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1、HowtoMakeOurIdeasClearC.S.Peirce*************IntroductionLikemanygreatminds,CharlesSanderPeircewasnotmuchappreciatedinhistime.Itwasn'tuntiltwentyyearsafterthisarticlewaspublishedthatitservedasoneofthefoundingtextsoftheAmericanPragmatistmovement.Peirce,thesonofafamousHarvardmathematician,wasalo
2、gicianandmemberofthe"MetaphysicalClub,"whichincludedmembersWilliamJamesandOliverWendellHolmes,Jr.WilliamJamesgotthepragmatismmovementgoing,basedinpartonthisessay—(althoughPeircewasleadtorenamehisviewtopragmaticismsoastodistinguishhisviewfromthatofJames').Foradditionalbackground,andfurtherclari
3、ficationonsomeoftheideasmentionedbelow,seePeirce's"TheFixationofBelief"publishedin1877.CommentaryThetextisdividedintofoursections:thefirstsectionprovidesabitofhistoricalbackground.ThefocusisonDescartes'notionof"clearanddistinct"idea.Thesecriteriawerethoughttobeanindicatoroftruth.Leibniz,howeve
4、r,failedtoseethesignificantroleofobservation,sincethemindcanonlymanipulateideas,notoriginatethem.Logicshouldhelpustoobtainclearideas,sinceotherwisewetendtostubbornlyholdontothem,evenfalseones.Themotivationthatguideslogicistherelieffromtheirritationofdoubt,andthecreationofbelief.Theessentialkey
5、toPeirce'sthoughtisthathedefines"belief"asthatwhichdictatesaction.Someoftheideaslaidoutinsectiontwostemfromhispreviousarticle,"TheFixationOfBelief.""Doubt"promptsactiontoresolvetheintellectualtensionitcreates;incontrast,"beliefs"donotpromptaction,thoughtheydictatethecourseofaction.Beliefshavet
6、hreelevels("grades")ofclarity:first,wearemadeawareofsomething.Second,wearepromptedbydoubttoclarifyfurther.Andthird,themostimportantforhispurpose,iswhenabeliefbecomesahabitorruleofaction.Theemphasisofboththepreviousessayandthepresentoneistheintroductionanddefenseofbeliefasactguiding.Forexample,
7、hestates"whatathingmeansissimplywhathabitsitinvolves."Heillustratesthefrivolityofdebatesaboutwhichtherearenopracticaldifferences.Forexample,thedisagreementbetweenCatholicsandProtestantsoverwhetherthewineandbreadusedinservicesarereallyor
