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分类号：学校代码：10140密级：公开学号：4031230683LIAONINGUNIVERSITY硕士学位论文THESISFORMASTERDEGREE论文题目:爱丽丝•门罗的《逃离》中的前景化特征分析AnAnalysisofForegroundingFeaturesinAliceMunro5sRunaway英文题目:论文作者：刘鑫易________—指导教师：廉运杰教授专M|/,英语语言文学完成时间：二〇一五年五月 辽宁大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明••所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师的指导下独立完成的。论文中取得的研究成果除加以标注的内容外，不包含其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，不包含本人为获得其他学位而使用过的成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体均已在文中进行了标注，并表示谢意。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者签名：感矣2D(5年5月2D日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交学位论文的原件、复印件和电子版，允许学位论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权辽宁大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编学位论文。同时授权中国学术期刊（光盘版）电子杂志社将本学位论文收录到《中国博士学位论文全文数据库》和《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库》并通过网络向社会公众提供信息服务。学校须按照授权对学位论文进行管理，不得超越授权对学位论文进行任意处理。保密（），在_年后解密适用本授权书。（保密：请在括号内划‘W”）授权人签名：>[4#指导教师签名：日期：年5月邛日日期：20/5年OT2P日 爱丽丝·门罗的《逃离》中的前景化特征分析AnAnalysisofForegroundingFeaturesinAliceMunro’sRunaway作者：刘鑫易指导教师：廉运杰教授专业：英语语言文学答辩时间：2015年5月17日二○一五年五月·中国辽宁 摘要前景化理论是文体学中的重要理论之一，也是目前文体学中最热门、最前沿的理论。前景化，有时又称为“突出”，指文学作品中对语言常规的有意偏离。这个概念来源于有关艺术交流的一个基本原理，即具有独特性的艺术作品总是会偏离其所处社会中人们对此艺术作品的一般性期望。比如，一幅画作的艺术魅力不在于它与所表现的外在景物的相似程度，不在于它是否像照片那么极度逼真地复制自然，而在于与之相偏离。文体学中的前景化最早出现于上世纪的俄国形式主义，后经布拉格学派，利奇、韩礼德等语言学家的研究进一步发展，逐渐形成日臻成熟的理论。偏离和过分规则化是实现前景化的主要方式。前景化理论对文学作品的欣赏研究有重要的价值和意义。爱丽丝·门罗是当代世界文坛上最著名的加拿大女作家之一，以短篇小说享誉世界。门罗自少女时代开始写作以来，已经创作了百余篇短篇小说，均获得了国内外读者和文学评论家的广泛赞誉。爱丽丝·门罗曾三次获得加拿大总督文学奖，两次吉勒文学奖，以及全美书评人协会奖。2013年，82岁高龄的门罗，因其巨大的文学成就，一举夺得诺贝尔文学奖。瑞典文学院在颁奖词中称其为“当代短篇小说大师”。《逃离》一书出版于2004年，全书由八个短篇小说组成，包括逃离，机缘，匆匆，沉寂，激情，侵犯，拨弄和法力。实际上是描写几个平凡的小镇女子，但在门罗的作品中，便成为了震撼心灵的奇迹。本文由导论，正文和结论三部分组成，其主要内容如下：第一部分导论，首先介绍前人对前景化理论的研究情况。自前景化引入文学作品以来，经过历代语言学家、心理学家和文学评论家的加工发展，已经形成一个完整的文体学分支体系。同时，本部分简要介绍了爱丽丝·门罗及其代表作《逃离》及本文拟用前景化理论解读爱丽丝·门罗的《逃离》的创新之处。第二部分为正文，分为三章。第一章主要阐述前景化理论的发生发展、实现手段及其对文学评论的作用和意义。前景化的概念来源于俄国形式主义,经过穆卡罗夫斯基、雅各布森等布拉格学派学者的阐发,后又经过利奇、韩礼德等英国文体学家的加工与发展而最终形成。“前景化”作为一个完整的概念则是由穆卡罗夫斯基首先提出。偏离和过分规则化是实现前景化的重要手段。在文体分析中，从背景中突出的前景化创造了文学的艺术和II 价值。第二章分析《逃离》中的偏离。偏离，也叫变异，是指与常规语言相对的，偏离语法规则和常用规则的语用手段。本章基于前景化中偏离的视角，对《逃离》中的实例进行分析讨论。《逃离》中的一字一句，甚至一个标点都经过爱丽丝·门罗的深思熟虑、精心雕琢。本章分为六个小节，列举实例深入探析《逃离》中的词汇偏离、语法偏离、语音偏离、笔相偏离、语义偏离和方言偏离。《逃离》中的词汇偏离主要体现在外来语和词性转换上，外来语和词性转换使作品中的文字更加灵活生动。不寻常的句子主位是实现语法偏离的主要方式，将句子中想要强调的部分放在句子第一位，能引起读者注意，深刻理解小说主旨。在语音偏离上，门罗主要采用省略和错发音，二者虽然违背语音规则，但是更符合人物形象的身份和状态，拉近读者与小说中人物的距离。文本形状、印刷格式和标点符号的改变是《逃离》中笔相偏离的主要手段，这些特定的文本形状、大写字母、斜体、标点的使用帮助门罗表达情感，传递思想，是作品重要的组成部分。方言偏离主要出现在个别人物形象上，用于体现人物形象的真实性。《逃离》中使用最多的偏离是语义偏离，其中包括明喻、暗语、拟人、类比等二十余种修辞手法。这些偏离在作品中的运用使得作品更有美感和艺术价值，也能帮助读者更深刻地理解和欣赏门罗巧妙的写作手法。第三章分析《逃离》中的过分规则化。过分规则化是指对语言规则的过分遵守和使用，它虽然未违背语言规则，但却以过高或过低频率地出现，以突出重点、引起注意。本章分为两个小节，从语音层面和句法层面对《逃离》中的过分规则化加以分析阐述，以更明确作品深刻内涵及作家的良苦用心。语音层面的过分规则化主要应用于诗歌中，但在《逃离》中也有少量的体现，包括头韵、元韵和辅韵。句法层面的过分规则化主要有重复、平行、对照和高潮。爱丽丝·门罗善于用语音上的韵律和句法上的重复排比表达情感突出主旨。过分规则化帮助读者更深刻理解作家的思想和作品的内涵。第三部分为结论，总结全文并点明主旨。本文创新性地运用前景化理论解读爱丽丝·门罗的《逃离》，为读者理解作品提供了新的视角，也为研究爱丽丝·门罗的写作风格提供了新的依据。此外，通过对短篇小说中的偏离和过分规则化的分析，为英语教学和文体学在实践中的应用有一定的启示和帮助。最后指出研究过程中的局限性和不足之处。关键词：前景化；偏离；过分规则化III AbstractForegroundingtheoryisoneofthemostimportanttheoriesandalsothemostpopularfrontiertheoriesinstylisticsnowadays.Foregrounding,sometimescalled“standout”,referstothedeliberatedeviationfromnormalusageoflanguageinliteraryworks.Thisnotionoriginallycamefromabasictheoryaboutartisticexchange,inwhichanartwithuniquenessalwaysdeviatesfromthegeneralexpectationtotheartinthesocietytheybelongto.Forinstance,theartisticbeautyofapaintingdependsneitheronthesimilarityofthepaintingtotheexternalsceneitdisplays,noronthevividlycopyofnaturelikephotos,butonthedeviationfromthephotographicaccuracyofexternalnature.TheapplicationofforegroundinginstylisticsfirstlyappearedinRussianformalisminlastcentury,laterdevelopedbytheresearchofPraguescholarsandotherlinguistssuchasLeechandHarlliday,andgraduallycametoamaturetheory.Deviationandoverregularityarethetwomainwaystoachieveforegrounding.Foregroundingtheoryhasgreatvalueandsignificanceintheappreciationandresearchofliteralworks.AliceMunro,oneofthemostdistinguishedfemaleCanadianwritersintheworld,isfamousforhershortstories.Sincegirlhood,shehaswrittenmorethanahundredshortstories,whichhavewidelywontheacclaimfromreadersandcriticsbothathomeandabroad.Duringhercareer,shehasbeentherecipientofmanyawardsandprizes,includingthreeCanada’sGovernorGeneral’sLiteraryAwards,twoofGillerPrizesandtheNationalBookCriticsCircleAwards.In2013,becauseofhergreatliteraryachievement,MunrowasawardedtheNobelPrizeinLiteratureattheageof82.TheSwedishAcademypraisedherasthe“masterofmodernshortstories”inthepresentationspeech.Runaway,publishedin2004,consistsofeightshortstories,namelyRunaway,Chance,Soon,Silence,Passion,Trespasses,TricksandPowers.Actuallyitisaboutseveralordinarysmalltowngirls.TheyareturnedintothrillingmiraclesinAliceMunro’sworks.Thethesisconsistsoftheintroduction,themainbodyandtheconclusionparts.Themaincontentsareasfollows:IV Thefirstpartisintroductionwhichfirstlypresentstheformerstudiesonforegroundingtheory.Sinceforegroundingwasbroughtintoliterature,ithasformedacompletesystemofastylisticbranchbythedevelopmentoflinguistics,psychologistsandliterarycriticsofpastdynasties.Meanwhile,thispartdisplaysabriefliteraturereviewofAliceMunroandhermasterpieceRunawayandtheinnovativepurposeoftheworkfromtheperspectiveofforegrounding.Thesecondpartisthemainbody,whichisdividedintothreechapters.ChapterIbrieflyexplainsthehistoryofforegrounding,waystoachieveforegrounding,anditssignificanceandfunctioninliterarycriticism.ThenotionofforegroundingoriginallycamefromRussionformalism,laterthelinguistMukaroskyandthePragueschoolscholarsclarifiedit,andfinallyitwasdevelopedandformedbysomeBritishstylistssuchasLeechandHalliday.ForegroundingasacompleteconceptwasfirstlyputforwardbyMukarosky.Deviationandoverregularityaretwomainwaystoachieveforegrounding.Foregroundingwhichstandsoutfromthebackgroundcreatestheartistryandvaluesintheanalysisofliteraryworks.ChapterIIanalyzesthedeviationinRunaway.Deviation,alsocalledvariation,referstothelinguisticelementsviolatingthenormsoflanguageusageandtheformalgrammarusage.ThischapteranalysestheexamplesinRunawayfromtheangleofdeviation.Everyword,everysentenceandeveneverypunctuationisconsideredcarefullyandthoughtfullybyAliceMunroinRunaway.Thischapterisdividedintosixsections,discussingtheexamplesoflexicaldeviation,grammaticaldeviation,phonologicdealdeviation,graphologicaldeviation,semanticdeviation,anddialecticaldeviationinRunaway.LexicaldeviationinRunawayisbasicallyintheformofloanwordandconversion,whichensurethewordsoftheworkmoreflexibleandvivid.Unusualclausethemeisthemainwaytoachievegrammaticaldeviation.Bysettingstressedunitintheinitialpositionofasentence,readersmaypaymoreattentiontothispartandunderstandthemainideaofthesestoriesbetter.Asforphonologicaldeviation,Munroprimarilyadaptsomissionandmispronunciation.Eventhoughtheyviolatetherulesofphonology,theyarealsomoreappropriatetothecharacterandstateofhercharacteristics,thushelpingreducethedistancebetweenreadersandcharacteristics.Shapeoftext,typeofprintandpunctuationaremainmethodsofgraphologicaldeviationinRunaway.TheseV speciallyorderedusageofshape,capitalization,italicsandpunctuationcontributestothedeliveryofMunro’semotionandideas,actingastheveryimportantpartofthework.Dialectaldeviationisappliedtosomeindividualcharacteristics,forrealizingthelifelikenessofthem.ThemostfrequentlyuseddeviationinRunawayissemanticdeviation,whichincludesovertwentyfiguresofspeech,suchassimile,metaphor,personificationandanalogy.TheadaptionofdeviationinRunawaystrengthensitsaestheticvalueandartisticvalue,helpsreadersappreciateandunderstandMunro’swritingstylebetteraswell.ChapterIIIanalysestheoverregularityinRunaway.Overregularityreferstotherepeatedandexcessiveusageofacertainlinguisticelement.Althoughitdoesn’tviolateanylinguisticrules,itappearsinhigherorlowerfrequency,inordertostandoutandattractattention.Thischapterisdividedintotwosections,inwhichdiscussestheoverregularityinRunawayfromphonologicallevelandsyntacticlevelindetail.Therefore,readersmaycomprehendthemeaningoftheworkandideasofthewriterbetter.Overregularityatphonologicallevelismostlyappliedtopoetryanalysis.However,itisalsoutilizedinRunawayforseveraltimes,includingalliteration,assonanceandconsonance.Therearerepetition,parallelism,antithesisandclimaxattheleveloflexicaldeviation.AliceMunroisgoodatexpressingemotionsbyphonologicalrhymeandsyntacticparallelisminRunaway.Thelastpartisconclusion,whichsumsupthisresearchandpresentsthecoreopinionsofthisthesis.TheinnovativeanalysisofforegroundingfeaturesinAliceMunro’sRunawayoffersanewperspectiveandnewbasisforlaterreadingandstudyingofAliceMunro’sworks.Besides,thestudyondeviationandoverregularityinshortstoriesisalsohelpfultoimprovetheefficiencyofforeignlanguagelearningandteaching,thuscontributingtopromotetheapplicationofforegroundinginliteraryworks.Atlast,thelimitationinthisthesisispointedout.VI Keywords:foregrounding;deviation;overregularityVII Contents摘要....................................................................................................................................IIAbstract............................................................................................................................IVIntroduction.......................................................................................................................1ChapterITheoreticalFoundation...............................................................................51.AnOverviewonStylistics.......................................................................................52.ForegroundingTheory.............................................................................................6ChapterIIDeviationinAliceMunro’sRunaway........................................................161.LexicalDeviation................................................................................................162.GrammaticalDeviation.......................................................................................183.PhonologicalDeviation.......................................................................................204.GraphologicalDeviation.....................................................................................225.SemanticDeviation.............................................................................................276.DialectalDeviation.............................................................................................49ChapterⅢOverregularityinAliceMunro’sRunaway..............................................501.Phonologicaloverregularity................................................................................502.Syntacticoverregularity......................................................................................52Conclusion.......................................................................................................................57Bibliography....................................................................................................................60Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................62攻读学位期间发表论文以及参加科研...........................................................................63 IntroductionForegrounding,whichoriginallycamefromthevisualarts,hasbeenaveryimportantstylisticterminthepastdecades.It’sthepracticeofmakingsomethingstandoutfromthesurroundingimagesorwords.Apaintingthatisrepresentationalwon’tattracttheattentionofitsaudience.Whatisartisticallyinterestingishowitdeviatesfromphotographicaccuracy,fromsimplybeinga“copyofnature”.Thevalueofapaintingexistsinthedeviationfromthosemass-producedregularitiesofpatternandabsolutesymmetry.Thesamephenomenonalsohappensinmusic.Thereareexpectedpatterns,includingmelody,rhymeandharmonyinsomemusicalworks.Whileexcellentmusiciansdon’tarrangetheirmusicautomaticallyaccordingtothenormalpattern,butintroduceunexpectedtunesdeviatefromit.Suchdeviationsfromthesesociallyacceptednormshavebeencalledforegrounding,whichstandsoutfromitsbackgroundandtheautomaticsystem.(LianYunjie,2011:242)Theconcept“foregrounding”wasfirstlyintroducedtoliteraryanalysesbyRussionformalism.Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,Russianformalistscholarspointedoutthatthepurposeofbothartandliteratureistodefamiliarizethefamiliar.Inthisway,aworkcanstandoutfromthenormality,beingforegroundedasaworkofart.LaterthePragueschoolscholarsexplainedanddevelopedit.ForegroundinginlinguisticswasfirstpostulatedbyMukarosky.MukarovskyandJacobsonmadegreatcontributiontothedevelopmentofforegrounding.FinallysomeBritishstylistssuchasLeechandHallidayformedthetheoryofforegrounding.Itiswellknownthatforegroundingtheoryisamethodofaccountingforthedifferencebetweenthelanguageinpoetryandthelanguageineverydayusage.Ithasbecomewidelyacceptasoneofthefoundationofstylistics.Theapplicationofforegroundingconcepttoliterature,especiallytopoetry,isobvious:theforegroundingfigureisthelinguisticdeviation,andthebackgroundisthelanguagesystemwhichistakenforgrantedbynormalpeople.Justasourhumaneyesliketopickoutthefigureastheimportantandspecialelementsinitsfieldofvision.Sothereadersofpoetrypickoutthelinguisticdeviationwhichattractstheirattentionmorethanstandardlanguages.Deliberateforegroundinginlinguisticworks1 isnotconfinedtopoetry,butisfoundinothergenresofliterature,forexample,inproseandinnovel.ThetheoryofforegroundingproposedbyMukarovskymainlyemphasizedontheaspectofvariationinliteraryworks.WhileJacobsonputforwardtotheprojectiontheory,whichstressedtheotheraspectofforegrounding,namely,parallelism.Thesearetwowaysofstylisticapproachestoachieveforegrounding,eitherviaoverregularityorviadeviation.TheBritishlinguistsGeoffreyN.Leeechoncesaidthat“Foregrounding,ormotivateddeviationfromlinguisticorothersociallyacceptednorms,hasbeenclaimedtobeabasicprincipleofaestheticcommunication”.