陈新仁英语语言学实用教程课后答案

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1ᫀCheckyourunderstandingStatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.(1)Thereisuniversalagreementabouttheoriginoflanguage.ூᫀ௃F(2)Petdogscanspeakhumanlanguage.ூᫀ௃F(3)Allhumaninfantscanspeaksomelanguage.ூᫀ௃F(4)Bycreativitywemeanthecreativeuseoflanguageasoftenpracticedbypoets.ூᫀ௃F(5)Withdifferentculturestherewillbedifferentlanguages.ூᫀ௃F(6)Notallusesoflanguagearemeanttoconveynewinformation.ூᫀ௃TIn-ClassActivities1.-LanguageII,like-yuyanIIinChinese,isusedfordifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts,asshownbelow:a.Chineseisalanguage.b.Linguisticsisthesystematicstudyoflanguage.e.BothJaneandJohnlikeShakespeare'slanguage.d.thelanguageofbeesAsk(1)Whatdoes-languageIImeanineachofthecontexts?Key:a.anaturallanguage;languageinparticular.b.ahuman-specifictoolforcommunication;languageingeneral.c.individualstyleoflanguageuse.d.ametaphoricalwayofreferringtobees'systemofcommunication.(2)Isthereanyothercontextinwhichtheuseofthewordmeanssomethingelse?Key:Yes.Example:languageforthecomputerlikeC+.2.Thereisawell-knownstoryintheBiblethatreflectstheimportanceoflanguageinhumansociety.AccordingtotheOldTestament,mankindspokeonlyonelanguageuntilNimrodbegantobuildatowerthatwastoreachheaven.TheLordsaid,-Behold,theyareonepeople,andtheyhaveallonelanguage,andnothingthattheyproposetodowillnowbeimpossibleforthem.Come,letusgodown,andthereconfusetheirlanguage,thattheymaynotunderstandeachother'sspeech.IIAsk(1)Whatiftherewerenolanguage?Key:Iftherewerenolanguage,humanbeingscouldnotcommunicatewitheachother,theexperienceofgreatpersonsandtheprocessofhistorycouldnotbedocumented.Allinall,withoutlanguage,thesocietycannotmoveforward.(2)Whatiftherewereonlyonelanguagetheworldover?Key:Itwouldbemuchmoreconvenientforhumanbeingstocommunicatewitheachother;however,ontheotherhand,therecouldnotbesuchaprosperousdevelopmentofdifferentcultures.(3)WhatcanwelearnfromthisBiblestory?Key:Languageispowerfulasatoolofhumancommunication.3.Thecourseoflinguisticsisaimedatbringingourconsciousattentiontolanguage,somethingwithwhichweareveryfamiliarandwhich,paradoxically,wefindstrange.Forinstance,languageissaidtobecreative.Considerthefollowing

1twostatements:

2a.Ilearnedanewwordyesterday.b.Ilearnedanewsentenceyesterday.Ask(1)Doyouthinkthetwostatementsareequallyprobable,andifnot,whynot?Key:(a)ismorelikelythan(b),sinceasthebasicunitofmeaning,thewordcanoccurindependentlyinlanguageisfiniteinnumber,whereasascomposedofwords,thesentence,thoughisalmostinfiniteinnumber,ismadepossiblebyourknowledgeofvocabularyandgrammar.Wecanalwaysproduceandunderstandsentencesthatwenevercomeacrossbefore.Inthatsense,nosentenceisabsolutelynew.(2)Inwhatcontextdowemakethesecondstatement?Key:Whenwefocusourattentiononthemeaningofasentenceorwhenweareconcernedwiththeformofasentenceasfoundinalanguageclass.4.ThefollowingEnglishwordsarewhatwecallonomatopoeicwords,wordsthatarecharacterizedbyanaturalcorrespondencebetweentheirphysicalproperty(likesoundorform)andtheircontentormeaning:bang;bark;crash;hissAsk(1)ArethereonomatopoeicwordsinChinese?Key:Yes.e.g.“ᖾ”ஹ“ᡫ”ஹ“ᗌᘽ”.(2)Doestheexistenceofonomatopoeicwordsoverthrowtheclaimthatlanguageisarbitrary?Key:No.Onomatopoeicwordsaccountforaverylimitedpercentageinthevocabularyofalanguage5.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagedoesnotsuggestthatindividualscanusealanguagearbitrarily.Infact,oncethemembersofacommunityagreeonthemeaningofwords,theyaresupposedtoabidebytheconvention.Lookatthefollowingcartoon:Ask(1)Canonereallyinventalanguageofone'sown?Key:No.(2)Ifnot,why?Key:Alanguagecomesintobeingandisusedbyconventionoragreementamongitsspeakers.6.Beforethemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,theoriesofthebeginningoflanguagewerewidelydiscussed.Accordingtotheseearlytheories,manwascreatedalmostinstantaneouslyandspeechwasprovidedtohimasadivinegiftatthemomentofcreation.SogoesthestoryoftheGardenofEden.GodcreatedAdamandspeechsimultaneously.GodspokewithAdamandAdamansweredhim.ThelanguagetheyusedwasHebrew.AndreasKemke,aSwedishphilologist,assertedthatinthegardenofEden,GodspokeSwedish,AdamspokeDanish,andtheserpentspokeFrench.GoropiusBecanus,aDutchtheorist,assertedthatthelanguageoftheGardenwasDutch.TheEgyptiansconsideredthemselvestheoldestcivilization,andthereforetheoriginallanguagewasEgyptian.Ontheassumptionthatbabies,ifleftalone,willgrowupspeaking-theoriginalIIlanguage,Psammetichus(6B.C.)hadtwobabiestakenatrandomfromanordinaryfamilyandgiventoaservanttoraise.Heorderedtheservantnottospeakawordtothebabies.Whentheyweretwoyearsold,thechildrenonedayabruptlygreetedtheservantwith-Bekos!IITheservantimmediatelyreportedthistoPsammetichus.Thekingcheckedwithhiscounselors,whoinformedhimthat-bekosIImeant-breadIIinPhrygian.Sointrue-scientificIIspirit,PsammetichusannouncedthatPhrygianwastheoriginallanguage.

