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1、一．经不起推敲的类推（falseanalogy）ThisargumentreliesonwhatmightbeafalseanalogybetweenAandBC.（开头）InorderforBCtoserveasmodelsthatAshouldemulate,thearguermustassumethatallrelevantcircumstancesinvolvedareessentiallythesame.(环境、背景不同)However,thisassumptionisunwarranted.（过渡）Forexa
2、mple,theargumentoverlooksthepossibilitythat…..Perhaps…..（列举各种可能性）Thearguersimplyassumesthat…..buthedoesnotprovideanyevidencethat……areindeedcomparable.Asweknow,the…and…differconspicuously.Itistruethatboth…...butevenhereexistfundamentaldifferences:….（两种东西本身不同）Theref
3、ore,eventhoughthe….provedeffectivein…..,thereisnoguaranteethatitwillworkjustaswellfor…..（结尾）二将因果关系与单纯的关联关系或时间关系混淆起来（confusecausalrelationshipwithcorrelation）TheargumentconcludedbasedonaknowncorrelationbetweenAandB.Yetthecorrelationaloneisonlyascantevidenceofthecla
4、imed“cause-and–effect”relationship.Perhaps…..Moreover,theargumentoverlooksthefactthat….Thearguerhasnotaccountedforthepossibilitythat….Ifthisisthecase,thantheconclusionwouldlackanymeritwhatsoever.三．认为一个群体的特征适用于该群体的所有成员四．认为某条件是某结果的必要和/或充足条件1.要想取得理想的结果就必须按照这种（推荐的）行为去
5、做2.按照这种（推荐的）行为去捉就足以去的理想的结果a)Therecommendationdependsontheassumptionthatnoalternativemeansof…areavailable.Yetnoevidenceisofferedtosubstantiatethisassumption.Admitittedly,…..However,itisentirelypossiblethatmeansotherthanthiswouldalsoachievethedesiredresult.（指出替代选项的存
6、在）Perhapsthedesiredimprovementcouldbeachievedif…..（列举替代选项）Withoutconsideringandrulingouttheseandotheralternativemeansof….,thearguercannotconfidentlyconcludethat…..mustdo…inordertoachievethegoal.（收尾）b)Therecommendationdependsontheadditionalunsubstantiatedassumption
7、that…..wouldbyitselfimprove……(指出不一定能达到目标)Absentevidencethatthisisthecase,itisequallypossiblethat…..Thus,withoutbetterevidencethat……,theargumentremainsunconvincing.（列举可能性一）Evenassumingthat….,thearguerprovidesnoclearevidencethat…..Themerefactthat….hardlysufficestopr
8、ove…….,atleastnotwithoutmoreinformationabout….（让步，列举可能性二）Evenif…..,perhapsadditionalmeasures—suchas…..—wouldalsoberequiredinordertoachieve….objectives.(