(Leech,1983:121)Onthebasisoftherelationshipbetweenselectionandcombinationhedistinguishedtwokindsofforegrounding,namelyvariationandparallelism.Inliteratureworks,foregroundingfeaturesmanifestonthelevelofphonology,morphology,semantics,graphologyandsoon.Thesefeaturescanbeachievedintwoways,whichareknownasdeviationandoverregularity.AccordingtoRussianlinguistVictorShklovsky,thefunctionofartistoleadpeopletorealizethematerialworldthroughanexquisitewaycalled“defamiliarization”or“estrangement”.Deviationistobreakwiththeautomizedstandardlanguageorthecommonperceptionthustoachieveartisticeffects.Overregularityischaracterizedbyrepetitivestructures:(partof)averbalconfigurationisrepeated(orcontrasted),therebybeingpromotedintotheforegroundofthereader’sperception.Foregroundinginliteraturereferstoaformoftextualpatterningwhichismotivatedspeciallyforliteraryaestheticpurposes.Foregroundingwithartisticliteraryvaluepicksoutthehighlightedfeaturesfromthebackground.Thehighlightedfeaturesoflanguagearetheuncommonusageoflanguage,whilethebackgroundisthenormalrulesoflanguagesystemwhichareabidedbypeople.Inpoetry,aswellasinnovels,foregroundingisusuallyappliedbythewriterstoemphasizethemainideaoftheirworks.Asaresult,thoseforegroundingfeaturesworkasthebridgebetweenwritersandreadersdeservescarefulanalysiswhenapplyingintoappreciatingacertaincomposition.AliceMunro(1931-),whogrewupinWingham,Ontarioandlatergraduated2 fromtheUniversityofWesternOntario,isknownasoneofthemostoutstandingwritersinthecontemporaryliteratureofCanada.HerfirstshortstorycollectionHappyShadowDancereceivedtheGovernorGeneralRewardswhenpublishedin1968.Munrobecamefamousandgothighlypraisethen.Tillnowshehaspublishedovertencollectionsofshortstoriesandanovelaswell—LivesofgirlsandWomen.Shehasbeenthewinnerofmanyawardsandprizesduringherdistinguishedcareer,includingthe2013NobelPrizeinliterature.TheSwedishAcademyAwardsaddressedheras“thegreatmasterofcontemporaryshortliteraryfiction”.AliceMunrobecameththe13womanwhohaswontheNoblePrizeforliteratureinhistory.RunawayisMunro’smasterpiece.Afterthepublicationofthisshortnovelcollection,shereceivedlavishpraisesfromliterarycriticsandfromreaders.ItalsowontheGillerPrizeofCanadaforthesecondtimeverySoonafteritspublication.Runawaywasacollectionofeightshortstories,namely,Runaway,Chance,Soon,Silence,Passion,Trespasses,TricksandPowers.Eachofthemwaswrittenaroundthemaintheme–escape.Theprotagonistsofthesestoriesareallcommonwomeninourdailylife.Oncetheyhaveachance,theychoosetorunawayfromtheirboringlifewhichisfulloftrivia.Butfinallyeverythingturnsouttobethesameasbefore,nothinghaschanged.MostofMunro’sworksareaboutthewomenandtheirordinarylifeinthesettingoflittleCanadiantown,exploringthepsychologicalandemotionalworldofwomen.Acommonthemeofherworksishowwomanfacesdilemmainherfamilylifeandemotionallife.Munro’sworksreflectthesouthernOntariagothicstyle,meanwhile,women’sinnerhearthavebeenunfoldedbeforethereaders’eyes.Innearlyonedecade,especiallyafterherwinningNobelPrize,studyofAliceMunroandherworkshasmadesignificantachievementsintheareasoftheme,feminism,uniqueCanadianbackgroundandtranslation.Forexample,MothersandOtherClowns:theStoriesofAliceMunrobyMagdalene.Redekop,TheRestoftheStory:CriticalessaysonAliceMunrobyMarianne.MicrosandSomeOtherReality:AliceMunro’sSomethingI’veBeenMeaningtoTellYoubyLouisK.Mackendrick.Theseachievementshavenotonlydeepenedthecomprehensionofherworks,butalsoopenedabroadviewforthefurtherstudyofAliceMunroandherworks.Nonetheless,theseachievementsare3 purelyinregardtothemeaningaspect.Tillnow,thereisnomonographonthestudyofRunawayfromtheperspectiveofstylistics.Inthisthesis,there’sananalysisofAliceMunro’sshortnovelsfromanewperspective,foregrounding.Foregrounding,asanimportantartistictechniqueofstylistic,iswidelytakenadvantageintheanalysisofpoetryintherecentdecades.Butonlyafewpeopleapplyittothestudyanovel.SinceMunrohasgottheNoblePrize,herworksbegantoattractreaders’attentioninChina,butthestudyisonlylimitedtofeminismandtopicresearch.ThestudyofforegroundinginAliceMunro’sRunawayhasgreatvitality.Atthesametime,itwillcontributetoabetterunderstandingofthewriterandcomprehensionofherworksfortheotherEnglishlearners.4 ChapterITheoreticalFoundationForegrounding,whosenotionoriginallycamefrompainting,referstosomeelementsofaworkthatstandoutinsomecertainways.Mukarovskywasthefirstonetopostulateforegroundingtheoryinlinguistics.Stylisticforegroundingneedsthemotivationofawriterandtheexplanationofthereaders.Inliterature,foregroundingreferstoapatternoftext,whichismotivatedforthepurposesofliteraryaesthetics.1.AnOverviewonStylisticsStylisticsisconsideredasacontroversialfieldoflanguagestudyinflourishingdevelopment.Manydifferentscholarsholdnumerousanddiverseopinions,whichcausingdifficultiesforresearcherstrytoapplymethodsofstylisticanalysis.Tosumupalltheopinions,stylisticsisthestudyofvarietiesoflanguagewhosepropertiespositionthatlanguageincontext.Stylisticsalsoattemptstoestablishprinciplesthatcanexplaintheuniqueselectionsmadebyindividualswhentheyareusingacertainformoflanguage.Therelationshipbetweentheformandtheeffectsinacertaintypeoflanguageisthefocusofstylistics.Moststylisticanalysisconcentratesonthemorestrikingfeaturesofliterarylanguage,ratherthanthewholestructureinatext.Classicalrhetoriciskindofancestryoftheliterarystyleanalysis.ModernstylisticsoriginatedfromRussianFormalismandtheinterrelatedPragueSchool.Notthuntilthe20centurydidstylisticsbecomeadisciplineofsystematicstudy.However,theneweraoflinguisticstylisticsisrepresentedbythelinguisticemotionalexpressiveconceptionoftheFrenchSchoolofCharlesBally.Inhisopinion,stylisticsisadistinctacademicdiscipline,thesameasthePragueSchool’sviewpoint.LaterRussianFormalistRomanJakobson,BritishlinguistMichaelHalliday,GermanstylisticianLeoSpitzerandmanyotherdistinctivelingscholarshaveexploredinthisinterdisciplinaryfieldofacademicstudy,andfinallyshapedthemodernstylistics.InChina,modernstylisticsisstillanewacademicareaopentostudy.Inthe1960s,WangZuoliangwroteanarticleon“TheResearchofEnglishVarietiesandStyles”,whichmarksthebeginningofmodernstylisticsinChina.Thestudyofliterarystylisticshasbeenflourishinginchinainthepast30years.5 Theaimofstylisticsistoexploretherelationshipbetweenlinguisticformandliteraryeffects.StylisticsisusefulinusingandlearningEnglish.Peopleshouldchooseanappropriatevarietyoflanguagewhentheyrespondtoagivensituation.Stylisticsalsoprovidesawayforlearnersunderstandthetextandthustheywillpaymoreattentiontothetext.Inthisway,theycannotonlyappreciatethecontents,butalsostrengthentheirlanguageskillsfurther.Intranslation,stylisticshelpsachieveadaptation.Onlybyconsideringstylisticscarefully,thetargetlanguagecanbeadaptedtotheoriginaloneinbothlanguagetypeandingeneraleffect.Literarystylistics,asalinguisticapproach,isusedforliteraryappreciation.Purelinguisticsaimsattheanalysisoftheformofatext,butneglectingtheaestheticvalueofthecontext.Traditionalliterarycriticismconcernsaboutthesocial,political,oreconomicaleffectandevaluations,ignoringthelinguisticformandconstruction.Literarystylisticssprang,interminglinglinguisticsandliterarycriticstogether.Itcoverstheoryandmethodologyofphonology,morphology,grammar,rhetoric,literarycriticismandothersareas.However,itisnotapanaceawhichcancompletealiteraryexplanation.Itisanefficienttoolthatcanprovidebetterunderstandingandcommunication.2.ForegroundingTheoryAsismentionedbefore,foregroundingisaveryimportantareaofliterarystylistics.Asageneralrule,anybodywhowantstoinvestigatevalueandaesthesisofaworkshouldnotfocusontheroboticizedandnormalpattern,butontheinterestingpointandamazingpoint.Thiskindofdeviationfromsociallyacceptednormsincludinglinguistichasbeengivenaparticularnewnameof“foregrounding”.Atthesametime,itarousesthecomparisonofafigureagainstitsbackgroundinhumaneyes.Inthissection,therewillbeanintroductionofdevelopmentofforegroundingindetail.Theconceptoforegrounding,whichoriginallycamefrompaintingart,referstosomecertainelementsofaworkthatstandoutinsomeways.RussianformalismemergedinRussiaatthebeginningofthelastcentury,devotingitselftoliterarinessstudies,especiallydeviationinliterature.AccordingtoShklovskyandotherRussian6 formalistscholars,poeticlinguisticformisdifferentfromnon-poeticlinguisticform,buttheyareinterrelatedtooneanother.Theautomaticsystemservesasthebackground,whichmakesitpossibleforthearrangementofartisticdeviation.Themostfamousconcepttheyproposedis“defamiliarization”,illustratingthepurposeofartandliteratureistodefamiliarizethefamiliar,andbydefamiliaizingaworkofanartoratextcanmakeitpossibletostandoutfromthenorm–beingforegrounded.However,“defamiliarization”isrestrictedtoformratherthancontexttotheformalists.MukarovskyisregardedasthefounderofPragueschoolandhiscontributiontoforegroundingisunparalleled.“StandardLanguageandPoeticLanguage”,writtenbyMukarovsky,isseenasamilestoneofforegroundinginlinguistics.Inthiswork,heexploredtherelationshipbetweenpoeticlanguageandstandardlanguageontwomajorgrounds:oneishowthestandardlanguageaffectspoeticlanguage;theotherishowthepoeticlanguagebreakstherulesofstandardlanguage.Mukarovskypointsoutthatwhenelementssuchasletters,vocabulariesorphrasesinpoeticlanguagedeviatefromstandardlanguage,theycanproducenoticeable,fresh,aestheticnonstandardfeatures.Thesefeaturesmakeupthecompletesystemofdeviationondifferentlevels.Nevertheless,poeticlanguageandstandardlanguagearenottotallyseparatedfromeachother.Thefunctionofpoeticlanguageistoachieveforegroundingwhilethefunctionofstandardlanguageistoachievecommunication.Theycombinetoeachotherandappropriatelyworktogethertomakethereallyartcometrue.AccordingtoMukarovsky,linguisticforegroundingisnotrestrictedtopoetry.Peoplecanfinditindailycommunicationsuchasincrosstalkandintonguetwister.Literaryworksaremoredistinguishedthanothergenresoflanguage,sinceitisconsistentandsystematic.Eventhough,inothernon-literaryworks,foregroundingmaybeasviolentandinharmoniousasinpoeticworks.AnumberofPraguescholarsadoptedthistermwiththehelpofGarvin’stranslation,andlaterintroducedittospecializedstudiesinwesterncountries.RomanJakobsonisanotherscholarofPragueSchool.HeheldthesameopinionasMukarovskyintermsoftheapplicationofforegroundinginpoetry.Mukarovskybelievesthatdeviationisthemethodtoforegrounding,however,Jakobsonputmore7 attentiononanotherwaytoachieveforegrounding–parallelism.Hefoundtheimportanceofphonology,rhyme,metric,repetitionandotherfactorsinpoetry.Theyalsodon’tconformtothebasicrulesofstandardlanguage,belongingtoforegrounding.Jacobson’maincontributiontopoeticsishis“poeticfunction”,whichheclearlyexplainedinhisthesis“Linguisticsandpoetics”fromtheperspectiveoflinguistics,anditalsolaysthefoundationofpoeticformationforlaterstudies.In1960s,GeofreyN.LeechcombinedthedeviationtheoryofMukarovskyandtheparallelismtheoryofJakobsontogether,improvingforegroundingsystemfurther.Foregroundingcanbeachievedintwoways,eitherbyoverregularityorbydeviation.Anythingthatisforegroundedishighlyattractiveandmorememorablethanthosepartsincommon.AsLeechputsitinhisLanguageandInterpretation,“Foregrounding,ormotivateddeviationfromlinguisticorothersociallyacceptednorms,hasbeenclaimedtobeabasicprincipleofaestheticcommunication”.(Leech,1985:121)Heclassifiedforegroundingintotwobranches:syntagmaticforegroundingandparadigmaticforegrounding.Theformerreferstorepeatingacertainunitindifferentpositionsinalinguisticsequence,whilethelatterreferstochoosingnonstandardlanguageinsteadofstandardlanguageforsomespecialreason.Thesetwotermsarealsocalledparallelismanddeviation.AccordingtoLeech,thereareeighttypesofdeviationinpoetry:lexicaldeviation,grammaticaldeviation,phonologicaldeviation,graphologicaldeviation,semanticdeviation,dialectaldeviation,deviationofregisteranddeviationofhistoricalperiod.Prominenceisanothertermrelatesverycloselywithforegrounding.M.A.K.Hallidaypointsoutthatfromonehandforegroundingismotivatedprominence,andfromanotherhandprominenceisthephenomenonoflinguisticlightening.However,thatisnotsayingprominencesmustbeforegrounding,onlythosecausingfunctionalliteraryvalueforthewholeliteraturecanbecalledmotivatedprominence,actingasfeaturesofforegrounding.Therearetwotypesofprominence,namelyincongruityanddeflection.Incongruityreferstothepartsstickoutfromnormallanguageandsociallyacceptedconvention,accentingondeviationinthequalitylevel.Deflectionreferstosomepartsoccurmoreorlessthantheyshouldbe,accentingonthequantitylevel.It’snothardtoseethatincongruityanddeflectionofHallidayareequalas8 deviationandparallelism.Heofferscriteriaforustopickoutforegroundingwhichstrengthentheartisticeffectofliteraryworkfromprominence.Itiswidelyacceptedthatforegroundingtheoryisoneofthebasesofstylistics.Itisofgreatimportanceinunderstanding,communication,interpretation,andwritingartisticworks.Theanalysisofforegroundingoffersstrongevidencetopoeticinterpretation.Asamatteroffact,foregroundingfeaturesnotonlyappearinpoems,butalsoinnovelsbyhighfrequency.Foregroundinginnovelsdeservesmoreattention,andoncediscovered,itwillprovidemoretheoreticalfoundationsfortheanalyzingofthework,andofferbettercomprehensionforreaders.Therefore,foregroundinghasfundamentallytheoreticalandpracticalsignificanceinliteraryanalysis.Differentscholarsholddifferentopinionstowardsthewaystoachieveforegrounding.Themostacceptableclassificationistoachieveitbydeviationandoverregularity.(Somescholarsalsodividedthemintovariationandparrallelism).Oncesomethingisforegrounded,itbecomesmoreeasilytounderstandandremember.Foregroundinghasbeenconsideredbymanydistinguishedscholarsasabasicprincipleofaestheticcommunication.Foregroundinginliteraturereferstoaformoftextualpatterningwhichismotivatedspeciallyforliteraryaestheticpurposes.Foregroundingcanbeseenatanyleveloflanguage,suchaslexical,phonological,graphologicalandsemanticlevel,itinvolvesastandingoutfromalinguisticnorm.Orpeoplemayaddressitasanaspectofthecertaintextbeingputintheinitialpositionbyrepetitionorparallelism.Thatistosay,foregroundingismainlyrealizedintwomasks:deviationfromnormalityandmorethantherules.Foregroundingisactuallyamethodformakingdifferenceinlanguage,ordefamiliaringfromfamiliarinliterarycomposition.Foregroundingcanbeachievedbydeviationfromanorm,orbyparallelismoftherules,therealmeaningofforegroundingistoacquireoutstandingbyattractingattentiontoitself.Inaddition,itiswriters’carefullyconsiderationsstimulatedthisoutstanding.Thenthistexualstrategycontributestothedevelopmentofimages,themes,andcharacters.Therefore,foregroundingisn’tjustaby-productofanywriter’sespecialfondnessinwritingstyle.Forexample,AliceMunro,awriterofacertainlanguagestyle,wasreputedlyusingCanadiandialectallanguageinher9 characteristics,thusachievenoticeableorsalientattention.Itisratheraresultofspecialindividualstylisticfondnessofawriter,thanofacarefullydesignincreatingforegroundinginliterature.Inaword,notalltheparticulartextualpatternsareforegrounding,onlythosedon’tmotivatedbyaestheticpurposescanbecalledforegrounding.A.DeviationWhensomecustomaryrulesarebrokentosomeextents,deviationoccurs.Morethantwothousandyearsago,thefamouspsychologistAristotlewrotehispoeticworks,whichhasbeenseenasthebeginningof]languagedeviation.Heputthatinpoetrycreating,thewordsdivertingfromtheirnormalusagewouldnotberegardedasmistaken,butcanheightenthem.Atthesametime,keepingnormalformofwordsisnecessary,sinceitcanmaintaintheoriginalmeaning.Whiledeviationisbynomeansrestrictedjusttopoetry,itoccursinothergenresoflanguage.Inthisthesis,deviationinshortstoriesisdiscussed.Deviationcanbedividedintoeighttypes:lexicaldeviation,grammaticaldeviation,phonologicaldeviation,graphologicaldeviation,semanticdeviation,dialecticaldeviation,deviationofregister,deviationofhistoricalperiod.Overregulaityisasurfacestructurephenomenonandthereforeexistsmainlyatthephonologicalandsyntacticlevelsoflanguage.a.LexicalDeviationLeechconfirmsthattherearetwokindsoflexicaldeviation:neologismandnonce-formation,withtheformergettingintotheEnglishword-stockandusedwidelyandthelatterjustcoinedforthespecialcontextandvanishingsoonafterwards.Thenonceword“unlike”iscoinedbyaddingtheprefix“un”totheitem“like”.Theprefix“un”conveysthemeaning“not”andisnormallyreservedforjoiningwithsuchitemsas“believe”,“aware”and“lock”.Thesewordsdeliverthecontrarymeaningofthestems.InEnglish,therearewordslikeblatantbySpencer,assassinationbyShakespeare,pandemoniumbyMilton,casuistrybyPope,BumblebyDickens,andnewspeakbyOrwell.SuchwordshavebeenusedbyotherwritersandhavebecomedailyEnglish10 words.Therearealotofnoncewordsaswell.Anoncewordisusedtomeetaneedatacertainmomentforacertainneed,anddisappearsafterbeingused.