother:1
5、Culturalrelativismtherearenoscientificstandardsforconsideringonegroupasintrinsicallysuperiororinferiortoanother.'Culturalrelativismaffirmsthatoneculturehasnoabsolutecriteriaforjudgingtheactivitiesofanothercultureas"low"or"noble".Symbols,heroes,rituals,andvaluesCulturaldifferencesmanifestthemselv
6、esinseveralways-symbols,heroes,rituals,andvalues.The‘oniondiagram’:ManifestationsofcultureatdifferentlevelsofdepthSymbolsarewords,gestures,picturesorobjectsthatcarryaparticularmeaningwhichisonlyrecognizedbythosewhosharetheculture.Thewordsinalanguageorjargonbelongtothiscategory,asdodress,hairstyl
7、es,Coca-Cola,flags.Newsymbolsareeasilydevelopedandoldonesdisappear.Heroesarepersons,aliveordead,realorimaginary,whopossesscharacteristicswhicharehighlyprizedinaculture,andwhothusserveasmodelsforbehavior.SnoopyintheUSA,Asteri