3Ask(1)Isthereanybasicflawinthisexperiment?Key:Theprocessisnotstrictlycontrolled.Theremayhavebeensomecoincidence.Thesamplesizeistoosmallfortheexperimenttobevalid.(2)Doyouthinkwereallycananswerthequestionaboutthebeginningoflanguage?Key:No,atleastinthepresentconditionwhere/whenwecannotperfoimexperimentsonthehumanbrain,thekeyorganofspeech.7.Belowaresamplesofspeechfromchildrenatthreedifferentstagesintheiracquisitionprocess.ChildA:Youwanttoeat?Ican'tseemybook.Whyyouwakemeup?ChildB:Wherethosedogsgoed?Youdidn'teatsupper.Doeslionswalk?ChildC:Nopictureinthere.Wheremommaboot?Havesome?Ask(1)Canyouidentifythemostlikelyorder(fromleasttomostadvanced)ofthesesamples?Key:C—B—A(2)Whatfeaturesineachchild'sutterancescanyouuseasevidencetosupportyourordering?Key:ChildA:goodsyntaxexceptfbrimproperquestionform.ChildB:visibledevelopmentofsyntax;overgeneralizationChildC:Notmuchsyntax;two-wordutterances;telegraphicsentences(sentencesthatcontainonlycontentwordsbutlackfunctionwords)8.Thefollowingdata(fromFromkinandRodman1983)mightgivesomehintsaboutfirstlanguageacquisition:Episode1Adult:He'sgoingout.Child:Hegoout.Adult:That'sanold-timetrain.Child:Old-timetrain.Adult:Adam,saywhatIsay:WherecanIputthem?Child:WhereIcanputthem?Episode2Child:Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousayyourteacherheldthebabyrabbits?Child:Yes.Adult:Whatdidyousayshedid?Child:Sheholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousaysheheldthemtightly?Child:No,sheholdedthemloosely.Ask(1)Itisoftenassumedthatchildrenimitateadultsinthecourseoflanguageacquisition.Canimitationaccountfortheaboveproductiononthepartofthechild?Key:Itcanaccountforsome,butcannotaccountforall.Thereiscounterevidenceagainsttheassumption,liketheovergeneralization-go-edIIfbr-wentII.(2)Whatdistinguishesthechild'sproductionfromthatoftheadult?Key:Overgeneralizationof-edIIforthepasttenseasshownby-holdedII.

49.Anothertheoryofchildlanguageacquisitionarguesthatchildrenlearntoproduce"correct1'sentencesbecausetheyarepositivelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingrightandnegativelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingwrong.Observethefollowingdata(ibid.)andanswerthequestionsthatfollow:Child:Nobodydon'tlikeme.Mother:No,say-NobodylikesmeII.Child:Nobodydon'tlikeme.(dialoguerepeatedeighttimes)Mother:Now,listencarefully;say-NobodylikesmeII.Child:Oh,nobodydon'tlikesme.Ask(1)Howdoadultsreinforcetheprocessofchildren'sacquisitionasexemplifiedhere?Key:Theyuseexplicitcorrection.(2)Dochildrenknowwhattheyaredoingwrongly?Key:Notexactly.(3)Doadultssucceedintheirreinforcement?Key:Notalways,atleast.(4)Howshouldwetreatthe"mistakesuthatchildrenmakewhileacquiringtheirmothertongue?Key:Wemayignorethemsometimes,althoughsomeamountofreinforcementmayturnouttobehelpful.10.Somescholarssuggestthatchildrenareabletolearnlanguagebecauseadultsspeaktotheminaspecial-simplifiedIIlanguagesometimescalledmotherese,care-takerese,orchilddirectedspeech(CDS)(moreinformally,babytalk).Inourcultureadultsdotypicallytalktoyoungchildreninaspecialway.Wetendtospeakmoreslowlyandmoreclearly,weexaggerateourintonation,andsentencesaregenerallyshortandsimple.Ask(1)Dochildrenlearnthroughstructuredorsimplifiedinput,assuggested?Key:Notalways.Thereisevidenceforbothsides.(2)Canyouoffersomeexamplesrepresentingthewayadultstalktoinfants?Key:Mothereseischaracterizedbyshortersentences,higherpitch,exaggeratedintonation,higherproportionofcontentwordstofunctionwords,simplesyntax,moreinterrogativesandimperatives,morerepetitions.Yetitisnotsyntacticallysimpler.Rather,itmayincludesyntacticallycomplexsentencessuchasquestions:Doyouwantyourjuicenow?Negativeswithtagquestions:Wedon'twanttohurthim,dowe?Indeed,itisfortunatethatmothereseisnotsyntacticallyrestricted.Ifitwere,childrenmightnothavesufficientinformationtoextracttherulesoftheirlanguage.11.Notonlyaremanylanguagesdyingtoday,manydialectsarealsodisappearingfromtheplanet.Forexample,accordingtoareportoncecirculatedontheInternet,manyparentsdiscouragetheirchildrenfromspeakingtheirlocaldialect.TheywouldrathertheirchildrentookholdofeverychancetolearnEnglish,becausethelatterwillgivethemanedgeinfuturecompetition.Ask(1)Whatmeasuresdoyousuggestforprotectingdialectsaswellaslanguages?Key:Ithinkthemostimportantmeasureisthatgovernmentshouldputforwardsomepoliciestoimprovethestatusofdialects;thentheareashouldpaymoreattentiontoeconomicdevelopment,iftheeconomythereisadvanced,thedialectthereisalsopopular,likeCantoneseandsoon.(2)Doyouthinkthatsomedaypeopleallovertheworldwillspeakonlyonelanguage,orsomedaydialectwillceasetoexist?Key:Idon'tthinkso.Becauselanguageisaveryimportantsymbolofonenation,everycountrypaymuchattentiontospreadtheinfluenceoftheirlanguageintheworld,theyareunwillingtogiveuptheirownlanguage.12.Naturallanguageshavealotincommon.Thecommonpropertiesthatallnaturallanguagessharearetermed-universalsII.Herearesomeofthem:

5(1)Whereverhumansexist,languageexists.