“Quark”,forexample,wasformerlyanoncewordinEnglish,appearingonlyinJamesJoyce’sFinnegansWake.ThenMurrayGell-Mannadoptedittonameanewclassofsubatomicparticle.TheuseoftermnoncewordinthiswaywasapparentlytheworkofJamesMurray,theinfluentialeditorofOxfordEnglishDictionary.Noncewordsoftenemergeviathecombinationofarealwordwithaprefixorsuffixbeforeorbehindit,inordertomeetaparticularneed.Theresultisaspecialkindofpseudoword:itcanbeimmediatelyunderstandinthewholecontext,eventhoughitcan’tbefoundinanyreferencebookoranydictionary.Whentheyareneededtorealizesomecertainmeanings,nonceworldswouldappearamongregularusageoflanguage,fortheirmeaningiseasyandapparenttocomprehend.Thereareplentyofexamples:literature-literature,sex-sexxx,andOlympics-Nolympics.Alternatively,noncewordscanbelogatomes—nonsensewordsthatneverthelessobeythephonotacticsofalanguage,that“soundlike”nativewords.Manyexamplesarefoundinnonsenseverse,suchasJabberwocky.Noncewordsmayalsodisobeythephonotactics,suchas“fnord”,orbebarelypronounceableorunpronounceablenonsense,suchas“kwyjibo”.Hereareseveralcommonwaysofforminganewword:blending,abbreviation,loanwords,derivation,conversion,andcompounding,etc.b.GrammaticalDeviationInEnglishsentencesconstruction,thereisaveryimportantdistinctionbetweenthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructure.Deepstructuremaybecharacterizedasthe‘semanticend’ofasyntax,andsurfacestructureasthe‘phonologicalend’.Violationsofsurfacestructureare‘superficial’notonlyinthetechnicalsense,butalsointhesensethattheyhavenofundamentaleffectonthewayinwhichasentenceisunderstood.Intothiscategoryfallviolationswhichcouldbedescribedas‘bad’or‘incorrect’grammar,andalsotheexamplesofsyntacticrearrangement:‘Idoesn’tlikehim.’Strikesusasapoorattemptat‘Idon’tlikehim’;‘Hemesaw’asastrangevariantof‘Hesawme.’Examplesofviolationofdeepstructureare‘agriefago’andtheotherphrasesof11 DylanThomas.Inthesecases,adifferentclassisusedtofillthepositionreservedforthewordsofacertainclass.Mostdeviationsofdeepstructurecanbetreatedascasesof‘mistakenselection’;andtheinterpretationofthedeviationconsistsnotinmappingthedeviantformontoasinglenormalformwhichitmostcloselyresembles,butratherinrelatingittoawholeclassofnormalformswhichcouldreplaceitinthatposition.Thus,grammaticaldeviationreferstotheviolationoftherulesofgrammar.Itcoversaseriesoffeaturessuchasunusualclausethemes,violationofnormalgrammaticalrules,disorderedsentences,overuseofacertaingrammaticalstructure,unusualphrasestructuresandsoon.c.PhonologicalDeviationPhonologicaldeviationisthemostfrequentlyusedinpoetry.Forthesakeofcreatingrhymeandmeter,thepoetcanomitcertainsyllables,changethestressandpronunciationofaword.Thisalsohappensinnovelsandshortstories.Inthisthesis,phonologicaldeviationinMunro’sshortstoriesisdiscussed.There’somission,mispronunciation,sub-standardpronunciation,malapropism,specialpronunciation,andexpansion.d.GraphologicalDeviationToonedegreeoranother,pronunciationisdecidedbyspelling.That’sexplainsadisorderedwrittenformwouldbringadisorderedpronunciation.Forexample,MarkTwainmakeshislittleheroHuckleberryFinnspeakinadialectalandilliterateway,soastoshowthefeaturesassociatedwithpeoplewhoarenotwelleducated.Graphologyreferstotheencodingofmeaninginvisualsymbols.Graphologicaldeviationcanoccurinanysub-areaofgraphology,suchastheshapeofthetext,thetypeofprint,punctuation,indentation,formatofprinting,paragraphing,spacing,spelling(misspelling),etc.e.SemanticDeviationSemanticdeviationisthedeepstructuredeviation.AccordingtoLeech,fortheaimofcreatinglinguisticeffects,awritermayaddsomestrangelinguisticunitsuchasawordoraphrase.Thisstrangelinguisticunitessentiallymeansacommonpracticeinliterature—de-familiarization.ItisatermusedbytheRussianFormalist12 ViktorShklovskytodescribetheabilityofarttobreaktheboringsituationofconventionbyinvestingthefamiliarwithstrangenessandtherebydeautomatizingperception.Defamiliarizationisnotsimplyaquestionofperception;it’stheessenceof“literariness”.Literatureexhibitstheautonomyandartificialityofaworkbyforegroundinganddefamiliarizingitsdevices.Semanticdeviationshowsanunusualwayofarrangementoflanguageusage.Itisconvenientlyexhibitedinfiguresofspeech.Figuresofspeechrefertothoserhetoricaldevicestermedtropesinclassicalrhetoric.Tropesdealwiththewaywordsareusedtomeanmoreorotherthanwhattheyshouldnormallyimply.Aswaystomakelanguagefigurative,theyhelpreadersnotonlyindeepeningtheunderstandingofawork,butalsoinappreciatingmorefullythefinerpointsofawriter’swritingstyle.It’sdifficulttobecountouthowmanyfiguresofspeechesexistedinclassicaltimes.Therearehundredsofthem.However,manyofthemwereover-subtledistinctionsfromothers,andsuchrefinementisnotessentialinthisnewage.Inthisthese,simile,metaphor,analogy,personification,metonymy,synecdoche,antonomasiaandfewotherofthegreatestpracticalvaluewouldbechosenfordiscussion.f.DialectalDeviationThelanguageusedinliteratureisexpectedtobethestandardlanguage,andwhenadialectisusedinliterature,itisthecaseofdialectaldeviation.Forexample,AliceMunrolivedupinCanadianandbeingfamiliarwithlocaldialect.ShewasskilledinwritingnotonlyintheEnglishlanguage,butalsointheCanadianEnglishdialectoftheEnglishlanguage.B.OverregularityInthearticle“Whoisstylistics”,Shortclarifiedhisopiniononforegroundingasfollows:Whenawriterwritesheorshewouldhavetomakedecisionsofchoosingwords,structures,orformsduringthecompletionofawork.Hecanmakechoicesbothinsidethelanguagesystemandoutsidethesystem.Thosechoicesoutsidethelanguagesystemaredeviantandthusproduceforegrounding.Overregularityofa13 particularchoicewithinthesystemalsoproducesforegrounding.Readersmaygetmoreinformationfromthewriter’sdifferentchoicesandatthesametimeunderstandthemeaningmorefully,grasptheeffectsthewriteristryingtoachievebetter.Deviationandoverregularitybothproduceforegrounding.Overregularityisasurfacestructurephenomenonandthereforeexistsmainlyatthephonologicalandsyntacticlevelsoflanguage.AccordingtoLeech,“theimportanceofparallelismaslinguisticfeaturesofpoetryisalmostequaltothatofdeviation”.Parallelismisalsocalledoverregularity,anditreferstoacertainlinguisticelementappearingrepeatedly.StudyofoverregularitystartedfromJakobson,whopaidasignificantwaytothestudyofmodernstylistics.Heproposedthatthereweretwobasicmodesoflinguisticbehaviors—oneisselection,theotheriscombination.ThistheorylaterdevelopedbySaussuretosyntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation.LaterLeechsummarizedhistheoryandnameditforegrounding.Overregularity,asanimportantwaytoachieveforegrounding,canbedividedintotwolevels:phonologicaloverregularityandsyntacticoverregularity.MostscholarsandEnglishlearnershavestudiedonoverregularityinpoetry.Inthisthesis,overregularityinshortstoriesisgoingtobediscussed.Overregularityischaracterizedbyrepetitivestructures:(partof)averbalconfiguration(orcontrasted),therebybeingpromotedintotheforegroundofthereaders’perception.Averyimportantcharacteristicofliteraryworks,suchaspoetryisphonologicaloverregularity.Therearetwokindsofphonologicaloverregularity:phonemicpatterningandrhythmicpatterning.Therepetitionofanelementinastressedsyllableformsthephonemicpatterningofalineorbeyondaline;thecombinationofstressedsyllablesandunstressedsyllablesformstherhythmicpatterningofalinewithinapoem.Inotherliteraturegenres,suchasnovelsorshortstories,phonologicaloverregularityisalsofounded.Themostcommonwaysofpatterningphonemesincludealliteration,rhyme,assonance,consonance,andonomatopoeia.Rhythmicpatterningismostlyseeninpoetry,dealingwithstressedandunstressedsyllables.Itwon’tbediscussedindetailinthisthesis.Syntacticoverregularityreferstotherepetitionofcertainlinguisticunitsofatextandparallelism,wheresomefeaturesvarywhileotherskeepconstant,namelyit14 includesrepetitionandparallelism.Repetitionisrestrictedtomeanthecaseofexactcopyingofacertainpreciousunitinatext,suchasaword,aphraseorevenasentence.Repetitionisdividedintoimmediaterepetitionandintermittentrepetition.Anaphora,epiphora,anadiplosis,andpolysyndetonarefourcategoriesofrepetitionaccordingtothepositiontheyoccur.Thepurposesofrepetitioninone’swritingorspeecharevarious.Amongthememphasisandlucidityareforemost.Parallelismreferstotheexactrepetitioninequivalentposition.Itdiffersfromsimplerepetitioninthattheidentitydoesnotextendtoabsoluteduplication.Parallelismisthecoordinationofwords,clausesandphrasesinasentence.Parallelismheightenstherelationbetweenconnectedelementsbyliningupnounwithnoun,phrasewithphrase,andverbwithverb.Inparallelismalllinkedwordsshouldmatchinform.Inaddition,antithesis,climax,andanti-climaxareveryimportantwaysofformingparallelism.Inthisthesis,therewillbeadetaildiscussionontheoverregularitylevel.Althoughoverregularitylaysitsgreatestimportanceinpoetry,repetitionandparallelismwillcontributetotheshortstoriesofAliceMunromoreimpressiveandmorebeautifulaswell.15 ChapterIIDeviationinAliceMunro’sRunawayDeviationisasignificantapproachofachievingforegroundingindifferentlanguages,especiallyfornovelsandshortstoriesintheseyears.Deviation,whichhasbeenintroducedindetailinpreviouschapter,referstothelinguisticelementsnotabidingthenormsoflanguageusage.Itmayappearindifferentlevelsofliterarylanguage,thusachievedifferentkindsofliteraryoraestheticeffects.AliceMunroisagreatmasterofshortstoriesandalsogoodatapplyingdeviationasatechniqueinherworks.Inthischapter,therewillbeadetaileddescriptionofdeviationinAliceMunro’sfamousshortstorycollectionRunaway.ThepsychologyofhercharactersandthespecialenvironmentofCanadawouldbeshowedasthebestbyAliceMunro.1.LexicalDeviationAsmentionedbefore,theinventionofnewwordsisthemostcommonmethodoflexicaldeviation.Byusingnewwords,anauthormayexpresshisorherownideasimpressively.TherearemanywaystocoinnewwordsinEnglish,includingblending,abbreviation,loanword,deviationandconversion.WordshavegreatimportanceinAliceMunro’sworks.Shechooseswordsverycarefullytoexpressherthoughts;sometimessheevencreatesnewwords.InhermasterpieceRunaway,therearemanylexicaldeviationstoimplycertainmeaning,whichwouldbediscussedinthischapterasfollows.A.LoanwordAloanword(oraborrowing)isawordtakeninbyonelanguagefromanother.InEnglishtherearenumerousloanwords,suchasMahjongfromChinese,kimonofromJapanese,YogurtfromTurkish,bizarrefromFrench.SinceEnglandhasbeenoccupiedbyFranceinhistory,andFrenchistheinternationalofficiallanguageinnowadays.EnglishhasborrowedalotofwordsfromFrance.WecanseemanyloanwordsinAliceMunro’sRunaway.AfterJulietandErichadtalkedabouttheaccident,theywentontalkingaboutthemselves.AnnwasthewifeofEric,towhomhehasbeenmarriedforeightyears.16 UnluckilyAnnhadbeeninjuredinacaraccident.Luckilytheyhadnochildren.JulietfeltsorryaboutEricandsaidtohim:“Youtellpeopleaboutitandtheyfeeltheyhavetosay,howterrible.Whatatragedy.Etcetera.”(Munro,2004:70)“Etcetera”,whichmeans“andsoon”,isaloanwordcamefromFrench.Julietwasacollegestudentintheclassicsdepartment.MostclassicsinEnglishhavecloserelationshipwithancientGreekandancientRoman,towhichFrenchbelongs.JulietwassurelyfamiliarwithFrench.Heresheusingaloanwordprobablyintendedtobepolite,andshowherintelligence.Afteralltheyhadmetjustnow,andchattedfriendlytoeachother.AfterAilowentaway,Julietbegantoexaminethebottlesonthecounter,whichpeoplebroughtforthewake.Shefound“cherrybrandy,peachschnapps,TiaMaria,sweetvermouth”(Munro,2004:82),beingopenedbuthaven’tprovedpopular.“TiaMaria”isaloanwordfromJamaicareferringtoakindofcoffeewine.ThiswinemixedupwithrumandbluemountaincoffeewhichisproducedinJamaica,hencethenameappeared.LaterthenameTiaMariamadeintotheEnglishlanguage.What’smore,“Kallipareos”isaGreekwordJulietusedtodescribehercheeks.It’sobviousthatAliceMunroisamasteroflanguages.B.ConversionConversionistheadaptionofanitemtoanewgrammaticalfunctionwithoutchangingitsform.Duringcenturiesofincreasinganddeveloping,Englishisnowadaysaveryconvertiblelanguage.Forinstance,almostallEnglishnounscanbechangedtouseasverbs.Therefore,whenwriterschooseaword,theycanusethewordinbothitsoriginalmeaninganditsuniquemeaning.There’sanexampleinRunaway:ShehadnicknamedhimGypsyRover,becauseofthesong,anoldsonghermotherusedtosing.(Munro,2004:28)“Nickname”isanoun,butitisusedasatransitiveverbhere.MunropresentedthecloserelationshipbetweenCarlaandClarkvividlyanddynamically.It’scommonamongloverstocalleachotheralovelyname.CarlahasfallinlovewithClark.Shealwayssingsthesong“GypsyRover”hereandtheretomissherloverthus“nickname”17 producingavividandhumorouseffect.Onthecontrary,there’sanotherexampleMunrochangedaverbtoanoun.ErictoldJulietabouthiswife’saccident:“Itwasagangofdrunksfromanotherpartywhoranofftheroadandknockedherdown.Teenagers”.(Munro,2004:69)“Drunk”usedtobethepastparticipleof“drink”andanadjective.Hereitisusedasanounreferringtothepersonwhowasdrunkthusproducingavividandtragiceffect.2.GrammaticalDeviationUnusualclausethemeisthemostimportantpatternofgrammaticaldeviation.Theinitialunitofaclausemaybecalleditsthemeandtherhemeisthereminder.Thefactisthattheoverallchoiceandorderingofthemesplayanimportantroleinorganizingatextandconsequentlyformingthewholemessage.Whatisknown,ormaybeinferred,oristhestartingpointofacommunicationistoberegardedasthethemeofasentenceandtheelementswhichconveythenewpieceofinformationaretherheme.(Newmark,1988)AccordingtoBell(1991),markedthemeinEnglishissignaledbypredicating,preposing,cleftingorfrontingofthethemeandcombinationoftheseoptions.Grzegorek(1984)introducesfourmaintypesofthematizationinEnglish:passivization,cleftsandpseuso-clefts,topicalization,leftdislocation,focusmovement,andpresentationsentenceswithpresupposedexpressions.ShecomparedthesethematizationwiththoseexistinginPolishlanguage.Shesaysthatthematizationisgovernedbyavarietyoffactors,mostofwhichareofpragmaticratherthanpurelysyntacticnature.HallidaynlinguistsidentifythreemaintypesofmarkedthemeinEnglish:frontedtheme,predicatedtheme,andidentifyingtheme.Thetwothemesystemsprovideoptionsfortheexpressionofdiscoursalmeaningasrequiredbythetextualmacrofunction.Atclauselevel,aspeakerorawriterannouncesthetopicofhisorhermessagebyputtingitintheinitialposition.Thisprocesscreatesgrammaticaldeviation,andiscalledthematization.HallidaywhoisthemainrepresentativeofthepositionalapproachtothedefinitionofthethemecharacterizesthematizationinEnglishastheprocessofshiftingvarioussentenceelementstotheinitialpositionplusanygrammatical18 changeswithinasentence,whicharecausedbysuchamovement.Whenclausesarestructuredbymakingchoicesfromtheformofoptionsinwayswhichfocusattentionononepartratherthananotherofthechain,thethemesystemsarebeingactivatedtocreratelinkagewithintheclause.InRunaway,examplesMunrogivesoftheviolationofthenormalgrammaticalrulesareasfollows:Outofthefog,andoutofthemagnifyinglight—nowseentobethatofacartravellingalongthisbackroad,probablyinsearchofaplacetopark—outofthisappearedawhitegoat.Alittledancinggoat,hardlybiggerthanasheepdog.