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＇著—＇－＾．＂－：．兰苦：皆；辩：幽《；：诚．；５妾革二‘．．＝北．．－＞？可－三－二心恥；：：＾＿＿２三＝＇心诗Ａ．：兰辜心苗，：’—心．＊式＊■．、＇＾－＂言＾－如如山？＾二專３亭’：宣．；＾＾分类号１０７４６密级．．么巧—：２苗＾．．．．．．．．．．．：号气．＇１青，—＇心‘－＇＂’’．１；＇．＇如，＾＾１／：：气如式：，、：１：；：：＇：｛、１＾，１＾心芋－．ＵＤＣ学号２０１４１４’＞＾二片说．１３００２八’、’Ｉ＂－？■？‘？．．．？：．－＇ｈ＂占：作呼：，Ｖ；棘；Ｖ诚ｒ．■；：纖霸難钱ｉ靑海师范大学ｆｌｉｉｌ＇■＇Ｉ一．－．．．．巧．心卢．’’—．＇＇’—＾‘、’．－－＇ｆ．．．‘．．ｒ＾一，訂片；ｆＶ放＇－＊？＇＇＇；＇Ａ：八，Ｖ二？＞＇片Ｘ—Ｖ，：，巧成ｆ（＇挪■＊－．．Ａｒ＇．扣Ｖ＂不．柄扩梟舉给硕古学位论义疆養ｍ＇＇■－＇、．－＇叫‘＇．．．．皆ＸＫ．．作处一：Ｉ，？？＂、’、．、、ｔ二、Ｉ；、；＼、个，Ｗ；，ＡＳｔｕｄｏｎＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＮｅａｔｉｖｅＴｒａｎｓｆｅｒｉｎ纷ｕｄｅｎｔｓＥｎｌｉｓｈ？‘ｙｇｇ＇、？？二＾：；‘兴為若卸苗宙化、ＷｒｉｔｉｎｉｎｎｉｏｒＭｉｄｄｌｅＳｃｈｏｏｌ、、户巧ｇ？－為、知拱中学生英语写作中的母语负迁移硏究、ｆ＾：：？种如，户，；甘：：’＇Ｉ，Ｉ嘴／．．鮮滿難議親讀■？＇．：５．：．＾’研究生姓名首瓣ａｊ、＇’‘备’’，＇、、、，、：：＊’Ｖｔ＾＇＊’导师姓名（职称）李增浪，教授：，；、．；巧＇－．却―‘人八Ｖ＞、＼一．‘’’：种与’．７ｋ心心成１；砖专业挙份类＇别教育硕击培养类别全日制挙科教学（英语）研究方向名称＇论、－文提巧日期２０化年４月论文答辩日期２０化年５月．？？：篆：举债授予単位靑海师范大学学位授予日期２０１６年７月＂？．，早．部．答辩委员会主席袁复恩．ｙ：评阅人曹进，傅软正、＾、一＇’、一少，‘，．？、、礼．、■？？？如Ｉ，＇，产．＇．广’．’１：乂？＇＇；，：．－？‘以巧一二—－、给＇．－＇马、？＾一；＇＇＾’■■：，＇：古成挤．’－＇＇－ｈｖ：ｗ：ｖＩ：ｖ二心、ｓ抑．。＇－？＇＇－．’、．进裕；Ｈ识奇、．‘‘沁；；ｖ．：七：Ｖ ＊青海师范大学学位论文独创性声巧本人声明所呈交的学位论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的巧究成果。尽我所知，除了文中特别加Ｋ标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人巴经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得青海师范大学或其它教一育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材料。与我同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均‘己在论文中做了明确的说明并表不了谢意。。．研究生签名；三：為檢日期分青海师范大学学位论文使用授权声明‘青海师范大学、中国科学技术信息巧究所、国家图书馆有权保留本人所送交学位论文的复印件和电子文档，可采用影印、缩印或其他复制手段保存论文。本人电子文档的内一致。除在促密期巧的保密论文外容和纸质论文的内容相，Ｌ（包括刊登）论文的全部允许论文被查阅和借閑，可乂公布或部分内容。论文的公布（包括刊登）授权由青海师范大学、理研究生部为。：日期：研究生签名：寺趕蔓导师签名１ｆ琢毒 AStudyonChineseNegativeTransferinStudents’EnglishWritinginJuniorMiddleSchool中学生英语写作中的母语负迁移研究ByBaiLuUndertheSupervisionofProfessorLiZengyinAThesisSubmittedtoGraduateSchoolofQinghaiNormalUniversityinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementfortheDegreeofMASTEROFEDUCATION AcknowledgementsIwouldliketothanktoallpersonswhohelpmeintheprocessofpreparingandcomposingthethesis.Withoutthegenerousandtimelyhelpofthem,Icannotfinishsuccessfullymycurrentdissertation.Firstly,IwanttoexpressmygratitudetomysupervisorProf.LiZengyinwhogivesmethecarefulguidance,Hesuggestsmeinthewholeprocessofwriting,andprovideagreatencouragesformetocompletethepresentthesis.Secondly,IamthankfultoallmyteacherswhohavetaughtmeandgivemegreathelpduringthetwoyearsofmystudyinForeignLanguageDepartmentofQinghaiNormalUniversity.Besides,Ialsothanktomyfriendsandclassmateswhogivemealotofusefulsuggestionsandencouragementinmythesiswriting.Atlast,Iwouldliketothanktomyparentswhoprovidemesomehelpstofinishmystudy.I AbstractThelevelofwritinginlanguagelearningistheconcretemanifestationofthestudents’comprehensiveabilitytouseacertainlanguage.Writinghasbeenconsideredasoneoftheimportantanddifficultpointsformiddleschoolstudents.Therefore,theanalysisandresearchoferrorsinwritingcanreflectthebarriersanddilemmainstudents’processoflearningEnglish.Mothertongueofstudentshasagreatinfluenceontheirsecondlanguagelearning,whichisoftenreferredtoaslanguage“transfer”.Asoneoftheimportanttheoriesoflinguistics,languagetransfercanbedividedintopositivetransferandnegativetransfer.Positivetransfercanpromotethesecondlanguagelearning,whilethenegativetransfermayhinderthelearningofsecondlanguage.Oncethishindranceisreflectedinthestudents’Englishwriting,therewillappearwritingerrors.Asystematicstudyofthiskindoferrorscanhelpteacherstoimprovetheireffectivenessofteachingandconsequentlyithasbeenattractingthegreatattentionofmanyresearchers.BasedonsuchtheoriesasErrorAnalysis,ContrastiveAnalysis,LanguageTransfer,InterlanguageandMarkednessTheory,thispaperfocusesonthenegativeimpactofthemothertongue(Chinese)transferonmiddleschoolstudents’Englishwriting.TheresearchdataarecollectedfromtheEnglishcompositionswrittenbythestudentsofGrade2ofShennaJuniorMiddleSchool,Xining,QinghaiProvince.Byanalyzingtheerrorsinstudents’writing,someexpectedresultsandfindingsareobtainedandcorrespondingmeasuresareproposedsoastopromotetheteachingofEnglishwritingandimprovestudents’competenceinEnglishwriting.Inthisstudy,bothqualitativeandquantitativeresearchmethodsareadopted.Theerrorscollectedfrom120Englishcompositionsareclassifiedintodifferenttypesandfurtherdiscussed.TheclassificationisbasedonthecriteriaoferrorsproposedbyC.JamesinhisbooknamedExploringErrorAnalysis.Thepaperlists17kindsoferrorsfrequentlymadebythestudentsintheirEnglishwriting.Itcanbesummarizedaslexicalerrors,syntacticerrors,anddiscoursalerrors.Theerrorfrequencyanalysisshowsthattheerrorsfrommothertonguenegativetransferaccountforthemost,andthemostfrequently-madeerrorisrelatedtotense.Inaddition,errorsintherebestructureandChinglish(ChineseEnglish)arealsoobvious.Byanalyzingtheerrorsinstudents’writing,wefoundthatmiddleschoolstudentstendtothinkinChinesewayII anddirectlytranslateoruseChinesesentencepatternsintheirEnglishwriting.ThisisanimportantfactorthatleadstoChinesenegativetransfer.Additionally,therearesomeotherfactorslikemarkedness,learningandteachingthatoftenleadtoChinesenegativetransfer.EnglishandChinesearetwodifferentlanguagesystems,bothofwhichhavetheirownmodesofthinking.Students’languageexpression,languageformandtheapplicationofrhetoricwillinevitablybeaffectedbyChinesethinkingintheirEnglishwriting.Basedontheresultsofcurrentteachingandlearningconditions,thepaperputsforwardsomepedagogicalsuggestions.Firstly,teachersshouldseekoutthemethodtoenlargestudents’vocabularyandincreasetheamountofreadinginordertoreducetheirlexicalerrorsinEnglishwriting.Secondly,astherecitationisanimportantwaytolearnEnglish,wecanenhancestudents’culturemotivationtostimulatetheirpotentialinEnglishwritingbyaskingthemtorecitesometypicaltextsandsentences.Thirdly,itisnecessarytoconstructthewritingframeworkofEnglishthinkingtoimprovestudents'awarenessofdiscourseinEnglish,insteadoftranslatingChineseintoEnglishdirectly.Studentsneedtopayattentiontogrammarinsteadoflistingwordsonebyone.Fourthly,itisessentialforteacherstogivestudentsmoreencouragementinEnglishlearning.Hence,teachersshouldhaveapositiveattitudetowardthenegativetransferinstudents’writingandtrytooptimizetheteachingmaterialsandwaysinordertoeffectivelyimprovestudents'Englishwriting.Keywords:Negativetransfer;Englishwriting;ErrorAnalysisIII 中文摘要在语言学习中写作水平是学生运用综合语言能力的具体表现。写作一直被认为是中学生英语学习中的重点和难点之一。因此，对写作错误进行分析和研究可以反映学生在英语学习中的障碍和困境。学生的母语对第二语言的学习有着重大影响，这种母语对第二语言学习产生的影响被称为语言“迁移”。语言迁移作为语言学研究的一个重要理论，可分为正迁移和负迁移。正迁移促进第二语言的学习，负迁移则妨碍第二语言的学习，这种妨碍体现在学生英语写作上便是错误的出现。对此类错误进行系统分析和研究有助于提高教学的有效性，一直以来备受众多学者的关注。本文以错误分析理论、对比分析理论、语言迁移理论、中介语和标记理论为主要理论依据，重点探讨母语(汉语）负迁移对中学生外语(英语）写作的影响。研究的语料来自青海省西宁市沈那中学初中二年级学生所写的英语作文。通过对学生写作中出现的错误进行分析和对比，得出预期的结果和发现，从而提出相应的应对策略，以促进初中英语写作教学水平、提高初中学生的英语写作水平。本项研究采用定性研究和定量研究相结合的方法，将收集到的120篇英语作文的错误进行分类和讨论，分类借鉴了詹姆斯在其专著《探讨错误分析》中提出的标准。本研究中共列出了学生写作中出现17种常见错误，可概括为词汇错误、句法错误和语篇错误。错误的频率分析显示，因母语负迁移而产生的错误中句法错误占首位，最为突出的是动词的时态错误，“therebe”句型、中式英语造成的错误也很明显。在系统分析中我们发现，学生习惯用汉语思维并把汉语句式直接翻译或套用到英语写作中是造成汉语负迁移的重要原因之一。此外，还有标记因素、学习因素和教学方法等多种因素交互影响导致了汉语负迁移的产生。英汉两种语言分属两种不同的语言体系，两者具有各自不同的思维模式。学生在用英语写作时其语言表达、语言形式及修辞的应用必然受到汉语思维的影响。本文在以上研究结果的基础上针对教学现状以及调查结果提出了如下建议：第一，设法扩大学生的英语词汇量、增加阅读量，以减少学生在写作中的词汇错误；第二，背诵是学习英语的重要途径，可以通过背诵经典的文章和句子加强学生英语文化的思维激发学生的写作潜力；第三，学生在写作时有必要构建英语思IV 维的写作框架，提高学生英语的语篇意识，而不是将汉语直接翻译成英语的写作模,学生们应该注意语法而不是一个接一个地罗列单词；第四，教师的鼓励是必不可少的，教师应该正确对待学生在写作中出现的负迁移现象，优化写作教学的内容和方法，以便提高中学生的英语写作水平。