6(2)Thevocabularyofanylanguagecanbeexpandedtoincludenewwordsfornewconcepts.(3)Alllanguageschangethroughtime.(4)Allgrammarscontainrulesfortheformationofwordsandsentencesofasimilai'kind.(5)Similargrammaticalcategories(forexample,nouns,verbs)arefoundinalllanguages.AskArethereanyuniversalsthatyouthinkalllanguagessharebutarenotmentionedhere?Key:E.g.Alllanguageshaveinternalstructures.Alllanguageshavenumerical.ExerciseTask1ReferenceSearchFindinthelibraryoronlinesomeinformationaboutthefollowingthemes:(1)Esperanto(2)phaticcommunion(3)FerdinanddeSaussure(4)languageacquisitiondevice(LAD)(5)InnateHypothesisKey:(1)Esperantoisthemostwidelyspokenconstructedinternationalauxiliarylanguage.ItsnamederivesfromDoktoroEsperantowhichtanslatesas-onewhohopesII.0phaticcommunionisoneonlyfunctionistoperformasocialtask,asopposedtoconveyinginformation.0FerdinanddeSaussurewassSwisslinguistandsemioticianwhoseideaslaidafoundationformanysignificantdevelopemntsbothinlinguisticsandsemiologyinthe20thcentury.Heiswidelyconsideredoneofthefatherof20th-centurylinguisticsandoneoftwomajorfathersofsemiotics'semiology.@languageacquisitiondevice(LAD)i$lInnateHypothesisisalinguistictheoryoflanguageacquisitionwhichholdsthatatleastsomelinguisticknowledgeexistsinhumansatbirth.Factsaboutthecomplexityofhumanlanguagesystems,theuniversalityoflanguageacquisition,andthefacilitythatchildrendemonstrateinacquiringthesesystemsandthecomparativeperformanceofadultsinattemptingthesametaskareallcommonlyinvokedinsupport.Theideathattheremaybeanagebywhichthislearningmustbeaccomplishedisknownasthecriticalperiodhypothesis.Task2TermDefinitionDifferentlinguistsmayofferdifferentdefinitions,ascitedbelow.Howarethedefinitionsdifferent?Searchforatleasttwomoredefinitions.EdwardSapir:Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.NoamChomsky:FromnowonIwillconsideralanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.Key:Theabovedifferentversionsofdefinitionswhicharecombinedwillhelpmetounderstandthetermsmoreclearly,sincethedifferentversionsofdefinitionsgivemealotofinformationfromdifferentaspects,whichmakemetoknowevendetailsofthetermsTask3StudyQuestions1.Whatdoyouthinkisessentialtotheemergenceoflanguage?Key:Theexistenceofsocialactivities;theneedtoexpressdiverseideas,emotions,etc.;theneedtocommunicateideastodistantplaces;etc.2.Canourpetslearnhumanlanguages?Whyorwhynot?Key:No.Theyaregeneticallynotendowedwiththecapacity.3.Whatroledoesbodylanguageplayinlanguagecommunication?Key:Itplaysaveryimportantroleinlanguagecommunication.Sometimesitismucheasierandconvenienttousebodylanguagethanusespokenlanguage.Sometimesitcanexpressmeaningsthatvocallanguagecannotexpress.It

7canalsoexpressintimacybetweenclosefriends.4.Naturallyoccurring-experimentsIIwithso-called-wolf-childrenII,-MowgliII,-bear-childrenIIor-monkey-childrenIIandothersuchferalyoungstershavebeenwidelyreportedforhundredsofyears.Noneofthesechildrencouldspeakorunderstandspeechand,indeed,mosteffortstoteachthemlanguageendedinfailure.Howwouldyouaccountforthefailure?Key:Thelanguageacquisitiondevicehastobetriggeredbeforeacertainage(thatofpuberty).Sufficientexposetoalanguageenvironmentattherighttimeisessentialtolanguageacquisition.5.ThefollowingaresomeinstancesofusingEnglishforcommunication.WhatspecificfunctiondoeseachuseofEnglishserveinthefollowingpictures?to«n5of'tilH911t
pa>tiGulwrJUPYSWMlker.«»,»<<6Key:Informative(intheformofcommanding).Directive(Advertisingintheformofrequesting).Directive(Persuadingintheformofthreatening).Directive(Recruiting).6.Iconicityoflanguageisanaspectoflanguagewhereformechoesmeaning.Onomatopoeia,alsoknownas-soundsymbolismII,isonetypeoficonicity.Someresearchershavefoundotherevidenceoficonicity.Forexample,wordsbeginningwiththesoundcombinationsl-inEnglishoftenhaveanunpleasantsense,asinslithering,slimy,slugs.Herearesomequestions:(1)Isthe-unpleasant||senseactuallytrueofall,orevenmost,wordsbeginningwithsl-inEnglish?Key:No,itisn'ttrueofall,maybemostofthemaretrue.(2)Arethereanyothersoundsorsoundcombinationsthatyouassociatewithparticularmeanings?Key:Omit(3)Howaboutthevowelsoundsinwordsthatidentifynear-to-speakerconcepts(this,near,here)versusfar-from-speakerconcepts(that,far,there)?Whatisthedifference?IsitageneralpatterndistinguishingtermsforthingsthatarenearversusfarinEnglish?WhataboutthecaseinChinese?Key:Frontvowelsfornear-speakerconcepts;centralorbackvowelsforfar-from-speakerconcepts.ThereseemstobeasimilarkindofpatterninChinese.C.f.jinyuanzhe/na7.Inmanyoftheworld'slanguagesthereareso-callednurserynamesforparents.InEnglish,forexample,correspondingtothewordmotheristhenurserynamemama,andforfatheronefindsdadaandpapa.Thereisremarkablesimilarityacrossdifferentlanguagesintheformofthesenurserynamesforparents.Forexample,inChineseandNavajomacorrespondstoEnglishmama.Whydoyouthinkthatthisisthecase?Key:Bilabialsarelearnedandproducedfirstbecausetheyaretheeasiest.8.Thefollowingtwotranscriptions(takenfromBellugi,1970)arefragmentsofconversationsbetweenthesamemotherandchild.Thefirstonetookplacewhenthechildwas24months,andthesecondthreemonthslater.