(Munro,2004:39)ThisparagraphisselectedfromthefirstshortstoryinRunaway,andwhichisnamedthesameastheshortstorycollection.Apartfromthelaststressedelementoftheclausestructurewhichbearstheinformationfocus,“outofthefrog”isthemostimportantpartofthisclausefromthepointofviewofitspresentationofthemessageinsequence.Thethemeischaracterizedasthecommunicativedeparturefortherestoftheclause.Thelittlegoathasgoneawayforafewdays.ItfinallyshowedupwhenCarlacamebackfromhershorttrip.Thenormalordershouldbelikethis:awhitegoatappearedoutofthefog,andoutofthemagnifyinglight.Thewordsdescribingcountrysideatmospherewereputintheinitialposition.Foronething,AliceMunrolaidstressontheuniqueenvironmentofCanada.Inthissummerofrainandmorerain,theairofcountrysideiswetandnaturallyhasalotoffog.Fortheother,shesupposedtoshowthemysterioustension.Flora’slostwasstrange.Hercomingbackwasstranger.It’slateatnight,ClarkandSylvia’sconversationwasaboutCarla’srunningaway.Carlacamehome,Floracamebacktoo.Markedthemehappenswhenanitemisremovedfromitsunmarkedpostsubjectpositiontothemarkedpresubjectposition.Theliterarywritermayplaceanyoftherestofclauseelementsinthethematicpositioninordertoachieveanunexpectedliteraryeffect.Sunchagrammaticaldevicedisturbstheexpectedrouteofinformationflowandinevitablybringsaboutunusualness.Amarkedthemeisaveryeffectivegrammaticaldeviceforfocusingaparallelismorcontrast,especiallycommoninrhetoricalspeechorwriting.Followingisanotherexample:19 Notfarfromthehousewasawideshallowpatchoflandthatoftenfilledupwithnightfogatthistimeofyear.Thefogwastheretonight,hadbeenthereallthiswhile.Butnowatonepointtherewasachange.Thefoghadthickened,takenonaseparateshape,transformeditselfintosomethingspikyandradiant.(Munro,2004:39)ThefirstsentenceintheaboveparagraphismadeupofanS+V+Pstructureandasubordinateclause.Theadverbial“notfarfromthehouse”functionedastheinitialpart.Itneatlyknitstheparagraphtogetherandisthusapowerfuldeviceoftextualcohesion.“That”leadsanattributiveclausewhichmakesthesubjectivetoolongtobesetintheinitialposition.Thisisacarefullyarrangementbyadaptinganunusualclausethemehere.Italsogivesmuchemphasistotheadverbialshiftedtotheinitialposition.However,whatseemstobemoreimportantisthatitservestoformacontrastinmeaning.Thewideshallowpatchoflandisnotfarfromthehouse,soClarkandSylviacanseethefogandlaterFloraappearedfromthefog.3.PhonologicalDeviationA.OmissionOmissioniscommonuseinEnglishpoetrysuchas“e’en”for“even”,“whate’er”for“whatever”,“tis”for“itis”,“tho”for“though”.Therearethreekindsofomission,namelyaphesis,syncopeandapocope.Theomissionschangethepronunciationsoftheoriginalwordssothatthepoetmaybetterandmoreeasilyarrangesoundpatternstoachievetheirintendedcommunicativeeffects.Sotheomissionsareconventionallicensesinversecomposition.Omissionisalsosuitableinothergenresofliteratureforthepurposeofconvenienceorauthenticity.InRunaway,AliceMunrousedsomeomissionsinpeople’sconversation.“There.Ishould’t’vecomplainedsoSoon,”themothersaid.“Didyouhearitwasab-o-d-y?”(Munro,2004:62)Here“should’t’ve”isfor“shouldnothave”,and“b-o-d-y”isfor“body”.Thefirstisomissionofphonologicaldeviationandthesecondisspecialpunctuationofgraphologicaldeviation.Thesewordsweresaidbyastrangewomanwhomaycome20 fromsomeremotevillage,andshehasachildbeside.Whenpeopleoftenspeakwithchildren,theirwordsbecomeeasierandreduced.Munrousedanomissionheretoachieveherintendedcommunicativeeffects.Asfortheword“body”,themothersaid“b-o-d-y”insteadof“body”incasethatwordmaythreatenthechild,sincethechilddidn’tunderstandspelling.SotheomissionandpunctuationherebothhavetheirspecialeffectsinAliceMunro’sworld.B.Mispronunciation,sub-standardpronunciationandmalapropismMispronunciationandsub-standardpronunciationoftenoccurinfiction.Malapropismisacomicmisuseoflanguage,usuallybyapersonwhoisbothpretentiousandignorant.Thusitisuseddeliberatelyforhumor,andisuseignorantlyforlifelikeness.TheyalsoexistinAliceMunro’sRunaway.Inordertodescribeacharactervividly,awritermaychoosetolethisorhercharactersmispronouncecertainwordsorsimplypronouncetheminsub-standardways.Shebroughtpenandpaper.Shepouredalittlewine.Carlasatthinking,thenwroteafewwords.Ihavegoneaway.Iwillbeallwrite.(Munro,2004:27)Sylviasawthesewordswhensheunfoldedthepaper.Onherwaybackfromthebusdepot,shewascertainthatCarlaknewhowtowrite“right”.ItwasjustbecausethatshehadbeentalkingaboutwritinganotetoClark,andshewasinanexaltedconfusionstate.PerhapsmoreconfusedthanSylviahadrealized.Malapropismis“ausuallyhumorousmisapplicationofawordorphrase,especiallyblunderinguseofawordthatsoundsliketheoneintendedbutisludicrouslywronginthecontext”.–Webster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionaryAliceMunroherselfhasexplainedthewronguseof“write”.Atthisparticularmoment,Carlawassonervousthatit’sreasonabletowritethehomonym.Bymalapropism,Carla’sexaltedconfusionwasrevealedvividly.There’sanothersimilarexampleintheChance:Ioftenthinkofyousittinguplookingatthestairsstars.YouseeIwrotestairs,it’slateatnightandtimeIwasinbed.(Munro,2004:49)Herestairsismisusedinsteadofstars.Thesetwowordslooklikeeachotherin21 spelling.WhenEricwrotetheletter,it’slateatnightandhewasinbedashesaid.There’sanotherreason—hewasalittlenervous.Afterall,theyarenotthatclose.Hehadjustknownthegirlonthetrain.Malapropismisusedtoimplythewriter’smood,whichmakesthestorymorereliable.Sometimesthemispronunciationisnotproducedbythespeaker,butbythelistener.Afteralongjourney,JulietarrivedatWhaleBayfinally.FollowingisaconversationbetweenJulietandthedriverwhensheaskingforasettlement:“Ohsure,”hesayswithrelief.“Hopin,we’llgetyouthereinnotime.Butit’stoobad,youprettywellmissedthewake.”(Munro,2004:73)Atfirstshethinksthathesaidwait.Orweight?Shethinksoffishingcompetitions.“Sadtime,”thedriverdays,nowgettinginbehindthewheel,“Still,shewasn’tevergoingtogetanybetter.”Wake.Thewife.Ann.Inthisconversation,Julietmisunderstoodthedriver’sword“wake”to“wait”or“weight”implyingthatshebynomeansthoughtaboutthedeathofAnn.IthappenedtobethewrongtimeforJuliettomeetheroldfriend.Besides,thiswasthefirsttimeforJuliettoWhaleBay,whereshefeltuneasyandstrangeaboutwhatwouldhappennext.Shewastoonervousandworriedtomisunderstandtheword.InordertodescribethecharacterIrenevividly,Munrochoosetolethermispronouncessomecertainwords,suchasin“himdeadtiresandhe’sgottogetoutofbedandtendtoher”andin“theycan’tthinkaboutnobodybutthemselves”.(Munro,2004:106)“Him”and“nobody”arewronguseofwords.“Him”shouldbe“heis”and“nobody”shouldbe“anybody”.Althoughherwordsdidn’tfollowEnglishGrammarrules,everybodycangetwhatshewantedtosay.Munrohasgiventhebackgroundofher—livedupnorth,nearHuntsville,theninsomeshackoutinthecountry,barelyeducation,poorlife.Themisusedwordsrevealsthatshebelongstothebottomofsociety,andhinterhermiserablefate.22 4.GraphologicalDeviationA.ShapeofTextTheshapeofatextcanbearrangedinadeviantwaysothatadirectandvividvisualeffectisachievedandacertainthememaybesuggested.Toachieveagoodeffectoffreshness,thelanguageisboundtobedeviatedfromthenorms,fromanordinaryinterpretationandconventionalexpectationofthereader,thusdeviationarises.Themoststrikinglyprominentofalltheoreticaldevicesisgraphologicaldeviation,i.e.violenceoncalligraphy.Inthesecondstory—ChanceofRunaway,thelettertoJulietshowshowamazinglygraphologicaldeviationworks:I’mgladIfinallyrememberedthenameoftheschoolbutIamawfullyafraidnowthatIcan’trememberyourlastname.Iwillsealthisanywayandhopethenamecomestome.Ioftenthinkofyou.IoftenthinkofyouIoftenthinkofyouZZZZZZ(Munro,2004:50)Thisisaletterfromthemanmeetonthetrain.“Ioftenthinkofyou”appearedseveraltimesinthisletter,italsoappearsinlatterparagraphsandinJuliet’smind.Especiallythelast“Iofthinkofyou”isaddedbysixcapitalletters“Z”,expressinghewasthinkingofJulietsomuch.Whenornamentsareintegratedintothemeaningofthework,theylosetheirornamentationandbecomepartofthemeaning,workingtogetherinthestory.Theletters“Z”werearrangedafterthelastword,whichmightmetaphoricallyrefertotheendlessmissingandlove.Furthermore,thesamesentencehesaidforthreetimesimplyinghismissingforher.Digitsthreeandsixbothindicatebigamount.B.TypeofprintLiterarywritersalsochoosetoexpresstheirideasbymanipulatingthetypeofprintwhichmayincludeitalics,boldprint,capitalizationanddecapitalization,etc.AliceMunrosｎhowsaspecialmeaninginRunawaybydeliberateitalics:Atthosewords,chumaround,acoldturbulenceroseinJuliet...Buthewasn’t23 doingthat.Hewantedafriend,notagirlfriend.Hewantedachum…Shecouldhearhimknow,chewingonthewordschumaround.(Munro,2004:56)Thephrase“chumaround”isputinitalics,whichservetwopurposes:ontheonehand,theyareusedinsteadofquotationmarksandindicatetheyareindirectspeeches.ThosewordsweresaidbythemanaccostedwithJuliet,notbyJulietherself.Ontheotherhand,thesewordsremindedJulietthathewasn’treallyinterestedinher.Hejustwantedtofindsomeone,anyone,forchummingaround.Sheunderstoodthathewasnottryingtopickingherup.Thiswasahumiliatesituationforher.ForJuliet,thiswasademoralizingthingwhensomeratherawkwardandlonelyandunattractivemenmakingabaldbidforher,implyingthatshehadtobeinthesameboatastheywere,whileothergirlswithgoodlookingwouldattractattentionfrommen.Thephrase“chumaround”hasbeenlingeringinJuliet’smind.AliceMunrowantedtostressonit,soshechangeditstypeofprinttoitalics.Munrolovestochangethetypeofprinttoexpressherideasinherworks.Italicsanddashesareherfavorites.Followingisanotherexampleofitalics:Andatsometime—noticeableonthesecondferry—shebeginstohavestomachdoubtsaboutthewholebusiness.IoftenthinkofyouIthinkofyouoften(Munro,2004:51)AfterJulietreadtheletter,thesewordsintheletteralwaysturnup.ItalicsforthelasttwosentencesarethatMunromayintendtoattractreaders’attention.Thesewordschangingtheirordersoccurredrepeatedlyyetwithoutpunctuationinit.ThisshowsJulietcan’thelpstoppingthinkingthewordsatall.Thereare117dashesonlyinthefirststoryofRunaway.ThusitcanbeseenhowMunrolovesdashes.Examplesaboundinherworks:Thethingaboutlife,HarryhadtoldLauren,wastoliveintheworldwithinterest.Tokeepyoureyesopenandseethepossible—seethehumanity—ineverybodyyoumet.Dashesareusedinsteadoftraditionalpunctuationmarkssoastoexplain,addmeaningsortransit,thusproducingstrongereffectordifferentmeanings.ThesewordsareHarryteachingLaurenaboutlife.Theparents’lovetoLaurenisfarmorethan24 imagining.Harry,thefather,alwayschangedhisstatustoatutoroflife,tellingLaurenwhatisrightandwhatiswrong,tellingherhowtodealwithdifficulties,tellinghertherealworldandtherealperson.WhenhetoldLaurenaboutthelife,hemustbeearnestenoughwithsincereandaffectivewords.ThedasheshereimplyHarry’stoneandhisstressaswell.Infollowingsentenceshowsaspecialmeaningbydeliberatecapitalization:Thismorningwestoppedatsomegodforsakenlittlesettlementinthenorthernwoods,allpaintedDrearyRailwayRed.(Munro,2004:64)ThesearethewordsJulietwrotetoherparentstotellthestoryontheway.Herfamilyhadalwaysmadetheirbusinesstobringentertainingstoriesintothehouse.Thestoriesrequirednotonlythefactsbutalsothepositionintheworldoftheteller.Sothistime,Julietwantedtotellthethingshappenaroundher,whichwassoastonishing.Apossibleinterpretationforcapitalizingthefirstletterof“DrearyRailwayRed”isthatMunrowantedtoattractthereaders’attention,thusJulietwantedtoattractherparents’attention.Duringthetrip,thesceneoutsidewerefilledwiththesamecolours—white,black,darkgreyanddarkgreen.Finallythefreshcolourredappearedandbroketheboringelements.Juliettriedtoaddsomebrightspotstoherstory.Therefore,threecapitalizedlettersweresetuphere.What’smore,“Red”isthecolourofblood.AwomantoldJulietsoftly,“That’swhatshesaid.Fullofblood.Soitmusthavesplashedinwhenthetrainwentover—”Julietwasafraidanddisgustanduneasyaboutthedeathofthatman.Shethoughtthatshecouldnevertellanybodyaboutthemistakeshemade,thehorridjokeofit.Butshewantedtotellsomebodysomethingverymuch.Thenherparentswerechosentobetheone.However,insteadoftellingthemthesituationdirectly,shejustusedthreecapitalizedlettersimplyingit.C.PunctuationPunctuationmarksaresymbolsthatindicatethestructureandorganizationofwrittenlanguage,aswellasintonationandpausestobeobservedwhenreadingaloud.PunctuationmarksareusedinEnglishsystematically,andinanorganizedway,toperformcertainstylistic,semanticandgrammaticalfunctionsandachieveeffectsthat25 cancontributetoandaffectmeaninginsomewayandinvariabledegrees.Sotheyarenotusedhaphazardlynorregardedasameredecorationthathasnothingtodowiththemessageofthetext,beitasentence,aparagraphoralongpassage.Theyaremeaningandfunctionalindifferenttypesoftexts.InsomewrittenEnglish,punctuationisvitaltodisambiguatethemeaningofsentences.Therulesofpunctuationvarywithlanguage,location,registerandtimeandareconstantlyevolving.Certainaspectsofpunctuationarestylisticandarethustheauthor’schoice.PunctuationhasvitalimportanceinAliceMunro’sRunawayservingforherideas.Forexample:Woodswereold—asGracewasnow—andhadnotseemedtobevisitedbyanyfriendsorchildren.Theirquaintoriginalhousehadnowaforlorn,amistaken,look.Neighborswiththeirghettoblastersandtheirsometimesdismemberedvehicles,theirtoysandwashing,werebunchedupagainsteithersideofit.(Munro,2004:160)Inthispassage,Munrousesmorecommasthanactualdemandedinordertostrengthentheforlorncircumstance.Gracefeltsurprisedatthefactthatthevillageandeveryhouseareold,desolate,andbleak.Ifbysaying“Theirhouseshadaforlornandmistakenlook”,Grace’sfeelingwon’tbeunfoldedvividlylikeinthisway.Dashesorhyphenscanbeseenbetweensentences,phrases,wordsandletters.There’reexamplesinRunaway.SarawasinabadhealthconditionandtheonlywaytofeelreleasewasbelievinginGod.ShetoldJuliet:“Myfaithisn’tsosimple,Ican’tdescribeit.Butit’s–allIcansay—it’ssomething.It’sa—wonderful—something.Whenitgetsreallybadforme—whereitgetssobadI—youknowwhatIthinkthen?Ithink,allright.Ithink—SoonI’llseeJuliet.”(Munro,2004:124)AliceMunroarrangedsevendashesbetweenthesewordsofSara,whichhaveseveralreasons.Firstly,Sarawasterriblysick,thusshecouldn’tsaylongsentencesatastretch,butsayingsomewordswithabreak.Thedashesfunctionedasthebreak.Second,thesewordswereveryimportanttoJuliet’sreformationofherviewonlife.TheyhaveinfluencedJuliettillSara’sdeath.JulietfeltregretfornotreplyingSaraandprotectingher.Lastbutnotleast,thedashesalsoworkedasemphasis.Theymayattractreaders’attentiontoSara’swords,fortheyhavefurthermeaningsthansurface.26 There’sanothercleveradaptionofhyphensbetweenletters:“pret-tytric-ky,”saidthenurse,overhershoulder.(Munro,2004:182)Munrousesahyphenbetween“pretty”and“tricky”inordertoexpressthatthenursehasfoundNeilwasnottellingthetruthbutshedidn’tknowthereason.Byusinghyphens,readerscanlearnthatthenursedrewoutthesetwowordsobviously.5.SemanticDeviationA.SimileAsimileisadirectcomparisonofonethingtoanother.Thecomparisonisusuallybroughtoutbyusing“like”,“as”,“asif”,morethan,resemble,suggest,may(mightaswellas),what,remindof,compareto.SimileisoneoftherhetoricaldevicesAliceMunrousesfrequently.AsinthelaststoryPowersofRunaway:Shewasallwrappedupinabigshawlandshelookedlikesomethingoutofastorybook.Top-heavy,actually,becauseshehasthatbroadfacewithitsblackcurlymopandherbroadshoulders,thoughshecan’tbemuchoverfivefeettall.Shejustsmiled,thesameoldTessa.(Munro,2004:270)Similedrawsacomparisonbetweenthingsthatarenormallynotthoughtofasrelatedoralike.Itcandrawourattentiontoimaginativesimilaritybetweentwoactuallyunlikeentities,thusmakingadecriptionmorevividlyandeffective.MunrodepictsTessaassomethingoutofastorybook,implyingherdifferentfromcommonpeopleintherealworld.Thefollowingdescriptiontellswhatthis“somethingoutofastorybook”lookslikeindetail.Thesimilepresentsreadersaverygraphicpictureanditisalsomorecolloquial.SimileisseenveryfrequentlyinMunro’sworks.There’sanotherexampleinthestoryTrespasses:Therewasnowaythatshecouldcoverthelittlewindowsinthefrontdoor.Therewerethreeofthem,shapedliketeardrops,inadiagonalline.