关键词：负迁移；英语写作；错误分析V ContentsAcknowledgments..........................................................................................................IAbstract.........................................................................................................................II中文摘要......................................................................................................................IVChapterOneIntroduction..............................................................................................11.1ResearchBackground...........................................................................................11.2SignificanceoftheStudy......................................................................................11.3PurposeoftheResearch.......................................................................................21.4OrganizationoftheThesis....................................................................................3ChapterTwoLiteratureReview.....................................................................................52.1LanguageTransfer................................................................................................52.2ContrastiveAnalysis.............................................................................................82.3MarkednessTheory............................................................................................102.4ErrorAnalysisTheory........................................................................................122.4.1HistoryofErrorAnalysisandItsPsychologicalBasis................................142.4.2ProceduresofErrorAnalysis.......................................................................152.5ClassificationofLanguageTransfer...................................................................172.6ClassificationSystemAdoptedfortheCurrentStudy........................................182.7TheResearchesonLanguageTransferatAbroadandinChina.........................20ChapterThreeMethodology........................................................................................223.1ResearchQuestions............................................................................................233.2Subject................................................................................................................233.3Instruments.........................................................................................................233.4DataCollection...................................................................................................243.5TheClassificationofErrorsintheStudents’Composition................................24ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussions..............................................................264.1LexicalErrors....................................................................................................284.1.1Articles.........................................................................................................284.1.2Cases............................................................................................................294.1.3Number........................................................................................................294.1.4Derivative.....................................................................................................304.2SyntacticErrors..................................................................................................31VI 