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1、一．经不起推敲的类推（falseanalogy）ThisargumentreliesonwhatmightbeafalseanalogybetweenAandBC.（开头）InorderforBCtoserveasmodelsthatAshouldemulate,thearguermustassumethatallrelevantcircumstancesinvolvedareessentiallythesame.(环境、背景不同)However,thisassumptionisunwarran
2、ted.（过渡）Forexample,theargumentoverlooksthepossibilitythat…..Perhaps…..（列举各种可能性）Thearguersimplyassumesthat…..buthedoesnotprovideanyevidencethat……areindeedcomparable.Asweknow,the…and…differconspicuously.Itistruethatboth…...butevenhereexistfundamentaldi
3、fferences:….（两种东西本身不同）Therefore,eventhoughthe….provedeffectivein…..,thereisnoguaranteethatitwillworkjustaswellfor…..（结尾）二将因果关系与单纯的关联关系或时间关系混淆起来（confusecausalrelationshipwithcorrelation）TheargumentconcludedbasedonaknowncorrelationbetweenAandB.Yettheco
4、rrelationaloneisonlyascantevidenceoftheclaimed“cause-and–effect”relationship.Perhaps…..Moreover,theargumentoverlooksthefactthat….Thearguerhasnotaccountedforthepossibilitythat….Ifthisisthecase,thantheconclusionwouldlackanymeritwhatsoever.三．认为一个群体的特征适用
5、于该群体的所有成员四．认为某条件是某结果的必要和/或充足条件1.要想取得理想的结果就必须按照这种（推荐的）行为去做2.按照这种（推荐的）行为去捉就足以去的理想的结果a)Therecommendationdependsontheassumptionthatnoalternativemeansof…areavailable.Yetnoevidenceisofferedtosubstantiatethisassumption.Admitittedly,…..However,itisentirelypo
6、ssiblethatmeansotherthanthiswouldalsoachievethedesiredresult.（指出替代选项的存在）Perhapsthedesiredimprovementcouldbeachievedif…..（列举替代选项）Withoutconsideringandrulingouttheseandotheralternativemeansof….,thearguercannotconfidentlyconcludethat…..mustdo…inordertoa
7、chievethegoal.（收尾）b)Therecommendationdependsontheadditionalunsubstantiatedassumptionthat…..wouldbyitselfimprove……(指出不一定能达到目标)Absentevidencethatthisisthecase,itisequallypossiblethat…..Thus,withoutbetterevidencethat……,theargumentremainsunconvincing.（列举
8、可能性一）Evenassumingthat….,thearguerprovidesnoclearevidencethat…..Themerefactthat….hardlysufficestoprove…….,atleastnotwithoutmoreinformationabout….（让步，列举可能性二）Evenif…..,perhapsadditionalmeasures—suchas…..—wouldalsoberequiredinordertoachieve….objectives.(