(Munro,2004,224)Thewindowsshapedliketeardrops,whichisaveryeffectivesimile.It’sacommonknowledgethattearscomingwithsadness.Theeyesarethewindowofthe27 mind.Windowshavecloserelationwithhearts.EventhoughEileenhatedthem,anddidalotofcoveringandpaintingworks,shecannotchangethem.Therewasnothingshecoulddoaboutthosedinkylittlewindows.Inaddition,Laurenisolatesherselfintheroom,withthesewindowsclosed.Thatisalsoanimpliedmeaningoftheteardroplikewindows.WhenEriccamehomeintheearlymorning,Julietwassonervoustofeel“likethemomentatschoolbeforethewinteroftheprizeisannounced.Onlyworse,becauseshehasnoreasonablehope.AndbecausetherewillneverbeanotherChancesomomentousinherlife.”(Munro,2004:85)Themanshemetsixmonthsagowastotallyastranger,butnowshecametofindhimandwasstandinginhisroom,waitingforhim.Allthenervesinherbodywereintension.Especiallyhearingthedoorofthetruckclose,hisspeakingtothedog,anddreadcomingoverher,sheeventhoughttocrawlunderthetable.Everyoneknowsthefeelingbeforetheprizeoracademicrecordisannounced—nervous,uneasy,littleexcitingandworried.ThisingenioussimileMunrousedhereshowsthecomplexmoodofJulietatthattime.Readersmayunderstandhermoreclearly.B.MetaphorAfigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparison,inwhichawordorphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedofonethingisappliedtoanother.(Webster’sNewWorldDictionary)Metaphorstatesasimilarityorrelationbetweentwothings,whenoneusesametaphor,heidentifiesapersonorathingwithsomeoneorsomethingofadifferentkind.Metaphorsshouldsuggestthingswhichnotonlybearcloseresemblanceintheshapeorcharacterbutshouldalsoappealstronglytothesenses.Asisthecasewithallotherfigures,metaphorsarealsosubjecttobeingwornoutbytime.Thenewones,whenfirstcreated,willtakeongreaterimpact.Theyarecalledlivingmetaphors.AtypicalexampleinAliceMunro’Runawayis“lameduck”.WhenCarladecidedtoRunaway,SylviaaskedherfriendRuthforhelp.Sylvialaughedandsaid:“She’snotalameduck,don’tworry.Sheisjustapersoninabadsituation,thewayithappens”.Peoplecanhardlyfeelthefigurativesenseof“lameduck”,itsimage28 beingquitewornout.Theyarescarcelyawarethatinusingthoseexpressions,theyhaveusedmetaphors.Ofcourse,itishardtodrawalinebetweenthedeadandthelivingmetaphors.Whatmakesthedistinctionstillmorecomplicatedisthatadeadmetaphormightoftenbegivenanewleaseonlifeinthehandsofaskilledwriter.BelowisanexampleofmetaphorinRunaway:ShedidthiswhenitwasrainingoutsideandClark’smoodweighteddownalltheirinsidespace,andhedidnotwanttopayattentiontoanythingbutthecomputerscreen.(Munro,2004:9)“Weightdown”referstoputtingsomethingheavyonitorinit.Clark’smoodisabstractanddoesn’thaveweight.Munrocomparesthemoodtosomethingheavy.Thecomparisonhereismadetosuggestanimagerythatwillassociatethereaderswithsomethingfarmoregraphic.Besides,peoplecanhardlyfeelthemoodofClarkwithoutthiscomparison.It’srainyoutside,everyonefeelsblueinsuchweather.ThemoodevenweighteddownalltheinsidespaceimplyinghowdepressClarkwas.Shelleyoncesaid,“Languageisvitallymetaphorical.”Richardsalsopointedout“Thoughtismetaphorical.”Heemphasized“Wecannotgetthoughthreesentencesofordinaryfluiddiscoursewithoutit.”Inreality,metaphorisnotonlyusedinourlanguage,butalsousedinourthinking.Itisregardedasathinkingmode,acognitivemeansforhumanbeing,forone’scognitiveprocessisalwaysdevelopingfromtheconcretetotheabstract,fromawell-knowncognitivedomaintoanunknowndomain.Inpracticepeopleusuallysecureasimilarcomparisonbyusingawell-knowncognitivedomaininourthinking.Sometaphorisconsideredtobea“rationalbridge”.Inotherwords,peopleuseoneconceptwhichtheyaresimilarwithtoproduce(ordescribe,orcomprehend)anotherconceptwhichwearenotfamiliarwith.InthesecondstoryChance,Julietfeltguiltyaboutthesuicideofthatman.Shecouldn’ttellanyoneincludingherparentsbutexceptforEric.Whentheyweretalkingaboutwhathappenedbeforetheman’sdeath.Julietsaid:“Itcouldhavebeenthelaststraw,itcouldhavebeen”.(Munro,2004:68)Sheblamedherselfforthesuicideandfeltveryguilty.“Thelaststraw”hereisametaphorindicatingthelastpersonwhocanhelphim.Thisisametaphorinourdailylifeandinpeople’sthinking.29 C.PersonificationPersonificationisafigureofspeechinwhichhumancharacteristicsareattributedtononhumanthingsandevents.Itsuseallowsthewritertocondenseandmakemorevividdescriptionsofimpersonalsubjectsandabstractideas.Munroisaloverofnature,andshehasgivenlifetomanyobjectsinherstories.Fromtheskytothemountain,fromtheseatothestream,fromtheplantstotheanimals,allelementsinnaturecouldbealiveinhercreation.BelowaresomeexamplesinRunaway:ButClark,whohadformerlymadethelittlemarehispet,hadrefusedtohaveanythingmoretodowithher.Lizzie’sfeelingswerehurt,inconsequence—shewasbalkywhenexercisedandkickedupafusswhenherhoofshadtobepickedout,astheydideveryday,lesttheydevelopafungus.(Munro,2004:7)Lizzieisalittlehorse,whosepersonalpronounshouldbe“it”insteadof“her”.Ananimaldoesn’thavefeelings,butMunroheresays“Lizzie’sfeelingswerehurt”.GivinghumancharacteristicstoLizzieindicatesthatCarlaandClarkregardtheirdomesticanimalsasfriendsandfamily.Besides,personificationenablesreadersseeLizziemorevividly.Inthisexamplealivingthingispersonified.Inanother,inanimateobjectsarepersonified.Thetrailsweredeepinmud,thelonggrasssoaking,leavesoverheadsendingdownrandomshowerseveninthosemomentswhentherewasnoactualdownpourfromtheskyandthecloudslookedlikeclearing.(Munro,2004:16)Thetrails,grass,leaves,showers,theskyandcloudsareinanimateobjectsinnature.HereAliceMunrodescribesalivelypictureofcountrysideafterraininCanada.Inthisshotpassage,bothpersonificationandsimileareadapted.“Send”isanactionofhumanbeings,leavescannot“senddownrandomshowers”actually.Munrowriteslikethisinordertodescribingthesufficientwateroftheseplants.Thesceneryinthecountrysideisbeautifulandhealthyaswell.AlsodogswerepersonifiedinChance.ThedogofAilobarksfromtimetotime.Julietthought“maybeshewantstocomeinandhavecompany,perhapsthedogisbarkingatexploringadeer,orabear,oracougar”.(Munro,2004:83)Dogsusedtonothaveanyemotionslikehumanbeings.Itcouldn’thaveanyneedssuchas“come30 in”and“havecompany”andtheabilitysuchas“exploring”.Besidesthepersonalpronounusedhereis“she”insteadof“it”.AliceMunrowascarefullychoosingwordstoindicatehermeaning.Bypersonification,readersmayseeJuliet’smentalactivity.Adoginthehousewouldbeawitness,notacompanion,andwouldonlymakeherfeeluncomfortable.Shedidn’twanttolivewhereshehastosharepartofoutdoorspacewithanyhostileandmaraudinganimals.ThispartwasalsoaforeshadowingforherlivingwithEricandanimalslater.D.AnalogyAnalogyisalsoaformofcomparison,butunlikesimileormetaphor,whichusuallyconcentrateononepointofresemblance,analogydrawsaparallelbetweentwodifferentthingsthathaveseveralcommonqualitiesorpointsofresemblance,soastoconvincethelistenerorreaderthatbecausetwothingsarealikeinsomanyrespects,aconclusiondrawnfromonesuggestsasimilarconclusionfromtheother.Forexample:Itwasasifshehadamurderousneedlesomewhereinherlungs,andbybreathingcarefully,shecouldavoidfeelingit.Buteveryonceinawhileshehadtotakeadeepbreath,anditwasstillthere.(Munro,2004:46)Inthefirstsentence,AliceMunrousedasimiletocompareCarla’ssufferingwith“amurderousneedleinthelung”.Later,sheexplainshowtheneedleworks.Theanalogyusedhereismorepractical,explainingathoughtprocess,alineofreasoningandtheabstractintermsoftheconcrete,soitismoreextended.Aneedleinthelungissofineandsharpthatpeoplecanhardlyfeelitwhenbreathingcarelessly.Butitcanbeveryhurtorevenkillsomeonewhentakingadeepbreath.Withoutrecollection,thisrunningawayexperiencewouldstaythere.Oncethinkingaboutit,itwouldbringaboutterriblehurtinherheart.JulietistheheroinofthesecondstoryChance.AGreekwordshethoughtaboutwakenedananalogyofthingsinacloset:AndbeyondthatsheissuddenlyawareofallherGreekvocabulary,ofeverythingwhichseemstohavebeenputinaclosetfornearlysixmonthsnow…thatiswhathappens.Youputitawayforalittlewhile,andnowandagainyoulookinthe31 closetforsomethingelseandyouremember,andyouthink,Soon.Thenitbecomessomethingthatisjustthere,inthecloset,andotherthingsgetcrowedinfrontofitandontopofitandfinallyyoudon’tthinkaboutitatall.Thethingthatwasyourbrighttreasure.Youdon’tthinkaboutit.Alossyoucouldnotcontemplateatonetime,andnowitbecomessomethingyoucanbarelyremember.Thatiswhathappens.(Munro,2004:83)AliceMunrospentfourparagraphsonthisanalogy,comparingaGreekwordtoone’sbrighttreasureandaclosettoignoringit.That’swhathappensinourdailylife.Peoplealwaysdon’tcherishwhattheyalreadyhave,justputtingthemaside.Nowandagaintheyseeittherebutwithoutlayingmorestress,thentheyforgetit,andfinallytheyloseit.Thisisanalarmingforthereaderstocherishwhatalreadybelongtothem.Inotherwords,theanalogyherehelpstochangetheabstracttotheconcrete,betterforunderstandingandanalyzing.E.SynecdocheInsynecdoche,apartstandsforthewhole,thewholeforapart;theconcretefortheabstract,theabstractfortheconcrete;orthenameofthematerialfortheobjectmade.Inourdailyuse,weoftenfindaroofstandsforahouse,asailforaship,breadforfood,ahandforaworkerandahundredheadsforahundredoxen.Theyareallgoodexamplesofsynecdoche.InRunaway,thereisanexampleofsynecdoche:Andthenthelittledirtybonesinthegrass.Theskullwithperhapssomeshredsofbloodiedskinclingingtoit.Askullthatshecouldholdlikeateacupinonehand.Knowledgeinonehand.(Munro,2004:47)Intheabovesentence,“knowledge”standsfortheknowledgeaboutthetraceofFlora.Flora,thebestfriendandtheanchorageofCarla,hasspecialmeaningforCarla.Afteritsrunningaway,Carla’semotionbecameupanddown.Shewantedtofindherlittlefriendallthetime.SoshelookedforFloratotheedgeofthewoodswhentakinganeveningwalk.ShethoughtdifferentpossibilitiesofFlora:lookingforaboyfriend,beingchasedawaybyClark,orevendiedintheforest.TheskullfoundmaybeFlora’s,ormaybenot.Everythingisunclear.What’smore,thisisn’tastandardsentence.“Askull”,asasubject,isfollowed32 byanattributiveclause.AliceMunroarrangedthewholesentenceswithoutaverbinordertoshowthedespairedemotionofCarlaatthesightoftheskull,whichshethoughtprobablybelongingtoFlora.F.MetonymyInmetonymy,athingisnamedbyoneofitsaccompaniments.Thethingspokenofandthethingmeanthavecloserelationtoeachother.Thus,thecontainerisusedforthethingcontained,suchas“bottle”for“wine”,“table”for“food”;theinstrumentfortheagent,suchas“pen”for“menofletters”,“tongue”foraspeaker;thesighforthethingsymbolized,suchas“crown”and“sceptre”for“king”,“WhiteHouse”fortheU.S.president,“greyhair”foroldage;andthenameofthemakerforhisworks,suchas“Shakespeare”fortheworksbyShakespeare.InthestoryTricksofRunaway,AliceMunrowrotelikethis:Shakespeareshouldhavepreparedher.Twinsareoftenthereasonformix-upsanddisastersinShakespeare.Ameanstoanend,thoseTricksaresupposedtobe.Andintheendthemysteriesaresolved,thepranksareforgiven,trueloveorsomethinglikeitisrekindled,andthosewhowerefooledhavethegoodgracenottocomplain.ThenameofShakespearehasoccurstwotimesinthisparagraph.ThefirstonereferstoShakespearehimself.ThesecondoneimpliestheworksbyShakespeare.Metonymyfunctionstosimplifythewriters’wordsandstrikeachordwiththereaders.InthestoryChance,thesamefigureofspeechisused:AllofJuliet’senjoyableexperienceofmenhadbeeninfantasy.Oneortwomoviestars,thelovelytenor—notthevirileheartlesshero—onacertainoldrecordingofDonGiovanniHenryV,asshereadabouthiminShakespeareandasLaurenceOlivierhadplayedhiminthemovie.(Munro,2004:70)Here“inShakespeare”meansintheworksofShakespeare—sameasthelastexample.What’smore,DonGiovanniHenryVandLaurenceOlivieraretheadoptionofallusion.Readersarefamiliarwiththesewell-knownpersons,bywhomreadersmayknowJuliet’senjoyableexperienceofmenbetter.WhenDontheministercametoseeSara,SaraaskedJulietforsomehelp“Would33 yougetDonareasonablesortofchair?Andsomesortofrefreshment,Don?Wouldyoulikeaneggnog?Julietmakesmethemostdeliciouseggnogs.No,No,that’sprobablytooheavy.You’vejustcomeinfromtheheatoftheday.Tea?That’shottoo.Gingerale?Somekindifjuice?Whatjuicedowehave,Juliet?”(Munro,2004:118)HereSarasaidthatDoncamein“fromtheheatoftheday”isalsoanapplicationofmetonymy.“Heat”isanaccompanimentoftheweatheroutside.It’ssummer,thehottesttimeofthewholeyearinCanada.DonistheonlyclosefriendandministerofSara,sincethisfamilywassortofdifferentfromothers.Soshewastoohappytosawhim,andfeltrestlessabouthim.AliceMunrousedthecharacteristicofsummerfortheweather,vividlyimplyingtheSara’sPassiontohergustandtheclimateofCanada.PrayerwheelisthesignforLamaism,andHighMassisthesighforCatholicism.AliceMunrousedthesesignstosymbolizethereligionstheybelong.Asin“Shegagsonthewordspirituality,whichseemstotakesin—assheoftensays—everythingfromprayerwheelstoHighMass.SheneverexpectedthatPenelope,withherintelligence,wouldbemixedupinanythinglikethis.”p131HereprayerwheelandHighMassbothstandforthereligion.Bymetonymy,MunroimpliedJuliet’sdisgustingtoanyreligionmorereliableandeffectively.Sheevendidn’twanttomentiontheword.G.AntonomasiaAntonomasiaisafigurebymeansofwhichanepithetoranewnameisgiventorepresentapropername.ThebardofAvonrepresentsShakespeare,EmeraldIsleforIreland,theHousefortheChamberoftheHouseoftheCommons,StarsandStripesfortheU.S.nationalflagandsoon.Bymeansofthisfigure,apropernamecanalsobeusedtorepresentageneralideaassociatedwiththename.SuchasRomeoforadevotedlover,Helenforabeautifulwoman,Shylockforamiser,Beethoven,Iagoforacunningandtreacherousperson,etc.AliceMunrousesthisfigureinherRunaway:SylviaandLeon“usedtogowalkingeveryspring,tolookforwildorchids.Shetaughthimthenameofeverywildflower—allofwhich,exceptfortrillium,heforgot.HeusedtocallherhisDorothyWordsworth.”(Munro,2004:29)DorothyWordsworthisthesisterofWilliamWordsworthwhoisoneofthe34 greatestEnglishromanticpoets.DorothyalwayskeptcompanywithWilliamWordsworth,walkingalongthepathintheforest.ShehasmadegreathelpforWordsworth’screation.Thefamouspoem“ToDaffodils”wascreatedatthattime.SylviataughtLeothenameofeverywildflower.Herespectedherintelligenceandgenius.Leo,aswellasapoet,regardedhimselfasWilliamWordsworthandhiswifeSylviaasDorothyWordsworth,whowouldgivehimalotofhelp.MotherShiptonwasborninEnglandin1488,whohasexhibitedpropheticandpsychicabilitiessinceshewasalittlechild.Shewrotedownwhatweregoingtohappenintheformofpoetry.Somepeoplewereafraidofher,buthermysticpowerhasalwayshelppeople.Someofherprophesiesarestilleffectivetilltoday.InthestorySilenceofRunaway,JulietcalledJoanMotherShipton.ShehastoldJulietaboutPenelope’srunningaway.Ofcoursedidn’tlikeher.TherewerereasonsforJulietgivingherthename:JuliettalkedwithChristinabitterlyaboutMotherShipton.“Thatwaswhatshefinallydecidedtocallher,havingtoyedwithandbecomedissatisfiedwithPopeJoan.Whatbloodychicanery,shesaid.Whatcreepiness,nastiness,behindthesecond-rate,sweetlyreligiousfacade.ItwasimpossibletoimaginePenelope’shavingbeentakeninbyher.”