4.2.1Tense............................................................................................................314.2.2ThereBe.......................................................................................................324.2.3SubjectOmissionsandObjectOmissions...................................................334.2.4PredicateOmissionsandIndependent“Because”sentences.......................344.2.5Agreements..................................................................................................344.2.6Chinglish(ChineseEnglish)........................................................................354.2.7WordsOrderandPositionofAdverbial.......................................................374.2.8NegativesentenceandRun-onSentences....................................................384.3DiscoursalErrors................................................................................................38ChapterFiveConclusions............................................................................................415.1PedagogicalImplications...................................................................................435.1.1EnlargingVocabularyandReadingWidely..................................................435.1.2DevelopingtheDiscourseAwarenessoftheStudents.................................445.1.3Recitation.....................................................................................................445.1.4Teachers’Encouragement............................................................................455.2LimitationsoftheResearch................................................................................465.3SomeProposalsforFurtherStudy......................................................................46References....................................................................................................................47AppendixA..................................................................................................................51AppendixB..................................................................................................................52攻读学位期间发表的学术论文..................................................................................55VII ContentsofTablesTable3.1James’ClassificationofErrorsCausedbyNegativeTransfer.....................27Table4.1TheFrequencyandProportionofEachKindofErrorsinTotalNumbers..28Table4.2ThefrequencyandproportionbetweennegativetransferofChineseandnon-influentialerrors...................................................................................29VIII ChapterOneIntroduction1.1ResearchBackgroundThestudyoflanguagetransferexperiencesthreestages:thefirststageisfrom1950sto1960sinwhichLado(1957),asoneofrepresentativefigure,putforwardtheconceptinhisbookLinguisticsAcrossCulturethat“negativetransferisamainobstacleinlanguageacquisition”.Inthisperiod,ContrastiveAnalysisTheorywasformedandlanguagetransferoccupiedanimportantpositioninsecondlanguageacquisitiontheory.Languagetransfertheoryandbehaviorismlanguagelearningtheoryconstituteabasisforcomparativeanalysis.Thesecondstageisbetween1960sand1970sinwhich,asaresultoftheinfluenceofChomsky’suniversalgrammartheory,contrastiveanalysishypothesisandlanguagetransfertheorywerechallengedbymanylinguists.Behaviorismlanguagelearningviewswereassailed.Theroleoftransferinforeignlanguagelearningwasdevalued.Inthethirdstage(fromlate1970sandearly1980s),thetransferonceagainbecameahotissueinthefieldoflanguageteachinganditisatypeofsignificantstrategyinlanguagelearningandacomplexcognitiveprocessaffectedbymanyfactorsandrestrictions.Peoplebegantoexploretheroleoftransferinforeignlanguagelearningdeeplyandcomprehensivelyfromanglesofpsychology,languageandsociety.Thesestudiesimprovepeople’sunderstandingoftransfer,butlinguistsstillhavealotoftheoreticalandpracticalproblemsonthetransferresearch.1.2SignificanceoftheStudyAsweallknow,Englishistheinternationallanguageofbusiness,scienceandeducation.Itisusedasasecondlanguageintheworld;italsoplaysamoreandmoresignificantroleinChina.WiththeincreasingcommunicationandcooperationbetweenChinaandothercountries,weneedtostudyEnglishdeeply.AnotherreasonisthatmoststudentsarelearningEnglishinanenvironmentfullofChinese.FewstudentshavetheopportunitytogoingabroadandexperiencethenativeEnglish.ManynativeEnglishprogramsandfilmsareshownonTVinChina.Unfortunately,somemoviesandprogramsdon’thaveEnglishsubtitle.Besides,1 juniormiddleschoolstudentshavenotenoughtimetowatchTVtopracticeEnglish.Amongthefourskillsinlanguagelearning---listening,speaking,readingandwriting---writing,whichisoftenconsideredasthelastacquiredskillinlanguagelearning,isthehardestskillforjuniormiddleschoolstudentstoacquire,especiallyatthesyntaxstage.Allkindsofmistakesinstudents’writingarecommon.OnereasonisthatChineseandEnglishbelongtodifferentlanguagesystems.StudentsoftenusethemodeofthinkinginChinese.Sothereisaninterestingphenomenonhappened.Itiscalledlanguagetransfer.StandardofcompulsoryeducationofjuniormiddleschoolEnglishcurriculumindicatesthebasicrequirementsforstudentsinEnglishlistening,speaking,readingandwriting(AppendixB).Toalargeextent,writingcanreflectthestudent’scomprehensiveabilityinEnglish.Generally,inthe8yearsofwritingandteachingpractice,students’Englishwritinglevelisstillquitelow.Frequently,manystudentscannotwritegoodcompositionstoexpresstheirideas.Therearealotoferrorsintheircompositions.Thewritingskillisacombinationofalmostallaspectsoflanguageknowledge,anditisreallyagoodmirrorthatcanreflectsthestudents’abilityofEnglish.ChineselearnersoftenmakevariouskindsoferrorsintheirEnglishwriting.Therefore,researcherscollectandanalyzetheseerrorsinordertofindtheregularityofthem.ItisimportantforteachertofindthefrequencyandcausesoferrorsbeforelearningEnglish,andtounderstandcompletelythetheoryofEnglishwhichmayhaveinfluenceontheirsubsequentlearning.Thisthesisaimstoanalyzetheerrorsfromstudents’compositionsandexplainsL1transfer,attemptingtoestablishtherelationshipbetweenthelearners’targetlanguageandmothertongue.ItishopedthatteachershaveaplantounderstandthedifficultiesofEnglishlearner.Itisalsohopedthat,byidentifyingandanalyzingtheseerrors,juniormiddleschoolstudentscanavoidtheseerrorsandimprovetheirEnglishwritingskill.1.3PurposeoftheResearchThispaperisdesignedtoanalyzeerrorsmadebyjuniormiddleschoolstudentsintheirEnglishwritingsoastofigureouthowtheChinesenegativetransferinfluencesthestudents.TheauthorsuggeststhatteachersshouldreducethenegativetransferbyusingsomeefficientstrategiesandofferimplicationsintheirEnglish2 teaching.Everyoneislikelytomakeerrorsintheprocessoflearningaforeignlanguage.Accordingtothepreviousstudies,oneofthereasonsisthattheerrorisnegativetransferofthenativelanguage.ThisthesisattemptstoinvestigateandanalyzethewritingsinwhichtherearesomeerrorsinfluencingtheChinesestudentsinthejuniormiddleschoolandweshouldtakethemeasurestoreducetheimpactofthenegativetransferinordertodevelopstudents’writingskill.ItishopedthatthestudentswillhaveabetterunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseinlexis,syntax,discourseandculture.Theytrytodecreasetheerrorscausedbynegativetransfer.Itisalsoteachers’desirethattheycanunderstandthedifficultiesofstudents’ability.Andtheypaymoreattentiontotheerrorscausedbynegativetransfer