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1、一.经不起推敲的类推(falseanalogy)ThisargumentreliesonwhatmightbeafalseanalogybetweenAandBC.(开头)InorderforBCtoserveasmodelsthatAshouldemulate,thearguermustassumethatallrelevantcircumstancesinvolvedareessentiallythesame.(环境、背景不同)However,thisassumptionisunwarranted.
2、(过渡)Forexample,theargumentoverlooksthepossibilitythat…..Perhaps…..(列举各种可能性)Thearguersimplyassumesthat…..buthedoesnotprovideanyevidencethat……areindeedcomparable.Asweknow,the…and…differconspicuously.Itistruethatboth…...butevenhereexistfundamentaldifference
3、s:….(两种东西本身不同)Therefore,eventhoughthe….provedeffectivein…..,thereisnoguaranteethatitwillworkjustaswellfor…..(结尾)二将因果关系与单纯的关联关系或时间关系混淆起来(confusecausalrelationshipwithcorrelation)TheargumentconcludedbasedonaknowncorrelationbetweenAandB.Yetthecorrelationalo
4、neisonlyascantevidenceoftheclaimed“cause-and–effect”relationship.Perhaps…..Moreover,theargumentoverlooksthefactthat….Thearguerhasnotaccountedforthepossibilitythat….Ifthisisthecase,thantheconclusionwouldlackanymeritwhatsoever.三.认为一个群体的特征适用于该群体的所有成员四.认为某条件
5、是某结果的必要和/或充足条件1.要想取得理想的结果就必须按照这种(推荐的)行为去做2.按照这种(推荐的)行为去捉就足以去的理想的结果a)Therecommendationdependsontheassumptionthatnoalternativemeansof…areavailable.Yetnoevidenceisofferedtosubstantiatethisassumption.Admitittedly,…..However,itisentirelypossiblethatmeansother
6、thanthiswouldalsoachievethedesiredresult.(指出替代选项的存在)Perhapsthedesiredimprovementcouldbeachievedif…..(列举替代选项)Withoutconsideringandrulingouttheseandotheralternativemeansof….,thearguercannotconfidentlyconcludethat…..mustdo…inordertoachievethegoal.(收尾)b)Ther
7、ecommendationdependsontheadditionalunsubstantiatedassumptionthat…..wouldbyitselfimprove……(指出不一定能达到目标)Absentevidencethatthisisthecase,itisequallypossiblethat…..Thus,withoutbetterevidencethat……,theargumentremainsunconvincing.(列举可能性一)Evenassumingthat….,thea
8、rguerprovidesnoclearevidencethat…..Themerefactthat….hardlysufficestoprove…….,atleastnotwithoutmoreinformationabout….(让步,列举可能性二)Evenif…..,perhapsadditionalmeasures—suchas…..—wouldalsoberequiredinordertoachieve….objectives.(