(Munro,2004:134)Joanisaheavy,slow-movingwomanwithwhitehair,wearingjeansandabaggysweater.Shiptonmeansheavyweight.SoMunrousedantonomasiaheretoimplyJoan’simageandcharacteristicvividlyandintuitionally.H.HyperboleWhenpeoplesaytheyaresohungrythattheycouldeatabear,onecanassumetheyareexaggeratinginordertomakeapoint.Likewise,peoplewhohave“criedtheireyesout”or“worriedtheirheadsoff”undoubtedlystillpossesstheseorgans.Theuseofexaggerationforeffectiscalledhyperbole.Sohyperboleisastatementdeliberatelyexaggeratedinordertostrengthentheeffectoraddforce.Itrepresentssomethingmuchgreaterorless,betterorworse,ormoreintensethanitreallyis,orthatdepictstheimpossibleasactual.Mosthyperbolesaremetaphororpersonificationsexceptfortheiruseofexaggeration.AliceMunroappliedhyperbole35 inherPassionasfollows:ThehospitalwasinCarletonPlace,threemilesaway.Therewasahighwayoverpassabovetherailwaytracks,andtheytookthisatsuchspeedthatGracehadtheimpressionthatitscrestthecarhadliftedoffthepavement,theywereflying.Therewashardlyanytrafficabout,shewasnotfrightened,andanywaytherewasnothingshecoulddo.(Munro,2004:181)HereMunrohumorouslyusewords“liftoffthepavement”,“flying”todescribethespeedoftheircar,givingreadersalifelikeexperienceasifthecarwasrightbeforeyourface.Gracehasgrownupinaverycommonfamily,acceptedverycommoneducation,andhasaverycommonwork.Shehasneverexperiencedsuchadventuroustime.Toher,takingacaratsuchspeedwaslikeliftingfromtheroadandflyinginthesky.IntheletterJulietwrotetoherparentsinthesecondstoryChance,shesaid:“IwassittingatthebackofthetrainintheObservationCar,andfreezingtodeathbecausetheyskimpontheheatupthereandIwastoolazytotrudgebackandgetmysweater.”(Munro,2004:64)AsMunrohastoldbefore,inordertowalkawayfromthatman,shewentinahurrywithoutasweater.Itwascoldintheobservation,butnot“freezingtodeath”.She’dratherstayedtherethangoingbacktogetasweater.Soahyperboleisdeliberatelyusedhereinordertostrengthenthechillinessoftheair.SamhasalwayspraisedIreneandregardedherasanangel.HetoldJulietaboutIrene’sexperiencefromchildtoadult,aboutherfamily,aboutherhardworking,andabouthowshecamehere.Samsaid“I’mtellingyou,atthetimeshecametohelpusoutIwasatwit’send.Lastfall,yourmotherwasadownrightcatastrophe.”(Munro,2004:111)HereMunrousedaphrase“adownrightcatastrophe”,whichreferstoaveryserioustragic.Infact,Sarawasenduringaheartattackandcouldn’thelpforthehousework.Thatwasnotasseriousasa“downrightcatastrophe”.HyperboleusedhereintendedtoimplytheimportanceIrenetohisfamily.JustasSamsaid“Irene.Iblesstheday.Itellyou.Blesstheday.”36 I.UnderstatementThisisaconstructionoppositetohyperbole,achievingitseffectofemphasizingafactbydeliberatelyunderstatingit,impressingthelistenerorthereadermorebywhatismerelyimpliedorleftunsaidthanbybarestatement.Usuallytherearetwokindsofunderstatement:litotesandmeiosis.Litotesisaconstructioninwhichanegativestatement(sometimesadoublenegative)ismadewhereastrongaffirmativeisintended.Juliethasgrownupinadifferentfamilytoothers’.Herparentswerepartlycutofffromneighbors.ShehadalreadytoldChristasomethingsaboutherparents—howtheylivedinacuriousbutnotunhappyisolation,thoughherfatherwasapopularschoolteacher.(Munro,2004:88)“Notunhappyisolation”isadoublenegative,whichmeanstheylivedinacuriousbuthappyisolation.Theyenjoyedtheirownhappinessbytheirsubscribingtomagazinesnoonearoundthemread,listeningtoprogramsonthenationalradionetworknoonearoundthemlistento,makingtheirownclothesnoonearoundthemmake.Theylivedtogetherhappilyintheirownway,notaffectedbyothers.Fromastylisticpoint,thelitotesusedheremayimpressthereadersmorethanbyabarestatement.Meiosisisafigureofspeech,bywhichtheimpressionisintentionallyconveyedthatathingislessinsize,importance,etc.,thanitreallyis.Oftensuchwordsareusedas:rather,hardly,scarcely,pretty,almost,somethingof,kindof,sortof.InJuliet’slettertoherparentsshewrotelikethis:WehavenotyetreachedtheManitobaborderandmostpeoplehavebeencomplainingthatthesceneryisrathermonotonousbuttheycannotsaythatthetriphasbeenlackingindramaticincident.(Munro,2004:64)Usuallyunderstatementsintensifythesentimentintendedbythewriter,andcreatetheeffectofstrongfeelingsmoderatelyconveyed.With“rather”,AliceMunrodeliberatelyunderstatedtheveryboringscenery,whichhasbeendescribedastheadmixtureofrocks,trees,waterandsnow,whichMunrohaddepictedindetailbefore.Whatreallyastonishedthepassengerswasthataccidentandthemanshealreadymet.Butshedidn’tmentionthemanuntilthelastword.37 J.AllegoryThisisastory,playorpicture,inwhicheachcharacteroreventisasymbolrepresentinganideaoraquality.Allegorycommunicatesitsmessagebysymbolicrepresentation.Allegoryistreatedasafigureofrhetoric,butanallegorydoesn’thavetobeexpressedinlanguage,andisoftenfoundinpainting,sculptureorrepresentativeart.Allegorystartsbyexaminingabstractideasinacontextthathasafixedone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenthesymbolsandsomethinginreality.It’susuallymorethanthat,though.Anallegoryisn’tjustacorrespondenceofsubjects.It’sacorrespondenceofthewaythosesubjectsinteract,acompletesystemofcongruities.Allegoryretellsthestoryofrealthingsinanewcontext,exploringtheimplicationsofwhattheyare.Allegoryisafictionalfigurewhichgeneralizeshumanconductorexperiencebymakingonethingsymbolizesanother.Sotheallegoryofacunningpersonisfox;andthatofacruelone,awolf;theriseofanewforce,adown.InmanysetphrasesorsentencesinRunaway,readerscanfindallegory.Asin“HenryFordthesecond,whohaseverythinganybodyinlifecoulddesire—neverthelesshegetsdownonhiskneesandpraystoGodeverynightofhislife.”(Munro,2004:121)ThisisastorytheministerDontoldJuliet,inwhichHenryFordsymbolizestheChristians,andhispiousprayeverynightsymbolizespeople’sdevoutbelieftoGod.DonsetasimpleexampletopersuadeJulietbelieveinGod.EventhemanwhohasalreadygoteverythingstillgetsdownonhiskneesandpraystoGodeveryday,letaloneothers.Thisfixedexamplehelpedtoexplaintheabstractandcomplexideaeasierandclearertounderstand.K.AllusionAllusionsinwritingarereferencestowell-knownpersons,things,oreventsthatwritersassumearefamiliartotheirreaders.Thisassumptionisbasedonthebeliefthattheirreaderssharewiththemacommonhistorical,culturalandliteraryheritage,whichenablesthereaderstoidentifytheallusionsandtounderstandtheirsignificance.38 Forexample:ClarkhadpostedaLostGoatnoticeontheWeb.(Munro,2004:9)IntheBible,godisashepherd,andthechosenpeoplearegoatsandhischildren.Peoplefollowgodeverywhere,enjoyinghisfood,obeyinghisrules,andbeingprotectedbyhim.Alostgoatmeanssomeonegoesthewrongway.Itmaybeindanger.Godissoworriedabouthimandwouldalwaysforgivehimwhenhecomesback.InRunaway,Floraisarealgoat.ButitismorethanananimalforCarla.Florahadbeenahalf-grownkidwhenClarkbroughtherhomefromafarmwherehehadgonetobargainforsomehorsetackle.ThelittlethinghasbeenCarla’sbestfriendfromthenon.WhenCarlawasunhappy,thehorseswouldnotlookather,butFlora,whowasnevertiedup,wouldcomeandrubagainsther,andlookupwithanexpressionthatwasnotquitesympathy—itwasmorelikecomradelymockery—inhershimmeringyellow-greeneyes.CarlamissedFlorasomuchthatsheaskedClarktofindit.Anotice“aLostGoat”willnotonlyattractpeople’sattention,butalsohasanallusioninit.AliceMunrowasfamiliarwithRomanandGreekmythology.AllthecharactersinRomanandGreekmythologywererightatherhandforallusion.WhenJulietsleptinWhaleBayforthefirsttime,shewasdrunk.Inthemorning,shehadsomeTiaMariawithcoffee,whichmadeherfeelcareless,butpowerful.ItenabledhertothinkaboutEric.“Eric,afterall,isnotsoimportant.Heissomeoneshemightdallywith.Dallyistheword.AsAphroditedid,withAnchises,andthenonemorningshewillslipaway.”(Munro,2004:84)AphroditeisthegoddessofloveandbeautyinGreekmythology,alsoknownasVenusinRomanMythology.HerhusbandisHephaestus,sonofZeusandHera.WhenshehasanaffairwithAnchises,sheslippedawaytoherhusbandoneday.MunroadaptedtheallusionimplyingJulietdidn’twanttobuildacloserelationshipwithEricatfirst.However,theyhavegotthroughthefollowingyearsoftheirlifeintheend.L.EuphemismEuphemism(orperiphrasis)istheuseofamildorvagueorperiphrasticexpressionasasubstituteforbluntprecisionofdisagreeabletruth.Therearemany39 waystoformeuphemism,includingtheadoptionofvaguewords,theadoptionofsubstitution,theadoptionofLoanword,usingstoriesfromreligiousorliteraryworks,usingperiphrasis,usingmetaphorandtheadoptionofabbreviations.ThewordsinRunawayareartexhibition.EverywordshowstheintelligenceofAliceMunro.Periphrasisisthekindofwordingthatbeatsaboutthebush.Topicsandtermsthataretootouchytobedealtwithopenlymaybealludedtobythismeans.MunrodepictedAiloasfollows:Sheis,however,thesortofwomanwholaysclaimtospace,particularlytokitchenspace.EverythingwithinJuliet’sgazespeaksofAilo’soccupation,fromthepottedplants(herbs?)onthewindowsilltothechoppingtothepolishedlinoleum.(Munro,2004:81)AilohasdispossessedEric’shouse.Munroreplacedthatwordtoaphrase“layclaimtospace”,whichsoundsmoremildandpleasant.AiloisbusybodywhohelpedEricforyears.ThelatterpartofthisparaphrasehasspreadAilo’soccupation—fromthepottedplantstothechoppingtothelinoleum,explainingthethoroughnessofAilo.InthestorySoon,SamhasshowedhisadorationtoIrene.Hepraisedher,sangabouther,feltpityforherandtalkedaboutherallthetime.Onthewaysendingraspberries,SamtoldIrene’sexperiencetoJuliet.Hesaid:“Ireneandherin-lawswenttocourtbutthefellowgotoff.Well,hewould.Itmusthavebeenprettyhardonher,though.Evenifitdoesn’tseemthatthehusbandwasmuchofaprize.”(Munro,2004:109)“Notmuchofaprize”actuallymeansabadguy.Irene’shusbandgotinwithsomegoonswhowereplanningasidelineinstolenchickensandtheymanagedtosetoffthealarm.Herhusbandwasshotbytheownerattheverymoment.Besides,inSam’heart,bothherdeadhusbandandthefamerwhowasgoingtomarrycouldn’tdeserveher.SothiswastheperiphrasisSamtriedhisbesttouse.M.OxymoronOxymoronisthecombinationinoneexpressionoftwoterms(oftenanadjectiveanditsnounoranadverbandtheworditmodifies)thatare,ordinarilycontradictory,andtheirexceptionalcoincidenceisthereforearresting.Agoodoxymoronwithitsconflictingimagesorideas,canbringoutthehiddentruthorsubtlesignificanceina40 mostimpressive,emphaticandconciseway.Oxymoronshowsthecomplexityofasituationwheretwoapparentlyoppositethingsaresimultaneouslytrue,eitherliterallyorimaginatively.Whenusedoncertainoccasion,itcanproduceanironiccontrastwhichshowshowsomethinghasbeenmisunderstoodormislabeledaswell.AliceMunrodescribedJuliet’sparentsindetailinthethirdstorySoon:JuliethaddescribedSamaslookinglikeher—longneck,aslightbumptothechin,light-brownfloppyhair—andSaraasafrailpaleblonde,awispyuntidybeauty.(Munro,2004:89)Theimagineofa“blonde”ora“beauty”maybesomeonewithaprettyfaceinruddy,agracefulslenderfigure,longgoldenhairovertheshoulders,andbeingcleanandtidy.Buthere,MunrodepictedSarawiththemodifiers“frail”,“pale”,“wispy”,and“untidy”,whicharenotsuitablewordsforsayingaboutbeauties,butoppositetotheminstead.MunrousedoxymorontoshowSara’scuriousbuthappyisolationwithpeoplearoundher.ThusJuliet’smixedfeelingsaboutherparentswereimpliedtothereaders.N.ParadoxStructurally,paradoxisanexpandedoxymoron.Paradoxisastatementwhich,onthefaceofit,seemsopposedtosenseorevenabsurdyetwhenexaminedmaybefoundtobetrue,andconveyanimportanttruth.Paradoxcanbringfreshnesstootherwisetritetruism.Thereadermustprobebeyondtheliteralmeaningofthesestatementstofindadeeper,usuallymorephilosophicalmeaningwhichwillreconciletheapparentabsurdity.Writersoftenemployparadoxicalstatementstodrawthereaders’attentionortoemphasizeapoint.InRunaway,whenJulietwasthreatenedbythemancommittedsuicide,shewantedtoreadbooksfordistractattention.ShehadreadthebkkoDoddsbefore.Everyfewpagessheseemedtohavehadanorgyofunderstanding.Shewasdrawntothesepages,butwhenshereadthemshefoundthatwhatshehadpouncedonwithsuchsatisfactionatonetimenowseemedobscureandunsettling.AliceMunroquotedaparaphraseofparadoxfromDoddstoindicateJuliet’smood:…whattothepartialvisionofthelivingappearsastheactoffiend,isperceived41 bythewiderinsightofthedeadtobeanaspectofcomicjustice…(Munro,2004:65)Throughthisquotation,MunrocreatedtherealpsychologyofJulietandtheseparadoxicalsentencescanbeunderstoodindifferentways.Intheeyesoflivingpeople,someactionsmaybedevil.Butwhentheyweredead,theymayregardthemascomicjustice.ThereareathousandHamletsinathousandpeople’seyes.Letalonethedead,whohavethewiderinsightoftheworld.Ontheotherhand,Munromayindicatethatthelivingpeoplearemoreparochialandmoremiserlythanthedeadones.IthasalwaysbeenamysteryofAliceMunro’sattitudetoGod.InherRunaway,readersmaytracesomeevidenceofit.WhentheministerDoncametoseeSara,hehadadrasticdebatewithJulietaboutbelief.DonbelievedinGodfirmly,butJulietdidn’tbelievehim.Shethoughtpeoplejustdon’tthinkaboutitbeforetheysettheirhearttoGod.“Theargumentwastakingthecoursethatargumentsofthissortareboundtotake.Theminister’svoice,whichhadstartedoutmoresorrowfulthanangry—thoughalwaysindicatingironcladconviction—wastakingonashrillandscoldingtone,whileJuliet,whohadbegun,asshethought,inreasonableresistance—calm,shrewd,rathermaddeninglypolite—wasnowinacoldandbitingrage.Bothofthemcastaroundforargumentsandrefutationsthatwouldbemoreinsultingthanuseful.”(Munro,2004:121)However,actionsspeaklouderthanwords.Donwasadiabeticandit’sserious.HefellillinfrontofJuliet.ItwasJuliet,whodidn’tbelieveinGod,savedhiminsteadofGod.Sara’sstatement“Heneedshisfaith”seemslikewrongontheface.Itwastruebyexaminingcarefullyandconveysanimportanttruth.Godcouldn’thelpanybody,butthefaithinone’sinnerheartistoostrongtohelppeoplefightagainstdifficulties.That’swhatJulietcalled“foxholeargument”.SoMunrosettingtheparadox“heneedshisfaith”hereisactuallyshowingherviewpointaboutbelief.O.IronyItisdifferenttodefinetheworldof“irony”whichcouldbeunderstoodinvariousways.Theexpansionofitsresearchareamaybethedirectcauseofthe42 diversityofthedefinitionofirony.Thefollowingaresomedefinitionsofironyfromdictionaries.Expressionofone’smeaningbysayingthedirectoppositeofone’sthoughtinordertobeemphatic,amusing,sarcastic,etc.–OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary.Useofwordswhichareclearlyoppositetoone’smeaning,usuallyeitherinordertobeamusingortoshowannoyance.(e.g.bysaying“whatcharmingbehaviour”whensomeonehasbeenrude.)–LongmanDictionaryofEnglishLanguageandCultureEnglish-Chinese).Ironyisaliterarytechniquethatachievestheeffectofsayingonethingandmeaninganotherthroughtheuseofhumorormildsarcasm.—Webster’sNewWorldEncyclopedia.Theuseofwordstoexpresssomethingotherthanandespeciallytheoppositeoftheliteralmeaning.—WikipediaInEnglish,ironyisoftenusedtostateone’snegativeattitudetowardssomething.TherearesomeexamplesinRunaway:“Iwassurprised,”saidSylvia“Ibetyouwere.Afteryouweresuchabighelptoherrunningaway.”“Ihelpedher—,”Sylviasaidwithconsiderableeffort,“Ihelpedherbecausesheseemedtobeindistress.”(Munro,2004,37)ThisistheconversationbetweenClarkandSylvia.AfterCarlawentbackhome,ClarkknewthatSylviapersuadedhiswifetoRunawayfromhim.HecametotheJamieson’snotonlytogivebacktheclothes,butalsotowarmSylvia.“Suchabighelp”hereisnotreallyusedtopraise,buttoindicate“Youonlydonothingtohelp.”Andwarnherdon’tinterferingintheirlifeanymore.AliceMunrousedanironytoexpressClark’sstrongdisgusttoSylvia,whichisbetterthanusing“Ihateyou”directly.Ironyoftenservesasthewittingorunwittinginstrumentoftruth.Itchildes,purifies,refines,anddeflates,scornsand“sendsup”.Becauseofitsmultiphasedfunction,ironyisthemostpreciousandefficientweaponofthesatirists.Atthesametimeironyisalsooftenusedbyordinarypeopleineverydaylife.AnotherexampleinthethirdstorySoonadoptedthisfigureofspeech.AtthetimeIrenecametohelpSaminlastfall,Sarawasinabadcondition.ShewasexpectedbySamlettingeverythinggo,butshe’dstartonejobupandthenshecouldn’tgetonwithit.Overandoveragain.SamhadtopickupafterSaraandlook43 afterherandhelpherdothehousework.Hewasathiswit’send.ButwhenhetoldJulietaboutallthesethings,hesaid“Meandyouboth—remember?She’dalwaysbeenthissweetprettygirlwithabadheartandshewasusedtobeingwaitedon.”