.Meanwhile,theycanputforwardeffectivemethodstoavoidnativelanguageinterferenceintheteachingprocess.Atpresent,negativetransferofChinesehasbeenanevidentphenomenonduringtheprocessofEnglishlearningofjuniormiddleschoolstudents.TheinterferenceofChineseinthestudents’writingshasbeenconfirmedbyresearchersathomeandabroad.However,mostscholarswerefocusedonthetheoreticalresearchofthesecondlanguageacquisitions.TherelevantstudiesonEnglishwritingsaremostlyconcerningcollegestudentsandfewpeoplechosemiddleschoolstudentsastheirsubjects.MostjuniormiddleschoolstudentsarestillintheirinitialstagesofEnglishlearningwithpoorlanguagelearningenvironmentandlimitedvocabulary.Theyaremorelikelytobeinfluencedbytheirnativelanguageespeciallyintheirwritings.Therefore,itisnecessarytoconducttheresearchandchoosethemassubjects.Inaddition,theauthordoestheresearchfromtwoaspectsincludingboththestudents’learningprocessandteachers’teachingprocess.Besides,theauthortooktherealEnglishcompositionsofstudentsasresearchsamplesandtakeadvantageofthefirst-handmaterialasthebasisoftheresearch,whichprovidedanobjectiveandrealdatafortheconclusionandimplicationsonteachingEnglish.1.4OrganizationoftheThesisThepaperismadeupoffivechapters.Chapteroneincludesthebackgroundoftheresearchrelatedtolanguagetransfer,significanceofthestudyandthepurposeoftheresearch.Chaptertwodefinespositivetransferandnegativetransferandstates3 somerelatedtheoriesincludingContrastiveAnalysis,Markednesstheory,errorAnalysistheory,classificationoflanguagetransfer,classificationsystemadoptedforthecurrentresearchonlanguagetransferatabroadandinChina.Chapterthreeoffersadescriptionoftheresearchobject,subject,researchquestions,datacollection,instrumentsanddataanalysis.Thefinalresultsarediscussedinthefourthchapter.Andfinally,chapterfivemainlyfocusontheconclusions,pedagogicalimplicationsforteachingandlimitationsoftheresearch.4 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1LanguageTransferForallthestudents,theystudythesecondlanguageonthebasisoftheirmothertongue.Heorshehasacertainsocialcontext,sotheacquiredlanguageknowledgewillhaveagreatinfluenceontheirsecondlanguagewritinginevitably.Thenativelanguagewillbecomeareferencewhentheyfacetheirsecondlanguagewriting.SowhenChinesepeoplelearnEnglish,wearesinkingintoaChineselearningstyle.ThissituationoflearningEnglishwouldmakeusseparatetherelationshipbetweenlanguageanditsownculture.Inthiskindofphenomenon,ourEnglishisChineseEnglishbutnotidiomaticEnglish.Inordertoavoidthisproblem,teachershouldforeseethe“cultureshock”(Suddenlyweareinvolvedinaverydifferentsocialandculturalcontextwhichmakesusfeelconfusedintroubledmood),comparethenativelanguagewiththetargetlanguage,andminimizetheinterferenceofmothertongue.Bythesemethodswecouldimprovestudents’learningandcommunicatingability.Theterm“transfer”wasoriginallyderivedfromtheLatinword“transferre,”andwasusedasatechnologicaltermmeaning“tobear,”“toprint,toimpress”,or“tocopy(asadrawingorengraveddesign)fromonesurfacetoanother”.Withthedevelopmentofitsmeaning,“transfer”couldalsobeusedtomean“tocarry-overorgeneralizationoflearnedresponsesfromonetypeofsituationtoanother,”especially“theapplicationinonefieldofstudyoreffortofknowledge,skill,power,orabilityacquiredinanother”.Lateron,itwasappliedinlinguistics,forexample,“languagetransfer”or“linguistictransfer”areusedinWebsterThirdNewWorldInternationalDictionary(1986：2427).Thenotionoflanguagetransferremaineduncontroversialamonglanguagethteachersintothe20century.Asearlyastheschoolsoftheancientworld,teacherswanttousecontrastiveobservations(ContrastiveAnalysis)aboutthelanguages.Recently,asfortheschoolsinfluencedbyfiguressuchasPalmer(1917),Fries(1945),Sweet(1972)andotherproponentsofnew(orseeminglynew)methodsoflanguageteaching,therewasawidespreadacceptanceoftheideathattheinfluenceofthenativelanguagecouldgreatlyaffectsecondlanguageacquisition.Challengestoassumptionsabouttheimportanceoftransferdidnothavemuchimpactonthehistory5 