8Eve:Havethat?XtComeandsitoverhere.XtNo.youmaynothaveit.Eve:Youcansitdownbyme.ThatwillEve:Momwheremytapioca?makemehappy.Readytoturnit.XtItsgettingcool.You711haveitinjustaXLWe'renotquitereadytoturnthepage.minute.Eve:Yep,weare.Eve:Letmehaveit.XtShutthedoor,wewonlhearherthen.XLWouldyouliketohaveyourlunchrightEve:ThenFraserwon'thearhertoo.Wherenow?he'sgoing?DidyoumakeagreatbigholeEve:Yeah.Mytapiocacool?there?XLYesitscool.XtYes,wemadeagreatbigholeinhere;we:Eve:Yougonnawatchmeeatmylunch?havetogetanewone.NtYeah.I'mgonnawatchyoueatyourEve:CouldIgetsomeotherpieceofpaper?lunch.Eve:Ieatingit.XtIknowyouare.(1)Whataresomeofthechangeswhichappeartohavetakenplaceinthechild'sabilitytouseEnglishduringthatperiod?Key:Itobservedthatthechangesofchild'sabilitytouseEnglishappeartohavetakenplacefrom2.5to3yearsold.(2)Whatdothesechangessuggestabouttheorderoflanguageacquisition?Key:a.LikethebasicallyproperuseofinteiTOgativesandthecorrectuseofinflection.b.Completesentencesareacquiredlaterthanellipticalones.Inflectionisacquiredatalatestage.Task4CommentWorkInthiscenturyit(theWhoiiianHypothesis)wasgivenspecialattentionthroughtheworkofEdwardSapirand,moreimportantly,BenijaminLeeWhorf.WorkingonAmericanIndianlanguages,especiallyHopi,thelanguageofthePuebloIndiansofArizona,WhorlbecameacutelyawareoftheinadequaciesoftraditionalgrammaticaltechniquesbuiltonIndo-Europeanlanguages,especiallyLatin,Greek,andSanskrit,fordealingwithnon-Indo-Europeanlanguages.ExperienceofAmericanandHopiculturesuggestedtoWhorfthattheculturesandthoughtprocessesweredifferentbecausetheirlanguagesweresodifferent.Thisledhimtoestablish:WhatIhavecalledthe-linguisticrelativityprincipleII,whichmeans,ininformalterms,thatusersofmarkedlydifferentgrammarsarepointedbytheirgrammarstowarddifferenttypesofobservation,andhencearenotequivalentasobserversbutmustarriveatsomewhatdifferentviewsoftheworld.Amoresuccinctversionofthisclaim-Wedissectnaturealonglineslaiddownbyournativelanguage,IIcametobeknownasthe-WhorfianhypothesisII.Languageinfluencesthought,itwasclaimed;mindisinthegripoflanguage.(ElizabethTraugottandMarryPratt,LinguisticsforStudentsofLiterature,p.106)Questions(1)Doyouagreewiththecontentionthatlanguagedeterminesthewaywethink?Key:No,Idon'tthinkso.Languageisonlyatoolfbrpeopletocommunicate;itisnotthekeyfactorthatdeterminethewaywethink.(2)Germanyisacountryrichingreatphilosophers.DoyouthinkthathastodowiththelanguageGermansspeak?Key:No,Idon'tthinkso.Languageisonlyatoolfbrpeopletocommunicate;evenifthereissomerelationbetweenthetwo,therelationisnotthekeyone.Languageacquisitionisacreativeprocess.Childrenarenotgivenexplicitinformationabouttherules,byeitherinstructionorcorrection.Theymustsomehowextracttherulesofthegrammarfromthelanguagetheyheararoundthem,andtheirlinguisticenvironmentdoesnotneedtobespecialinanywayforthemtodothis.Observationsofchildrenacquiringdifferentlanguagesunderdifferentculturalandsocialcircumstancesrevealthatthedevelopmentalstagesaresimilar,possiblyuniversal.Evendeafchildrenofdeafsigningparentsgothroughstagesintheirsigningdevelopmentthatparallelthoseofchildrenacquiringspokenlanguages.Thesefactorsleadmanylinguiststobelievethatchildrenare

9equippedwithaninnatetemplateorblueprintforlanguage—UniversalGrammar(UG)—andthisblueprintaidsthechildinthetaskofconstructingagrammarforherlanguage.Thisisreferredtoastheinnatenesshypothesis.(VictoriaFromkin,RobertRodmanandNiaHyams,AnIntroductiontoLanguage,pp.347-348)Questions(1)Doyouthinktheinborndevicecanworkindependentlyoftheenvironment?Key:No,therearesomechildrenwhogrowupseparatefromhumanbeingscannotspeak.Itmeansthattheinborndevicecannotworkindependentlyoftheenvironment.(2)CollectsomeexamplesfromChineseinfantsthatprovethecreativenatureoflanguageacquisition.Key:Childrenacquirelanguagewithoutspecialinstruction,astimegoing;theycancreatesomewordsorsentencesthattheyhavenotheardbefore.Task5Mini-ProjectRandomlyselecttenmostcommonlyusedwordsandteninfrequentlyusedwordsfromanEnglishvocabularylist.Compareandfindifthereisapossiblecorrespondencebetweenthesizeofwordsandthefrequencyofusage(e.g.themorecommontheword,thesmalleritis).Ifso,canyouworkoutanyplausibleexplanation?Key:Omit

102ᫀCheckyourunderstandingStatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.(1)[i:]and[i]areallophonesofthesamephoneme.ூᫀ௃F(2)NotallEnglishphonemeshaveallophones.ூᫀ௃T(3)Thesamesetofvowelsisusedinalllanguages.ூᫀ௃F(4)Allsyllablesmustcontainatleastonevowel.ூᫀ௃F(5)ThemarkingofwordstressisarbitraryfbrthemostpartinEnglish.ூᫀ௃F(6)Englishisatonelanguage.ூᫀ௃FIn-ClassActivities1.Inordertodiscoverthephonemesusedinthesoundsystemofalanguage,scholarsoncedesignedamethodbasedonthenotionofminimalpairs,like-pat||vs.-fatII.Threerequirementswereproposedforidentifyingaminimalpair:(1)thetwowordsaredifferentinmeaning;(2)thetwowordsaredifferentbecauseofjustonephoneme;and(3)thephonemesthatmakethetwowordsdifferentoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.Byphoneticenvironmentwemeanthesound(s)precedingandthat/thosefollowingit,e.g.thephoneticenvironmentof[I]in[pit]is[p_t]andthatof[PJis[#_itj(#standsforawordorsyllableboundary).Thecontrastingsoundsinwordsformingaminimalpairaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution,asin[bit]vs.[beit]and[pit]vs.[bit].Ask(1)Whatisthephoneticenvironmentof[t]in[pit]?Key:[i_](2)Arethefollowingpairsofwordsminimalpairs?a.deskvs.task;b.leavevs.leakKey:a.No.b.Yes.(li:vvs.li:k)2.Allophonesastherealizationsofthesamephonemearetechnicallysaidtobeincomplementarydistribution;inotherwords,theyarefoundindifferentphoneticenvironments.Forinstance,theallophonesofthephoneme/!/,clear[1]anddark[?],occurasfollows:Clear[1]:occursbeforevowelsorafterinitialconsonant(s)like/b/,/s/,/k/,/g/,/f/,/P/,/sp/.Dark[?]:occurselsewhere.Ask(1)Characterizehowtheallophonesofthephoneme/k/arecomplementarilydistributed.Key:[kh]ininitialposition;[k]after/s/;[k->]infinalposition.(2)Isthereanyotherwayofcharacterizingthecomplementarydistributionofclear[1]anddark[?]?Key:[1]beforevowels;[I]elsewhere.3.Aphonemecanbefurtheranalyzedintoasetofdistinctivefeatures.Forexample,/p/isdefinedascomposedofsuchdistinctivefeaturesas[plosive]+[bilabial]+1breathed]becauseeachofthemcandistinguish/p/fromsomeotherphonemes.However,thepropertyofaspirationcontainedintheallophone[Ph]doesnotdistinguishofmeaningandthereforeisnotadistinctivefeatureinthiscase.Ask(1)Whatdistinctivefeaturemakes/f7and/v/different?

11Key:[voiced].(2)Canyouspecifythedistinctivefeaturesforthefollowingphonemes?a./y/;b./k/;c./n/Key:a./y/[fricative]+[voiceless]+[palatal]b./k/[velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive]c./n/[nasal]+[voiced]+[alveolar]4.Supposethedistributionof[r]and[1]inthefoDowingwordsischaracteristicofKorean:rupi;-rubyII;mul;-waterII;kiri;-roadII;pal;-legII;saram;-personII;soul;-SeoulII;ratio;-radioII;ipalsa;-barberII.(1)Are[r]and[1]incomplementarydistribution?Inwhatenvironmentdoeseachoccur?Key:Yes.[r]occursbeforevowels;[1]occursaftervowels.(2)Dotheyoccurinanyminimalpairs?Key:No.(3)Supposethat[r]and[1]areallophonesofonephoneme.Statetherulethatcanderivetheallophonicforms.Key:[r]islateralizedwhenitoccursaftervowels.5.Asoundmaychangebyassimilating/copyingafeatureofasequential/neighboringsound;e.g.[]isrealizedas[][]and[]respectivelyin-impossibleII,-irresistibleII,and-illegalIIThisiswhatwecalltheassimilationrule.Assimilation,particularlynoticeableinordinaryconversationalspeech,occursinavarietyofcontexts.Forexample,whenyoutellsomeone-IcangoII,theinfluenceofthefollowingvelar[]willalmostcertainlymaketheprecedingnasalsoundIn[]comeoutas[](avelar)ratherthan[](analveolar).Noticealsothatthevowelin-canIIhasalsochangedtoschwa[]fromtheisolated-wordversion[]throughtheprocessofweakening.Ask(1)Canyougivemoreexamplesofassimilation?Key:compatriot,sing.(2)Canyoufindanyexceptions?Key:input,unbeatable,Canberra.Now,studythefollowingdialectofEnglishcarefully.Thereseemstobeapredictablevariant[]ofthediphthong[].1)[bAi]bite;2)[tay]tie3)[rayd]ride;4)[fayI]file5)[tAip]type;6)[taym]time7)[lAifllife:8)[rayzlrise(3)Whatphoneticsegmentsconditionthischange?Key:Theconsonantimmediatelyafterthevowel.6.Iftwosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,-economicsIIcanbereadasboth[_]and[_].Here,//and//areinfreedistribution.Ask(1)Canyougivemoreexamplesoffreevariation?Key:advertisement[ad'vo^ismont][od\a^izmont];association[osousireijon][osoui'eion](2)WhydoyouthinksuchaphenomenonexistsinalanguagelikeEnglish?Key:Individualvariationisresponsibleforthisphenomenon.7.Acertainsoundinwordslike-signII,-design||and-resignIImaybedeletedeventhoughitmaybeorthographicallyrepresented,whiletheircorrespondingnominalforms,namely-signatureII,-designationIIand-resignationII,involvethearticulationofthesound.Theprocessinvolvedhereisthedeletionrule.

