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1、ThebeginningsofmodernisminFrance[edit]Historians,andwritersindifferentdisciplines,havesuggestedvariousdatesasstartingpointsformodernism.HistorianWilliamEverdell,forexample,hasarguedthatModernismbeganinthe1870s,whenmetaphorical(orontological)continuitybegantoyieldtothediscretewithma
2、thematician RichardDedekind's(1831–1916) Dedekindcut,and LudwigBoltzmann's(1844–1906) statisticalthermodynamics.[27] EverdellalsothinksModernisminpaintingbeganin1885–86with Seurat'sDivisionism,the"dots"usedtopaint"ASundayAfternoonontheIslandofLaGrandeJatte."Ontheotherhandvisualartc
3、ritic ClementGreenberg called ImmanuelKant (1724–1804)"thefirstrealModernist",[28] thoughhealsowrote,"WhatcanbesafelycalledModernismemergedinthemiddleofthelastcentury—andratherlocally,inFrance,with Baudelaire inliteratureand Manet inpainting,andperhapswith Flaubert,too,inproseficti
4、on.(Itwasawhilelater,andnotsolocally,thatModernismappearedin music and architecture)."[29] ThepoetBaudelaire's LesFleursdumal (TheFlowersofEvil),andFlaubert'snovel MadameBovary werebothpublishedin1857.Intheartsandletters,twoimportantapproachesdevelopedseparatelyinFrance.Thefirstwas
5、 impressionism,aschoolofpaintingthatinitiallyfocusedonworkdone,notinstudios,butoutdoors(enpleinair).Impressionistpaintingsdemonstratedthathumanbeingsdonotseeobjects,butinsteadseelightitself.Theschoolgatheredadherentsdespiteinternaldivisionsamongitsleadingpractitioners,andbecameincr
6、easinglyinfluential.Initiallyrejectedfromthemostimportantcommercialshowofthetime,thegovernment-sponsored ParisSalon,the Impressionists organizedyearlygroupexhibitionsincommercialvenuesduringthe1870sand1880s,timingthemtocoincidewiththeofficialSalon.Asignificanteventof1863wasthe Salo
7、ndesRefusés,createdby EmperorNapoleon III todisplayallofthepaintingsrejectedbytheParisSalon.Whilemostwereinstandardstyles,butbyinferiorartists,theworkof Manet attractedtremendousattention,andopenedcommercialdoorstothemovement.ThesecondFrenchschoolwas Symbolism,whichliteraryhistoria
8、nsseebeginningwithCharlesB