(Munro,2004:111)SamdetestedSara’sbehaviorbuthecoulddonothingaboutit.Evenso,hedescribedSaraas“thissweetprettygirl”,inwhichincludinganirony.Hedidn’treallypraiseSarabeingsweetandpretty,buttoindicateherbeingatroublemaker.AliceMunroappliedironytomakeamockeryhere.Inthelaterparaphrase,SamhasexplainedSara’scrimes:“ItgotsoI’dcomehometothewashingmachineinthemiddleofthekitchenfloorandwetclothessloppingallovertheplace.Andsomebakingmessshe’dstartedonandgivenupon,stuffcharredtoacrispintheoven.Iwasscaredshe’dsetherselfonfire.Setthehouseonfire.Itellherandtellher,stayinbed.Butshewouldn’tandthenshe’dbeallinthismess,crying.”AllwerecomplainaboutSara.Thus“thissweetprettygirl”wereapparentlyironicwordsaboutSara.P.InnuendoInnuendoisanallusiveremarkconcerningapersonorthing,especiallyofadepreciatorykind.Itisafigureofspeechinwhichmoderateandallusivewordsandtoneareusedtomakecommentsorpasscriticismsuponapersonorthing.Innuendo,likeirony,enablesaspeakertobeimpolitewhileseemingtobepolite.Butdifferentfromirony,innuendodoesitinamoreindirectway.Ithintsorimpliessomethinguncomplimentarywithoutplainlysayingit.Withinnuendo,theintendedmeaningisimplicitandtheunderstandingofitdependsonthecontext.That’swhyinnuendoisalsocalled“amildirony”.HereisanexampleinthesecondstoryofRunaway—Chance:Herprofessorsweredelightedwithher—theyweregratefulthesedaysforanybodywhotookupancientlanguage,andparticularlyforsomeonesogifted—buttheywereworried,aswell.(Munro,2004:53)Fewpeopleliketostudyancientlanguageatthattime.Aroundtheyear1965,peopleinNorthAmericawerecrazyforemergentindustryandeconomy.Ancientlanguagewasignoredorevendespised.Sotheprofessorsweresodelightedaccepting44 agiftedgirljoiningthem.AliceMunrowasworriedaboutthefutureofancientclassicallanguage.Therefore,sheusedaninnuendohere.Q.SarcasmSarcasmistheuseofascornful,taunting,contemptuousexpressiontoridiculeandwoundthefeelingsofthesubjectattacked.Itistheuseofremarkswhichclearlymeantheoppositeofwhattheysay,andwhicharemadeinordertohurtsomeone’sfeelingsortocriticizesomethinginanamusingway.ItisdefinedbyLongmanModernEnglishDictionaryas“acruellyhumorousstatementorremarkmakewiththeintentionofinjuringtheself–respectofthepersontowhomitisaddressed,usuallybydrawingattentiontooneofhisweaknessandoftenassociatedwithirony.”Sarcasmmaybeabitterstatementthatmocksormeanstheoppositeofwhatissaid,oritmaybeacruellyhumorousandstraightforwardstatementthatinjuresone’sself-respectusuallybydrawingattentiontohisweakness.Sarcasmmainlyliesintonewhichistartandbitter.Howeveritstrengthensthespeaker’scondemneffectively.JulietandErichavebornachildwithoutofficialmarriage.Atthattime,inthatclosedvillage,it’sashamefulbehaviortomostneighbors.Readersmaygettheinformationofpeoplelookingdownuponthiskindofbehaviorinthestories—Samquithisjobbecausethefellowsherecouldn’tunderstandJulietandalwaystalkedabouther.Thepassengertrainstillstoppedattheirvillage.Theydidn’twantJulietgettingofftheretomeetanyacquaintances.That’swhyafteraquickglanceatJuliet’sunadornedlefthand,CharlieLittlebegantolookdownonher.AliceMunrowrotelikethis:Andsomethingelse.Heappraisedher,covertly,perhapshesawhernowaswomandisplayingthefruitsofaboldlysexuallife.Juliet,ofallpeople.Thegawk,thescholar.(Munro,2004:103)Julietusedtobeagoodstudent,whoshouldbehaveherselfineveryaspectofherlife.Butnowsheis“displayingthefruitsofaboldlysexuallife”.Thisisametaphorandasarcasm,referringtoPenelopewithoutparents’marriage.CharlieLittlewasseeminglyappraisingher,actuallycondemningher.Laterhecouldn’thelptospeakouthistruefeelings:“I’lltellyouonething,though.Ithoughtitwasashame—”.45 (Munro,2004:103)Sohiscomplimentandappreciationwereactuallyironicsarcasm.AliceMunrousedthisstylisticdeviceforthesakeofshowinghercharacteristic’sinnerheart—beinghardlyinjuredofself-respectbysomeone’sstraightforwardstatement.R.SatireTheartofridiculinganaspectofhumannatureorlifeingeneraliscalledsatire.Itspurposeistoexposetheweaknessorwrongsofpeople,ideas,customs,ororganizations,usuallytoreformthem.Asafigureofspeech,itistheuseofhumor,irony,exaggeration.Orridiculetoexposeandcriticizepeople’sstupidityorvices,particularlyinthecontextofcontemporarypoliticsandothertopicalissues.Italsoreferstoaplay,novel,film,orotherworkthatusessatireoragenreofliteraturecharacterizedbytheuseofsatire.Satireisageneraltermsubdividedintoinnuendo,ridicule,irony,andsarcasm.JustastheBritishphilosopherA.NorthWhiteheadoncesaid,satireisthesouredmildofhumankindness.SatirecomesfromLatinandtherearegreatdifferencesinthedefinitionspeoplegiveit.Asafigureofspeech,satireisusedtoexposewickedness,andridiculestupidity.Itsexpressionsareeithermockingorsarcastic,itslanguageishumorousortartanditspurposesaretomakepeoplelaughorself-examine,toreprimandcontemptuously,ortoattackmockingly.Satireusuallyreferstothecombineduseofirony.Sarcasmandothermeansinliteraryworksinordertoreveal,attackorcriticizethestupidityofanindividualorthesociety.TheimageofIreneAliceMunrohasmodeledinthestorySooniswordless,capable,eccentricandpoor.Shedidn’tliketobewithpeoplesoastobekindofcoldwhenfirstmetJuliet.Julietcalledherattitudeasindifferentanduncompromising.LaterJulietknewherlittlebylittle.Shewasamotheroftwochildren,whosefatherhadbeenkilledinaaccidentwhereheworked.Thistwenty-two-year-oldmotherhadtosupportthepiecemealfamilyallbyherself.WhenJulietsaidsorryforhearthat,forherbeingrudetopryandbeinghypocriticaltocommiserate,Irenesaid:“Yeah.Rightintimeformytwenty-firstbirthday,”asifmisfortunesweresomethingtoaccumulate,likecharmsonabracelet.46 (Munro,2004:96)AliceMunroconferredthissentencebothasimileandasatire.ShecomparedIrene’smisfortunetoabracelet,whichisconnectedofone-by-onecharms.Theabstractideaisexplainedinsimple,concreteimagery.Inthissense,readersmayunderstandherthoughtinadeeperinsight.Themoreattractivefigureofspeechhereissatire.Irene’sfortuneisratherhardoreventragic,butthecharmsonabraceletaretokeeppeoplesafeandsound.Thecontrastbetweenthesetwooppositethingsbroughtaridiculesandsadsatireapparently.Munrousedthiswittylanguagetoconveyinsultsandscorn.S.PunPunis“theuseofawordinsuchawayastosuggesttwoormoremeaningsordifferentassociations,ortheuseoftwoormorewordsofthesameornearlythesamesoundwithdifferentmeanings,soastoproduceahumorouseffect.”(TheOxfordEnglishDictionary,1989)ThenotedEnglishpoetandplaywrightJohnDrydenoncesaidthatPunningistotortureonepoorwordtenthousandways.Homonyms,homophonesandhomographsareallavailabletoconstructpunswith.Punningisalmostexclusivelyadeviceofhumor.Thewholepointofitistheuser’sintenttoproduceahumorousorwittyeffectfromthejuxtapositionofmeanings.InRunaway,MunrosaidCarla“wouldbelost”.(Munro,2004:34)Atthistime,thebushadstoppedinthethirdtownawayfromherhometown.Soonenoughtheywouldreachthemajorhighway,theywouldbetearingalongtowardsToronto.Inthisbrandnewcity,Carlawouldnotfindherwaytonewhouseandtonewwork.Shewouldloseherwaythere.Inaddition,shewastotallydepressedandconfusedaboutherrunningaway.Sheevendidn’tknowwhatshewasdoing.Whatwouldbethepointofgettingintoataxiandgivingthenewaddress,ofgettingupinthemorningandbrushingherteethandgoingintotheworld?Whyshouldshegettingajob,puttingfoodinhermouth,beingcarriedbypublictransportationfromtoplace?Sothedeliberateconfusionhastwoaspects:oneisphysical,theotherismental.AttheendofSoon,JulietfeltsorryabouthermotherSara.Wheninthebad47 condition,Sarahadsaid,“SoonI’llseeJuliet”,tocomfortherself.(Munro,2004:125)Juliethadfoundnoreplay.Shecouldhavesaidyes,foritwouldhavemeantsomuchtoSara.Butshehadturnedaway.“Shehadcarriedthetraytothekitchen,andthereshewashedanddriedthecupsandalsotheglassthathadheldgrapessoda.Shehadputeverythingaway.”(Munro,2004:125)Inthissentence,AliceMunrousedphase“putaway”,implyingtwodifferentmeanings.Oneisapparentlyputtingthesewashedanddriedcupsandglassesintherightposition.TheotherisputtingJuliet’smoodaway.Althoughsomeshifthavetakenplace,atthattime,intheoldplace,someshiftconcernedwherehomewas.NotatWhileBaywithEricbutbackwhereithadbeenbefore,allherlifebefore.Becauseitiswhathappensathomethatshetrytoprotect,asbestasshecan,foraslongasshecan.Lifewasmovingon.Shehadtoputeverythingaway,andbeganhernewlifewithoutSara.T.TransferredEpithetAsmentionedinlastchapter,transferredepithetreferstosomemodifierproperlybelongingtoonewordisusedforanother.Atransferredepithetismetaphoricalorpersonifiedinnature.Itsuggestsacomparison.Agoodtransferredepithetmustbewellsuitedtothewholesituationofthecontextoreasyofimagination.InthesixstoryofRunaway—Trespasses,thisstylisticmethodisused.Shesometimesputupasign—RingBellforService—andtookLaurenwithherintootherpartsofthehotel.Guestsdidstaythereonceawhile,andtheirbedshadtobemadeup,theirtoiletsandsinksscrubbed,theirfloorsvacuumed.Laurenwasnotallowedtohelp.“Justsitthereandtalktome,”Delphinesaid.“It’slonesomekindofwork.”(Munro,2004:212)“Lonesome”isafeelingofhumanbeings.Hereitisaddressedto“work”.Delphinesaidherworkwaslonesome,infactshewassayingherselfwaslonesome.Withoutfixedabode,withoutrelatives,withoutchildrenbeside,shetrulyfeltlonely.What’stheworse,shethoughtshehasfoundherchildLauren,butshecannotacknowledgeherorbeingtogetherwithherallthetime.However,Delphinewasnotaloneinfact.Thereweremanyguestsinthecoffeeshop.Sheshouldbeverybusywithherwork.Guestsstayedthere,theirbedshadtobemadeup,theirtoiletsand48 sinksscrubbed,theirfloorsvacuumedandsoon.HerlonesomeworkisoutofhermissingforLauren.InthestoryChance,whenJulietdecidednottowithAilobutwaitingforEric.Ailogivesher“amassive,perhapsdisdainful,shrug”.(Munro,2004:78)AlthoughAilohelpedEricwithhishousework,shestilldetestedhimwithpersonalaffairs.HavingAnnaswifefirst,andthenSandraandChrista,nowJuliet,shecan’thelptoregardJulietassomeamorouswoman.“Disdainful”isamodifierforattitude,whilehereitisusedasatransferredepithettodescribeAilo’sshrug.ThisfigureofspeechisemployedbyAliceMunrotomakeoutexpressionsmorevivid,livelyandimaginable.SamhasbeentalkingaboutIrenealltheway.Julietcouldn’tfeelanysympathy.Incontrary,shefeltherselfrebelling,deepdown,againstherfather’swretchedlitany.Sheknewshewaswrong,butthefeelingwouldnotbudge.Munrodescribedheras“shewasafraidtosayanythingmore,lestoutofhermouthshebetrayherhardheart”.(Munro,2004:111)Thetransferredepithet“hard”isoutofplacehere.Shemayhaveacooloranunfeelingheart,butherheartcannotbehard.Humanbeingsaremadeupbyfleshandblood,whoseheartsmustbesoft.However,thetransferredepithetiswellsuitedtothewholesituationofthecontextandeasyofimagination.6.DialectalDeviationThelanguageusedinliteraryworksisexpectedtobethestandardlanguage,andwhendialectisusedinliterature,itisthecaseofdialectaldeviation.Generallyspeaking,theuseofdialectseemstobeimproperonformaloccasions.Nevertheless,sometimeswriterswanttocreateacertainatmosphere,suchasahumorous,contemptuous,localorformalatmosphere,sotheymayuseacertaindialectwhichisgreatlydifferentfromthestandardlanguage.AliceMunrohasbeeninWingham,OntarioandWesternOntario.Shewasfamiliarwithdifferentdialectsofthelocalpeople.Shealsoaddresseddialecttohercharactersfortheimagebuildingsometimes.Eric’shousekeeperAiloisaruralwoman,whosevoiceisstrongandinsistent,withsomerichproductionofsoundsinthethroat.WhenJulietfirstspoketoher,shethoughtAiloinaGerman,Dutch,orScandinavianaccent.Inlaterconversation,49 Ailooftenuseddialectincluding“rhubarbcusstart”,“hussband”,“notrealist”etc.(Munro,2004:77)“Rhubardcusstartisakindofpiemadeofrhubarb”,“hussband”means“husband”and“notrealist”hadbeenexplainedbyJulietas“notrealistic”.Thedialectnotonlyhigh-lightenedherimagebutalsomadetheatmospheremorevividandreliable.AliceMunroseemedtobeathomewhenwritingaboutherhometownandherpeople.50 ChapterⅢOverregularityinAliceMunro’sRunawayOverregularityischaracterizedbyrepetitivestructures.Onthecontrarytodeviation,thechoicesofwordsorphrasesinsidethelanguagesystemwhenawriterrepeatedlyuseproduceoverregularity.Overegularityisasurfacestructurephenomenon.Therefore,itcanbedividedintotwolevels:phonologicaloverregularityandsyntacticoverregularity.1.PhonologicalOverregularityPhonologicaloverregularityischaracteristicofliterature,especiallyinpoetry.Therearetwokindsofphonologicaloverregularity:phonemicpatterningandrhythmicpatterning.Therepetitionofanelementinastressedsyllableformsthephonemicpatterningofalineorbeyondaline;thecombinationofstressedsyllablesandunstressedsyllablesformstherhythmicpatterningofalinewithinapoem.InEnglish,phonemesmaybepatternedindifferentways.ThemostcommonwaysofpatterningphonemesinEnglishinclude:alliteration,thyme,assonance,consonance,andonomatopoeia.A.AlliterationAlliterationreferstotherepetitionofinitialconsonantcluster(thesameconsonantsoundsorofdifferentvowelsoundsatthebeginningofwords)instressedsyllables.Alliteration,asthefirstfigureofspeechadoptedinEnglish,isalsocalledinitialrhymeorheadrhyme.Foronething,alliterationcanarousehumorouseffect.Foranother,thealliterateditemsareoftennaturallyforegroundedandstressedasbeingsimilarorformingacontrast.Writersliketousealliterationbecauseitispleasingtotheearandtothetongue.TodayAlliterationisnotonlywidelyusedinpoetryandpoetry,butalsoinjournalismandadvertising.TherearealsosomewisealliterationsinAliceMunro’works.Juliet’sparentsfirstcameonthestageatthebeginningofSoon.TheirnamesareSamandSara.Shegotoffinatowntwentymilesorsoawayfromthetownwhereshehad51 grownup,andwhereSamandSarastilllived.(Munro,2004:89)Thestructureoftheirnames’syllableisconsistedbyainitialconsonant︱s︱withavowel︱æ︱andafinalconsonantclusterfollowed.Theinitialsyllable︱sæ︱carriesthealliteration.Byusingthealliteration,SamandSaraarelinkedinsimilarfeelingandthought.Thecouplematcheseachotherinappearanceandinpersonality.Theyweremeanttobetogether,althoughtheydisagreedsometimes.Munronamedtheminthiswaymayalsopleasetheearandthetongueofreaders.Exceptforthenameswhichcameoutinalliteration,manyothersentencesandphraseswerealsobelongtothisstylisticdeviationinRunaway.WhenJulietcouldn’tbearherfather’stalkinganymore,“shewasafraidtosayanythingmore,lestoutofhermouthshebetrayherhardheart.”(Munro,2004:111)Asmentionedbefore,“hardheart”isanadaptionoftransferredepithet,besidesit’salsoalliterationfromtherhymeperspective.“Hard”and“heart”bothalliteratewith︱ha：︱intheinitialposition,whichhelpedtoforegroundandstressitsmeaning.B.AssonanceandConsonanceTherepetitionofidenticalorsimilarvowelsounds,especiallyinstressedsyllables,withchangesintheinterveningconsonants,asinthephrasetiltingatwindmills.Mostoftimes,assonanceoccursinpoems,however,inMunro’sRunaway,assonancehappensonthenameofitsprotagonists.Jamiesonwouldhavetodrivebyon,herplacebeinghalfamilefartheralongtheroadthanClarkandCarla’s.(Munro,2004:1)Thehero’snameisClarkandtheheroine’snameisCarle.Bothoftheirnameshavethepurevowel︳a:︱asthestressedsyllable.Theassonancenotonlycontributestothemusicalqualityoftheliterarytextbutalsotoitsmeaning.Italsofunctionstounitesentences,ideas,andwordsthatareassociated.Besides,theirnameshavethesameconsonants︳k︳and︳l︳.Therepetitionofconsonantsconsistconsonanceatthesametime.Consonancehereachievesvariouseffects,especiallymusical,humorouseffect.Itisusedtocontributetothecreationofassonanceandstrengtheningofthetheme.AlthoughCarlaandClarkalwaysquarrelwitheachother,orignoreeachother,theywouldneverseparate.TheirnamesimplyCarlawon’treally52 Runaway.ShewouldcomebackSoonerorlater.2.SyntacticOverregularityA.Repetition/intermittentrepetition/anadiplosisRepetitionisrestrictedtomeanthecaseofexactcopyingofacertainpreciousunitinatext,suchasword,aphraseorevenasentence.Therepetitionservestocombinethelinestogetherandgiveunitytotheideaexpressed.Thepurposesofrepetitioninone’swritingorspeecharevarious.Amongthememphasisandlucidityareforemost.Occasionally,oneusesrepetitionforthesakeoflivelydescriptionorrhyme.Repetitionisdividedintoimmediaterepetitionandintermittentrepetition.Whentherepeatedunitimmediatelyfollowstheinitialunit,itisimmediaterepetition.Forexample:ShewaitedacoupleofminutesandthencalledFlora’sname.Overandoveragain,whistleandname,whistleandname.