12Ask(1)Whichsoundisdeletedin-signII,-designIIand-resignII?Key:[g](2)Canyouofferotherexamplesofdeletion?Key:paradigm(atic),condemn(ation)(3)Canyougivesomewordsthatinvolvetotaldeletion?Key:plumb,plumber;climb,climbing(4)ArethereanyothertypesofdeletioninEnglish?Key:debt,know8.Englishhasanumberofexpressionssuchas-chit-chatIIand-flip-flopIIwhichneverseemtooccurinthereverseorder(i.e.chat-chit,flop-flip).Herearemoreexamplesofthiskind:criss-cross;hip-hop;riff-raffdilly-dally;knick-knacks;see-sawding-dong;mish-mash;sing-songfiddle-faddle;ping-pong;tick-tockflim-flam;pitter-patterzig-zag(1)Canyouthinkofaphoneticdescriptionoftheregularpatternintheseexpressions?Key:theyallstartwithafront,highvowelandfollowupwithamidorlowvowel.(2)Canyouthinkofanypossibleexplanationfortheobservedpattern?Key:[i]involvestheleastdegreeofmouthopeningwhilethemidorlowvowelsnecessitatebiggeropening.Thereisanincreaseofmouthopeninginpronouncingthewholeword,whichissymbolicinmeaning.9.Englishmakesuseofalotofalliterationinallsortsofcommunication,esp.inclassicEnglishpoetryandplays.Byalliteration,wemeantheconsecutivethoughnotnecessarilycontinuousemploymentofwordswithidenticalinitialconsonants,asin-princeandpauperII.ThefollowingexcerptscomefromShakespeare'sAMidsummerNight'sDream(V.i.)andTennyson'sTheBrookrespectively:Excerpt1AnoncomesPyramus,sweetyouthandtall,AndfindshistrustyThisby'smantleslain;Whereat,withblade,withbloodyblamefulblade,Hebravelybroach'dhisboilingbloodybreast;AndThisby,tanyinginmulberryshade,Hisdaggerdrew,anddied.Excerpt2Islip,Islide,Igloom,Iglance,Amongmyslammingswallows:ImakethenettedsunbeamdanceAgainstmysandyshallows.AlliterationisalsowidelyfoundinEnglishproverbs,asshownbelow:Praiseisnotpudding.Plentyisnoplague.Healthishappiness.Fortunefavorsfools.Ask(1)Whatarelikelypositiveeffectsofusingalliteration?Useoneofthepoeticexamplestoillustrate.Key:Coherence,connectedness,smoothness,consistency.Take4slip,Islide,Igloom,IglanceIIforexample.Thedoublealliterationinvolvedhelpstocreateapictureofsmoothandcoherentdance.(2)IsthereasimilaruseofalliterationinChinese?Key:Yes,thoughlessoften.——ᨴᙊIIisagoodexample.

1310.Rhymingoccurswhenthewordsorlinesofverseusethesameterminalsounds(i.e.thenucleusandthecodaofthefinalsyllableofthewordsareidentical).Forinstance,thephrase-fairandsquareIIhasaninternalrhymebecause-fairIIand-squareIIusetheidenticalfinalvowel.Fromaveryearlyage,childrenlearnthatcertainwordsrhyme.(1)Whatisthestylisticeffectofrhyming?Key:echoing,agreement,correspondence,etc.RhymingiswidelyfoundinEnglishproverbs,asshownbelow:Hastemakeswaste.Healthisbetterthanwealth.Forbearanceisnotaquittance.(2)Canyoufindmoreproverbsthatinvolveinternalrhyming?Key:Firstthriveandthenwive.Fancypassesbeauty.ExercisesTask1ReferenceSearchFindinthelibraryoronlinesomeinformationaboutthefollowingthemes:(DRP(2)DanielJones(3)PragueSchool(4)elision(5)liaisonKey:(1)RPisthecomplexityclassofcomputationalcomplexitytheory.(2)DanielJoneswasaLondon-bornBritishphoneticianwhostudiedunderPaulPassy,professorofphoneticsattheUniversityofParis.HewasheadoftheDepartmentofPhoneticsatUniversityCollege,London.(3)PragueSchoolwasaninfluentialgroupofliterarycriticsandlinguistsinPrague.(4)Elisionistheomissionofoneormoresounds(suchasavowel,aconsonant,orawholesyllable)inawordorphrase,producingaresultthatiseasierforthespeakertopronounce.Sometimes,soundsmaybeelidedforeuphoniceffect.(5)Liaisonreferstotwosoundsarepronouncedinonesound.Task2TermDefinitionStudythefollowingdefinitionsandthendiscusshowtheycombinetohelpyouunderstandtheterms.phone:Adiscriminablespeechsound.[RonaldWardhaugh]phone:Aphoneisaminimaldistinctspeechsound,e.g,[f].Alsocalledasegment.[StuartPoole]phoneme:Aminimalsignificantcontrastiveunitinthephonologicalsystemofalanguage.[RonaldWardhaugh]phoneme:Aphonemeisasoundthatissemanticallyorfunctionallydistinctiveinalanguagesystem.[StuartPoole]allophone:Apositionalvariantofaphoneme.[RonaldWardhaugh]allophone:Anallophoneisavariantformofaphonethatisdependentoncontextandcannotbefunctionallysignificant.[StuartPoole]allophone:Theversionofphonemeasactuallyrealizedphoneticallyinspeech.[HenryWiddowsonJKey:Theabovedifferentversionsofdefinitionswhicharecombinedwillhelpmetounderstandthetermsmoreclearly,sincethedifferentversionsofdefinitionsgivemealotofinformationfromdifferentaspects,whichmakemetoknowevendetailsofthetermsTask3StudyQuestions1.Studythefollowingpicturecarefully:

14(1)Doesthestringofsoundsmeananythingtoyou?Key:Ifwewanttotalkreallygood,we'llhavetoinventvowels.(2)WhatdoesthepicturesuggesttoyouabouttheroleofconsonantsandvowelsinEnglish?Key:Consonantsarethebackbonesofsyllablesandwords.2.SomephonetictranscriptionsbelowareEnglishwords,somearenotexistingwordsbutarepossiblewordsornonsensewords,andothersaredefinitely-foreignIIorimpossiblebecausetheyviolateEnglishsequentialconstraints.Specifyeachofthe(1)-(5)casesasillustrated.Example:WordPossibleForeignReason[pak]Park[tit][Ikib]Initial[1]mustprecedeavowel.(1)[](2)[](3)[]a”](5)[]Key:WordPossibleForeignReason[gazf][f]mustoccurafteravowel.[ski]Ski[knait]T[m]mustoccurinitiallybeforea[meif]vowel.[blaft]V3.InEnglish,the/i/vowelbecomesalmostaslongas/i:/undercertainconditions.Considertheexampleslistedbelow:z1(\]z2(\]3/XIIX/]4zX(I\/15z\<)\6z]z\()\77]z\(7\8]/X(I\/]1)Listthephonemesthatconditionthechange.Key:voicedconsonants2)Statetherulethatseemsinvolved.Key[i]islengthenedbeforeavoiced]consonant.4.Theuseofplural-sinEnglishhasthreedifferent,butveryregular,phonologicalalternatives.Oneadds:

15/s/towordslikeship,bat,bookandcough;/z/towordslikecab,lad,cave,ragandthing;/iz/towordslikebus,bushjudge,churchandmaze.(1)Canyouworkoutthesetofsoundswhichregularlyprecedeseachofthesealternatives?Key:a.voicelessplosives[voiceless]b.aftervoicedconsonants[voiced]c.after//,//,//,//(2)Whatfeaturesdoeseachofthesesetshaveincommon?Similarly,inEnglish,thepasttensemarkerforregularverbs-edispronouncedas/t/,/d/or/Id/.Forexample,-crashedIIhasfinalIII,-heatedIIhasfinal/id/.Lookatthefollowingdata.1)brushed2)heaped3)kicked4)petted5)played6)lagged7)killed8)heeded9)thrived10)perishedKey:[palatal]or[alveolar]+[fricative](3)Isthereanypatternregardingthedifferentpronunciationsofthepasttensemarker?Key:[tlaftervoicelessconsonantsexcept[t];[d]aftervoicedconsonantsexcept[d];[id]after[t]or[d].(4)Doyouthinkthatoneofthesephonologicalformsfor-edismorebasic,withtheothersbeingderivedfromitinaregularway?Which,andhow?Key:[d]ismorebasic,[t]afterdevoicing,[id]afterepenthesis(i.e.additionofasound).5.Belowarethreecolumnsofwordswithdifferentpatternsofstress:AperisheditconsiderimaginecancelBmaintainimposeappearcajolecanteenCcollapseexhaustelecteruptlament(1)Howisstressdistributedineachcolumn?Key:(1)PenultimateforA;lastsyllableforB;onthelastsyllable.(2)InColumnB,whatkindsofvowelsappearinthelastsyllable?HowdoesthesyllabicstructureofColumnCdifferfromAandB?

16Key:InColumnB,longvowelsordiphthongsappearinthelastsyllable.ThelastsyllableofthewordsinCendsinconsonantclusters.6.Thefollowingisalistofwordsthatarespeltinasimilarway:fuddy-duddyfuzzy-wuzzyhanky-pankyhelter-skelterhocus-pocushurly-burlylovey-doveymumbo-jumbonamby-pambyrazzle-dazzleroly-polysuper-duper(1)Whatsimilaritycanyouspotamongthewordslisted?Key:Allpairsarethesameexcepttheinitialconsonants.(2)Whateffectsmaysuchwordshaveincommonwhentheyareputintouse?Key:Redundancy,repetitiveness,etc.7.Writethephonetictranscriptionforeachofthefollowingwords.(1)admirable(2)advertising(3)advisable(4)demonstrate(5)duration(6)employee(7)ignorant(8)inspiration(9)massage(10)mechanism(11)parachute(12)pertain(13)portray(14)suburban(15)masterv(16)photographerKey:(1)[(aedm(d)rdb(d)l]or['aedmarabl](2)['aedvataizig]or['aed\>'taizig](3)[ddVaizdbl](4)['demdnstreit]or['d&msn'stret](5)[dja'reiJC^n]or[du'rejan](6)[emplpfi:]orim'ploii]ign(2)r(3)nt]or['ign^nt](8)[inspi'reiH^n]or[3nspa'rejan](9)['maeso:3]or[m^'soS](10)['mek(9)niz(9)m]or['m&k^mz^m](11)[pasrnju[t]or[paer^fut](12)[pstein]or[prten](13)[poItrei]or[portre](14)[s3b3:b(d)n]or[saWbsn](15)['mo:st(a)rilorf'maestsril(16)[fSBgr3fgior[fatagrsf^l8.Readthefollowingwordsorphrasesandpointoutthephonologicalprocessesthatyieldassimilation.(1)pat/paet/;pan/p9n/;sat/saet/;Sam/sam/Key:Nasalizationrule:[-nasal]f[+nasal]/[+nasal](2)since/sins/;sink/sir)k/;hint/hint/;dink/digk/Key:Velarizationrule:[-velarl]t[+velar]/[+velar](3)fivepits/faifpits/;loveto/1Aft஺/Key:Devoicingrule:[+voiced—>[-voiceless]/[-voiceless]9.ReadthefollowingpoembyX.J.Kennedy:

17AWMERGLASSOFWHISKYThroughthehillbytheRiteNiteMotelNotapictureunbrokencanreach:AnoldfamousheadinthescreenFacelifted,fallshaltinitsspeechAsifnolinecastfromthesetCouldfixwithadefinitehookIntoanylivelipgoingby.ThereisnogoodbookbuttheGoodBook.Nouse.TrythewindowinsteadButthenear-beerbar'ssignisnomore.AsfarasthebreezestretchesoffOnlyouterspaceanswersyourstare.Youdon,tdieforwantofTVButevensohereliesalack;AsthoughmorethannightorahillHadwalledyouinbackofitsback.;(1)Commentontheuseofassonance(thatis,useofsyllableswithacommonvowel,asin"come"—ulove")inthispoem.Howisitusedtostressthesenseofsuperficialityandlackofmeaningthepoetistryingtoconveyhere?(Alsonotetheroleofrhymingpairsofmonosyllablesandtheireffectonmeter.)Key:assonance:[ri:tj][skri:n][spi:tj][rud][huk][buk]Theryhmedwords,allmonosyllabicandstressed,aresemanticallyunrelatedandseparated.Alliterationisonlysporadicallyused.Assonancesuggestsapparentconnectionbutactualdisconnectedness.(2)Commentmorecarefullyonmeterinthefirsttwostanzas.Howdoesitcontributetothemeaning?Howandwheredoesitworkagainstourexpectations?Key:Lackofregularityandthusunpredictability.10.CollectsomedatatoshowthatEnglishadvertisements,newspaperheadlines,Englishsongs,andpresidentialaddressessometimesmakeuseofalliterationandrhyming.Key:Morechoice,moresmileinMcDonalds.11.Slipsofthetongue,orspeecherrors,arecommonindailyconversation.Someofthesetongueslipsarecalledspoonerisms,namedafterWilliamArchilbaldSpooner,adistinguishedheadofanOxfordCollegeintheearly1900swhoreportedlyreferredtoQueenVictoriaas-ThatqueerolddeanIIinsteadof-thatdearoldqueenII.Herearemoreexamples:IntendedUtterancegonetoseed[gO:ntQsi:d]stickinthemud[stikindamAd]speechproduction[spitfpra'dAkJan]ActualUtterancegodtoseen[godtasi:n]smUckintherid[smAkindatid]preachseduction|pri:tjsi'dAk/sn]Whatinterestingthingsdospeecherrorstellusaboutlanguageanditsuse?Collectsomecasesofslipsoftonguefromdailyconversations.Key:Speecherrorsareoftenexplainable,oftensemanticallymotivated.

18Task4CommentWorkThefunctionoftonesisessentiallydistinctive:atoneexistsonlyinoppositiontoatleastoneothertone.Thusalanguagepossessestones,neverasingletone.Thefunctionoftheaccentisessentiallycontrastive,thatistosayitcontributestotheindividualizationofthewordortheunitwhichischaracterizedincontrastwiththeotherunitsofthesametyperepresentedinthesameutterance.Thusalanguagepossessesanaccentandnotaccents.When,inagivenlanguage,theaccentisfoundalwaysonthefirstorthelastsyllableoftheword,thisindividualizationisperfect,sincethewordisinthiswayclearlydistinguishedfromwhatprecedesorfollows.Wherethepositionoftheaccentcannotbepredictedbutmustbelearnedfbreachseparatewordandsodoesnotmarkthebeginningorendoftheaccentualunit,theaccenthasafunctionwhichiscalledculminativeitservestodenotethepresenceintheutteranceofacertainnumberofimportantarticulationsandthusfacilitatestheanalysisofthemessage.(AndreMartinet,ElementsofGeneralLinguistics,p.83)Questions(1)IsEnglishperfectintermsofitsuseofaccent?Key:No.InEnglishlanguage,theaccentisnotalwaysfoundonthefirstorthelastsyllableoftheword.(2)Whyisoppositionsoimportantinlanguage?Key:Thefunctionoftheaccentisessentiallycontrastive,thepositionoftheaccentcannotbepredictedbutmustbelearnedforeachseparatewordandsodoesnotmarkthebeginningorendoftheaccentualunit....languageisnotamerelyrandomlyarticulatedhumannoise,whichwouldbesomethinglikethebeginningsofbaby-babbling.Itispatternednoise—soundwithorganization.Outofthetotalrangeofaudiblydistinctsoundsahumanbeingcanproduce(avery,largenumberindeed),onlyalimitednumberareusedinanyonelanguage.Werefertothekindsofsoundswhichoccurinagivenlanguage,andthepatternsofrelationshipintowhichtheyfallasthesound-systemofthatlanguage;andthestudyofthepropertiesofsound-systemsistechnicallywhatwemeanbyphonology.Phonologyis,then,differentfromphonetics,inthatphonologydealswithsoundsandcontrastsbetweensoundsonlywithinthecontextofsomelanguage(maximallyinanylanguage),whereasphoneticsstudiessoundswithoutanyspecificreferencetotheirfunctioninalanguage'ssound-system—itissometimescalled-generalIIphonetics,acccrdingly.Forexample,astatementbeginning-aplosiveisasoundmadeinthefollowingway...IIisaphonetcstatement;onesuchas-therearesixshortvowelsinEnglish...IIisaphonologicalone.(DavidCrystal,Linguistics,p.172)Questions(1)Whyisphoneticssaidtobe''general"asopposedtophonology?Key:Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.(2)Whatiscrucialinthestudyofthesound-systemsofalanguage?Key:Acquirethepropertiesanddistinctionsofthesound-systems.Task5Mini,ProjectRecordtwofragmentsofnativespeakers4conversation,onebyamanandtheotherbyawoman.Comparethedataintermsofpronunciationandintonation.Key:Omit.