oflanguageteachinguntilthelate1960s.Intheresearchesonforeignlanguagelearning,anumberofdefinitionsoftransferhavebeenproposedbykeyfiguresinthisfield.Odlin(2001)definedlanguagetransferas“theinfluenceresultingfromsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandanyotherlanguagethathasbeenpreviously(andperhapsimperfectly)acquired.”Richards’(2001)definitionis“theeffectofonelanguageonthelearningofanother”.Additionally,Selinker(1972)statesthat“Transferisaglossaryofpsychology.Itisfirstdefinedbybehavioristpsychologiststorefertotheprocessofautomatic,uncontrolledandsubconscioususeofpastlearnedbehaviorintheattempttoproducenewresponses”and“Proactiveinhibitionoccurredwhenoldhabitsgotinthewayofattemptstolearnnewones.”Psycholinguistsusethetermtorefertotheinfluenceimposedbyalearner’spossessedlinguisticknowledgeandskilluponthesubsequentlearningofnewlinguisticknowledgeorskill.AndthelanguagetransferreferstothephenomenonthatthelearnershandletherulesofthemothertonguetodealwiththetargetlanguageconsciouslyornotbecausetheyarenotfamiliarwiththeexpressionrulesoftargetlanguageintheL2.Itusuallypresentstotheprimarystageofit.Transferistheprocessofusingknowledgeofthefirstlanguageinlearningasecondlanguage.InL2/FL(foreignLanguage)teachingandlearning,twotypesoftransfermayoccur—negativetransferandpositivetransfer.Whentheformsoffirstlanguagearedifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguage,someexpressionsofmothertonguearetransferredintothetargetlanguage.Thiskindoftransferwillleadtoinappropriateformsorevenerrorsinthetargetlanguage.Thusnegativetransferoccurs,whichisalsoknownasinterference.PositivetransferistheprocessinwhichmothertonguehasapositiveeffectonL2/FLlearningandsodoestheacquiredknowledgeonsuccessivelearning.Itmayoccurwhenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameforms.Thiskindoftransfercanhelpthestudentstounderstandandmasterasecondlanguagefaster,asthewayofwritingadvocatedbyconstructism.Weget“positivetransfer”or“promotion”whensomecharacteristicsofmothertonguearesimilartoorequivalenttothetargetlanguage.Itbenefitstheforeignlanguagelearning.Forinstance,thebasicwordorderofChineseandEnglishisthesame:Sentence=SVO(Subject+Verb+Object).Inthiscase,ChinesestudentscanconstructacorrectsentencebytheversionofChinesewordorder.6 (1)A:这个暑假去旅行的消息使我非常高兴。AndtheycanwritethissentenceinEnglishis:B:Thegoodnewsoftravellinginthissummerholidaymademeveryhappy.InExample(1),wecanseethatnativelanguage(Chineselanguage)functionsasacontributivefactortotheL2(Secondlanguage).Therefore,transferisnotalwaysafactorofinterferenceandnotalltheinfluencesofthenativelanguage(Chineselanguage)areinterferencefactors.Chinesehasthecharacteristicsofpositivetransferinthiscase.Whenthepreviouslanguageperformancehindersthelanguageperformanceonasecondlanguagetask,negativetransferoccurs(Brown,1994：90).ApartfromthedefinitiongivenbyBrown,anotherscholarFries(1945)madethefollowingstatementsaboutthedefinitionofnegativetransfer,“Theactionofunderstandingandgraspingasecondlanguageisdefinitelyfromlearningthemothertongue.Thebasicproblemsarenotthelearningdifficultiesinthecharacteristicfeatureofthetargetlanguagethemselvesbutmainlybecauseofthespecialanddeep-rooted‘set’constructedbytargetlanguage.”Besidesthetwodefinitionsgivenbythescholars,thefollowingdefinitioniscitedfromRandomHouseWebster’sDictionary.Inthisdictionary,negativetransferisdefinedas“boththenegativeandpositiveinterferenceofpreviouslearnedknowledgeinthelearningprocessofanewlanguage,justlikechangingfromanoldmanualtypeauthortoacomputerkeyboard”(RandomHouse,2000).Thedoubleeffectswillalwaysbeactinginforeignlanguageteachingandlearning,wealsoget“negativetransfer”or“interference”whenthetwolanguageshavedifferences.Inthiscase,negative-transfermadeorfirst-language-inducederrorsoccur.Forexample:(2)A:我们暑假不去旅行吗？