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1、ChapterIV.Syntax1.Traditionalapproachnumber(singularandplural),gender(masculine,feminine,neuter)andcase(inEnglish,3cases:nominative/I,he,she,accusative/me,him,her,genitive/my,his,her)tenseandaspecttenseistime-related,itrelatesthetimeoftheaction,eventorstateofaffairsreferredtointhesentencetothetim
2、eofutterance(thetimeofutterancebeing“now”).-pastandpresentaspect:hastodowithwhetheranactionwascompletedornot,whetherithappenedonceorfrequently,whetheritoccupiedapointintimeorastretchoftime.Englishhastwoco-existentchoicesofaspect,namely(1).continousdenotedbythepresenceof–ing,I’mwriting,andnon-cont
3、inuous,Iwrite.(2).Perfectdenotedbythepresenceof–en.Ihavewritten,andnoe-perfect,Iwrite.concordandgovernmentConcord:(agreement)orrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.Thisman.Thesemen.Hespeaks.TheyspeakGovernment:atypeofcontro
4、lovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Shegavehimthebook.Shegavethebooktohim.2.thestructuralapproach:startedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthe20thcentury.Theyregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasisolatedbits.syntagmaticand
5、paradigmaticrelationssyntagmatic/horizontal,chainrelation组合关系：isarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.Thewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeetsomesyntacticandsemanticconditions.(seeP120)Structure:thesequencewhichasignformswiththoseitisinasyntagmaticrelation
6、paradigmaticrelation/vertical,choice(聚合关系/associative):isarelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent..system:theclassofsignswhichareinaparadigmaticrelation.the____issmilingConstraints::noun,animatenoun,human,insingula
7、r(singularhumannouns),suchasboy,girl,man,woman,student,whichareinaparadigmaticrelation.Theycanreplaceeachotherwithoutviolatingsyntacticrules.Notes:theconstraintsareonlysyntactic,notsemantic.immediateconstituentanalysis