(Munro,2004:16)Heretherepetition“whistleandname”impliesCarlahascalledFlorasomanytimesagainandagain.Itlookslikenoendingatall.Munroemphasizedthefrequencyandlongtimeofcalling.There’sanotherexampleinthelaststoryPowers.WhenNancymetOllietheytalkedabouteachother’sexperienceduringtheseyears.NancywouldliketospeakaboutTessawithhim,butshecouldn’topenhermouthdirectly,soshebegantotalkaboutthecruise.Shedescribedthesceneryandtheweathershesaw.Everybodywassurprisedbythestupendousandstunningcircumstance.Threesamewordsappear“Stunning,stunning,stunning.Stupendous.”(Munro,2004:317)It’struethatthesceneryismorebeautifulthanpeople’simagine,therepetitionusedhereistosettingstress.TherealreasonisthatNancyisstrivingtolookforanchanceinsertingTessa.Intermittentrepetitionreferstoploceintraditionalrhetoric.Accordingtothepositionrepetitionoccurs,itcanbedividedintofourcategories.Namelyanaphora,epiphora,anadiplosis,andpolysyndeton.Anaphoraisrepetitionofawordorwordsoraphrasalstructureatthebeginningoftwoormoresuccessiveclausesorphrasesorversestobringaboutimpressiveness53 orrhythmicalharmony.Julietfoundmanyjumblesontheattic,includingthepictureIandthevillage,towhichshepaidgreatattention,evenforgettingPenelopewithanail.Thatwasbecause“everythingheredistractedher.Theheat,Irene,thethingsthatwerefamiliarandthethingsthatwereunfamiliar.IandtheVillage”.(Munro,2004:98)Inthisnonstandardsentence,“thethingsthatwere”intheinitialpositionhasrepeatedtwice.Theirfollowingpredicativewasapairofantonym“familiar”and“unfamiliar”.MunrousedaseriesofrepetitionforthesakeoflivelydescriptionofJuliet’sthoughtandrhymeofthesentence.There’sanotherexampleinthestorySoon.CharliesaidsomeimpolitewordstoJulietaboutherpersonallife.Juliettoldherfatheraboutit:“Ididn’tknowwhattosay.Ididn’tknowwhathemeant.ButIdidn’twanthimtoknowthat”.(Munro,2004:104)Threenegativesentenceswith“Ididn’tknowwhat”and“Ididn’t”haverepeatedtoindicateJuliethadreallynoideawithherneighbors’thinkingabouther.Shewasalittleangryaboutthemnotunderstandingherandaboutherselfcan’tchangeherfate.Therepetitionmadehertonestronger.Structurallyitbroughtlivelydescriptionandmetricalrhyme.Anadiplosisisrepetitionofaprominentword,usuallythelastinaphrase,clause,sentence,orverse.Munroisgoodatusingthisrhetoricaldeviceinherworks.Intheseventhstory—Tricks,shewrotelikethis:“Andtherewasradiancebehindit,behindthatlife,behindeverything,expressedbythesunlightseenthroughthetrainwindows.Thesunlightandlongshadowsonthesummerfields,liketheremainsoftheplayinherhead.”(Munro,2004:239)“Behind”isrepeatedthreetimes.Therepetitionherebringsaboutimpressivenessandrhythmicalharmony.ItimplicatesRobin’sgreatintensityoffeelingtodropherdailylifewhenshegoingoutfortheplay.TherepetitionherevividlycapturestheemotionalstateofRobin:hereagernessfortheshorttripandhertirednessoftheboringtrivialaffairs.Polysyndetonisrepetitionofconjunctionsinclosesuccession.Itissousedtomeettherhythmicalneedortolaystressoneachthingmentioned.AliceMunroadaptedthisstylisticmethodinherRunawayasfollows:“Carlawasnothinglikethem.IfsheresembledanybodyinSylvia’slife,itwouldhavetobecertaingirlsshehadknownhighschool—thosewhowerebrightbutnevertoobright,easyathletesbutnot54 strenuouslycompetitive,buoyantbutnotrambunctious.Naturallyhappy.”(Munro,2004;18)Inthispassage,thesamenessofstructureimpliesthesamenessinmeaning.Alladjectivesaregood,andtheemotionalfeelingexpressedgetsstrongerineachunit.“But”isrepeatedthreetimes,whichmeansCarlaissodifferentfromothergirlsinhighschool.MunrohassuccessfullyexpressedSylvia’sdifficultyonconceptualizingCarla’scharacteristic.ShewasacommongirlbutnotordinaryintheeyesofSylvia.Munroisamasterofstylisticdevices.Repetitioncanbefoundinherworksfrequently.Hereisanotherexample:“Shedrewherlipstightoverherteethandshuthereyesandrockedbackandforthasifinasoundlesshowl,andthen,shockingly,shedidhowl.Shehowledandweptandgulpedforairandtearsrundownhercheeksandsnotoutofhernostrilsandshebegantolookaroundwildlyforsomethingtowipewith.”(Munro,2004:22)Inthisshortpassage,theconjunction“and”hasappearedninetimes.Ononehand,theyconstitutearhythmicalsuccessionandhelplayingstressoneachactionofCarla.Ontheotherhand,Carla’sseriesactionsindicateherhighemotionalwavesintheinnerheart.Shecannotcalmdown,andfinallyreleased,tellingherrealthinkingtoSylvia.B.ParallelismParallelismreferstotheexactrepetitioninequivalentposition.Itdiffersfromthesimplerepetitioninthattheidentitydoesnotextendtoabsoluteduplication.Itrequiressomevariablesfeatureofthepattern—somecontrastingelementwhichareparallelwithrespecttotheirpositioninthepattern.(Leech,1969:66)Parallelismisthecoordinationofwords,clausesandphrasesinasentence.Parallelismheightenstherelationbetweenconnectedelementsbyliningupnounwithnoun,phrasewithphrase,andverbwithverb.Inparallelismalllinkedwordsshouldmatchinform.Thesimilarityinformhelpstodramatizethedifferencebetweenupliftsanddegrades,andbetweenjustandunjust.Situationsusingparallelconstructionsincludelist,series,contrast,seriespluscontrast,choice,statementofequivalence,classificationordefinition,statementofevaluation,comparisonandusingcorrelativewithparallelism.TherearemanyparallelismsinAliceMunro’Runaway.Followingaresome55 examples:Shedespisedherparents,theirhouse,theirbackyard,theirphotoalbums,theirvacations,theirCuisinart,theirpowderroom,theirwalk-inclosets,theirundergroundlawn-sprinklingsystem.(Munro,2004:33)Inthislongsentence,thepossessivepronoun“their”turnsupeighttimesinseries.MunrohassuccessfullyexpressedCarla’sdespisetoherparents.Shehatedeverythingofheroldfamily,that’swhyshewantedtoRunaway.Bythesamenessstructure,thissentenceseemsmorecoherentandeffective.Usingcorrelativescanmakeparallelismaswell.Correlativesarewordsorphraseusedinpairstojoinwords,phrases,orclauses.Eitherorisoneofthecorrelatives.Forexample:Thistouchdidnotalarmheratall—sheaccepteditwiththeknowledgethathediditeithertoprotectherortoreassurehimself.(Munro,2004:39)Aboveisanexampleofusingcorrelativeswithparallelism.SylviawasafraidofClarkbefore.Whenhemovedclosertoher,shesteppedback.However,thistimeshedidnotworryandacceptedit,thinkingthistouchdoesn’tthreatenheratall.Thecohesioninthissentenceliesinthecorrelative“eitheror”.Atthesametime,“protecther”and“reassurehimself”showparallelismascontrast.WhenJulietfoundEricinhishomeandacceptedbythehost,shecouldn’tfeelmorerelease.Munrodescribedherfeelingas“shefeelsherselfransackedfromtoptobottom,floodedwithrelief,assaultedbyhappiness.Howastonishingthisis.Howclosetodismay.”(Munro,2004:85)Inthissentence,MunrochangedabstractnountoconcreteonestospecifyJuliet’smood.Themoreimportantisthat“floodedwithrelief”isparalleledwith“assaultedbyhappiness”,and“howastonishingthisis”isparalleledwith“howclosetodismay”.Inparallelism,alllinkedwordsmatchinform,makingthesentencemetricalinreading,tidyinshape,andeffectiveinmeaning.C.AntithesisAntithesisistherhetoricalopposingorcontrastingofideasbymeansofgrammaticallyparallelarrangementsofwords,clauses,orsentencestoachieveanironicalorhumorouseffect.ThefollowingpassagefromChanceprovidesagood56 illusionofhowantithesisisusedforthepurposeofirony:Andclosetothefenceisthemoundofearthaltogetherburiedinflowers.Fadedrealflowers,brightartificialflowers,alittlewoodencrosswiththenameanddate.Tinsellycurledribbonsthathaveblownaboutalloverthecemeterygrass.(Munro,2004:74)ThiswasthesceneJulietsawwhenshewassenttoAnn’scemetery—WhaleBayUnionCemetery,whichisaquarterofamileorsoofdirtroadfromhighway.WhaleBayisaremoteplace,andtheunioncemeteryiswilder.Butthefuneralissolemnfromacertainextent.EventhoughhalfoftheattendershadneverseenAnn,buteverybodyknewEric.Hewaskindoffamouspersonatthelocalsurroundings.Sothefuneralisdecoratedwith“fadedrealflowers,brightartificialflowers”andtinsellycurledribbonsalloverthegrass.Anantithesisisusedheretoimplythescaleofthefuneral.D.ClimaxClimaxisthearrangementofaseriesofnotionsinsuchawaythateachisstrongeronforceorgreaterinsignificancethanthepreceding.Itistobuildthefeelingsofthereaderorlistener.WhenCarlawasonthebustoToronto,runningawayfromClark,shecried.“ShesetherselftothinkingaboutToronto,thefirststepsahead.Thetaxi,thehouseshehadneverseen,thestrangebedshewouldsleepinalone.Lookinginthephonebooktomorrowfortheaddressesofridingstables,thengettingtowherevertheywere,askingforajob.”(Munro,2004:34)Asleavingthefamiliarcircumstancebehind,Carlabegantothinkaboutherdifficultiesinfrontofher.Withoutrelatives,withoutClark,everythingwasnewtoher.Carladisplayedthosedifficultiesinhermind,takingtaxis,livinginastrangebedinother’shouse,lookingforaddresses,andfindinganewjob.Amongtheseriestasks,everylaterisharderthantheformer.Afterpicturingherfuture,Carlabegantomissherolddays.Herselfridingonthesubwayorstreetcar,caringfornewhorses,talkingtonewpeople,livingamonghordesofpeopleeverydaywhowerenotClark,allthethinkinggrabshertogobackhome.Andthatiswhatshedidatlast.57 ConclusionThepresentthesisappliesforegroundingtheorytothestylisticanalysisofAliceMunro’sRunaway.Asaveryimportantareaofliterarystylistics,foregroundingtheoryhasstrongvitalityinliteraryanalysisandliterarycriticism.Readerswhowanttoinvestigatethesignificanceandvalueofaliteraryworkoftenconcentrateontheelementofinterestandsurprise,ratherthanontheautomaticpattern.Foregroundingistheverydeviationfromlinguisticorothersociallyacceptednorms.Itinvokestheanalogyofafigureseenagainstabackground,contributestothemeaningofaworkforthewritersandstrengthensthecomprehensionforthereaders.Inthispart,therewillbesummaryofpreviouschapters.Thenotionofforegroundingcomesoriginallyfromthevisualartsandreferstothoseelementsofaworkofartthatstandoutinsomeway.RussianformalismemergedinRussiaatthebeginningofthelastcentury,devotingitselftoliterarinessstudies,especiallydeviationinliterature.MukarovskyisregardedasthefounderofPragueschoolandhiscontributiontoforegroundingisunparalleled.Mukarovskypointsoutthatwhenelementsdeviatefromstandardlanguage,theycanproducenoticeable,aestheticnonstandardfeatures.Thesefeaturesmakeupthecompletesystemofdeviationondifferentlevels.RomanJakobsonisanotherscholarofPragueSchool.Hefoundtheimportanceofphonology,rhyme,metric,repetitionandotherfactorsinpoetry.Theyalsodon’tconformtothebasicrulesofstandardlanguage,belongingtoforegrounding.In1960s,GeofreyN.LeechcombinedthedeviationtheoryofMukarovskyandtheparallelismtheoryofJakobsontogether,improvingforegroundingsystemfurther.Foregroundingcanbeachievedinoneortwoways,eitherviaoverregularityorbydeviation.Prominenceisanothertermrelatesverycloselywithforegrounding.M.A.K.Hallidayarguesthatforegroundingismotivatedprominenceandprominenceisthephenomenonoflinguisticlightening.Notallprominencesareforegrounding,onlythosecausingfunctionalliteraryvalueforthewholeliteraturecanbecalledmotivatedprominence,actingasfeaturesofforegrounding.Therearetwotypesofprominence,namelyincongruityanddeflection.Andtherearewaystoachieveforegrounding,58 namelydeviationandoverregularity.Foregroundingtheoryhasbecomewidelyacceptedasoneofthefoundationsofstylistics.Foregroundinginliteraturereferstoaformoftextualpatterningwhichismotivatedspeciallyforliteraryaestheticpurposes.Ithasfundamentallytheoreticalandpracticalsignificanceinliteraryanalysis.AconclusioncanbemadefromthepreviouschaptersthattherearealotofforegroundingfeaturesinAliceMunro’sRunaway.Deviationandoverregularitycanfindsufficientevidenceinthisshortstorycollection.Deviation,whichhasbeenintroducedindetailinpreviouschapter,referstothelinguisticelementsnotabidingthenormsoflanguageusage.Itmayappearindifferentlevelsofliterarylanguage,thusachievedifferentkindsofliteraryoraestheticeffects.AliceMunroisagreatmasterofshortstoriesandalsogoodatapplyingdeviationasatechniqueinherworks.Inthesecondchapter,thereisadetaileddescriptionofdeviationinAliceMunro’sfamousshortstorycollectionRunawayfromthelexical,grammatical,phonological,graphological,semanticanddialectalperspegtives.ThepsychologyofhercharactersandthespecialenvironmentofCanadaarealsoimpliedbyherdelicatewriting.Munroalsotendstoexpressherideasbyrepetitivestructures,whicharecalledoverregularityinstylistics.Onthecontrarytodeviation,thechoicesofwordsorphrasesinsidethelanguagesystemwhenawriterrepeatedlyuseproduceoverregularity.Overegularityisasurfacestructurephenomenon.Inthethirdchapter,Runawayisanalyzedfromtwolevels:phonologicaloverregularityandsyntacticoverregularity.TheoverregularitycontributestothestructureofRunawayandthethoughtsofAliceMunro.FewresearchesonAliceMunro’sworksareaboutstylisticanalysis,feweraboutforegroundingtheory.TheresearchinthisthesisnotonlypresentstheuniquewritingstyleofAliceMunro,butalsoapprovestheapplicationofforegroundinginliteraryworksisaneffectivemethodtohelpthecomprehensionofliteraryworks.TheanalysisofforegroundingfeaturesinAliceMunro’sRunawayoffersanewperspectiveandnewbasisforlaterreadingandstudyingofAliceMunro’sworks.Besides,thisthesisisalsohelpfultoimprovetheefficiencyofforeignlanguagelearningandteaching,thuscontributestopromotetheapplicationofforegroundingin59 literaryworks.However,therearestilllimitationsinthisthesisundoubtedly.Ononehand,boththeoryandculturesarechangingallthetimetoabroaderandamorecomplexextent.Thisthesiscouldn’tcoveralltheaspectsofdeviationandoverregularityontheresearchofRunaway.Ontheotherhand,sinceAliceMunroawardedNoblePrizetheyearbeforelastyear,herworkshavenotbeenacknowledgedwidelyinChina.Thewebsiteandlibrariesonlinecan’tbeapproachedeasily.Thustherelevantmaterialsforreferencearelimited.SoforegroundinginRunawayisexpectedtofurtherstudy.60 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AcknowledgementsI’dliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetothosewhohelpedmeduringthecomposingofthisthesis.Withouttheirassistance,thethesiswon’tbecompletedsoquicklyandsmoothly.Firstandforemost,I’dliketoextendmyheartfeltthankstomyrespectedsupervisor,ProfessorLianYunjie,whohasprovidedmewithinvaluablerelevantmaterials,insightfulacademicsuggestionsandconstantemotionalencouragementintheprocessofcomposingthisthesis.Duetoherselflessassistancebothacademicallyandsocially,Iwasabletoovercomethedifficultiesandbarriersinthesethreeyears.Ifeelgreatlygratefulforherguidanceandpatience.Inaddition,mysinceregratitudealsogoestoalltheotherprofessorsandteachersinCollegeofForeignStudiesinLiaoningUniversity.Theytaughtmeknowledge,skills,behaviorandmoralityduringmysevenyearsinthisadorablecollege,whichIcan’tlovemore.Lastbutnotleast,Ireallyappreciatemyfamilyandfriendswhohavegivenmesupportandencouragementincomposingthisthesis.63 攻读学位期间发表论文以及参加科研发表论文、出版专著“论《等待戈多》中的希望”,《北方文学》,2013年10月,第一作者。64
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