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时间:2019-06-13
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1、IntroductionofChina’sCosmopolitanEmpireMarkEdwardLewis1ThemilitaryconquestsandbrilliantpoetrythatChinesehavetraditionallycelebratedoccurredinthefirsthalfoftheTangdynasty.Theimperialcourtneverrecoveredfromacataclysmicrebellioninthemiddleoftheeighthcentury,andwithinafewdecadesChinesest
2、atesmenandauthorswerealreadywritingofagoldenageinwhoseshadowtheynowdwelled.GlorificationoftheTang’searlyachievementsinpoliticsandartincreasedinlaterdynasties.WithallofChinaoritsnorthernhalfcontrolledbynon-Chinesepeoplesformostoftheempire’ssubsequenthistory,theTangbecamethelastgreat“C
3、hinese”dynasty.Thisidea(whichdismissedthemilitarilyweakMingdynasty)ignoresthefactthattheTangrulinghousewas—bothgenealogicallyandculturally—aproductofthefrontier“barbarian”culturethatdominatednorthernChinainthefifthandsixthcenturies.2Forhistorians,especiallyintheWest,thesecondhalfofth
4、eTangisinmanywaysmoreinterestingthanthefirst.ThebreakmarkedbytheAnLushanrebellionin756wasapivotalmomentnotonlyinthefortunesofthedynastybutintheentiretrajectoryofChina’sdevelopment.TheJapanesehistorianNaitoTorajiroarguedthatthelongtransitionfromtheTangtotheSongthatbeganinthemid-eighth
5、centurymarkedtheshiftfrom“medieval”to“earlymodern”China.WhileitisdangeroustoimposeWesternperiodizationonChinesehistory,substantialscholarshipsinceNaitohasconfirmedhisessentialhypothesis.TheTangdynasty’sabandonmentofkeyeconomic,military,andsocialinstitutionsaftertheAnLushanrebellion,i
6、tsreconfigurationoftheempire’sculturalgeography,theexpansionoftraderelationswiththeoutsideworld,andtheinventionofnewartisticformstodealwiththischangingworldweretheinitialstepsthatbegantodistinguishlaterimperialChinafromwhathadcomebefore.3Thefirstelementinthetransitionwastheabandonmen
7、tofinstitutionswhoseoriginscouldbetracedbacktothecollapseoftheHandynasty,ina.d.220.AtthebeginningoftheTang,theofficiallandholdingpattern,atleastinthenorth,wastheequal-fieldsystem,whichperiodicallyredistributedstate-ownedlandtofamilieswhoheldandworkedit.Associatedwiththislandholdingsy
8、stemwerelevi
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