B:是的。(我们不去旅行)A:Wedon’tgotravellinginthesummerholiday.Dowe?B:Yes.(Wegotravellinginthesummerholiday)InExample(2),wecanseeChineseandEnglishhavethesamereplyformstonegativesentence.Inthiscase,theChinesestudenttendstousethemodeofexpressionofhismothertongueinsteadofthatofEnglish.Itisclearlywrongbecausethereply“yes”inEnglishexpressesdifferentmeanings.Thenegativetransferhappens.TheEnglishlearnershouldavoidChinesewaysofthinkingandtryto7 combinetheformwiththemeaningandmodeofexpressioninEnglish.Generallyspeaking,thedoubleeffectswillalwaysbeactinginforeignlanguageteachingandlearning,transferisbenefitingtheforeignlanguagelearning.Thedifferencesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguagecreatelearningdifficultywhichresultinerrors,whilethesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguagefacilitaterapidandeasylearning(Ellis,1999:22).Therefore,onetaskofteachingistopreventsuchkindofinterferenceofmothertongue.Manyexperimentshaveprovedthatnegativetransferisingeneraltemporary,andcanbepreventedbytrainingandlearning(XiaXinrong,2007:17).Comparedwithpositivetransfer,negativetransferoflanguageismucheasiertobeidentifiedwhenthelanguagenegativetransferhappens.2.2ContrastiveAnalysisInthebeginningof1950s,behavioristsviewthatthenegativetransferwilloccurwhenthereisproactiveinhibition.Accordingtobehavioristlearningtheory,errorsareevidenceofnon-learning,learnersfailtoovercomeproactiveinhibition.Errorscanbepredictedbycomparingthedifferencesbetweenlearners’nativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,asoneofthewell-knownlinguistsLadoalsoemphasizesthatthenegativetransferofL1isoneofmajorobstaclesinL2acquisition.Lado(1957)saystheteacherwhohasmadeacomparisonoftheforeignlanguagewiththenativelanguageofthestudentswillknowbetterwhattherealproblemareandcanprovideforteachingthem”.Later,LadoproposedContrastiveAnalysisbasedonthebehavioristview.TheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesiswasshowedinRobertLado’sbookLinguisticsAcrossCultures.Inthisbook,Ladodeclaredthat“thoseelementswhicharesimilartothelearner’snativelanguagewillbeeasyforhim,andthosewhicharedifferentwillbedifficult”(1957).Ladowasthefirsttocomeupwithacomprehensivetheoreticaltreatmentandalsopresentedasetoftechnicalprocessforthecontrastivestudyoflanguages.Describingthelanguages,comparingthemandpredictingdifficultiesareincludedintheprocess.CharlesFries(WanHanhan,2013)whofirstlycarvesoutthewayforthecontrastiveteachingandlearning.Thecentralideaofthistheoryisthattheprinciplesandsentencestructuresofmothertonguewillinevitablyaffectforeignlanguagelearningunconsciously,especiallyforthebeginners.Headvocatesthatiftheteachers8 wanttoimprovetheteachingefficiencyoftargetlanguage,theyneedtocollectrightteachingmaterials.Andinordertofindouttheproperteachingmaterials,theyshoulddescribethemaincharacteristicsofthetargetlanguage.What’smore,comprehensiveanddetailedcomparisonbetweenthetargetlanguageandthemothertongueoflearnersshouldalsobemade.Inthe1960sandearly1970s,ContrastiveAnalysiswaswidelyappliedinSecondLanguageAcquisition.Atthetime,languagelearningwasconsideredtobeakindofhabitformation,andthiscouldbeenhancedorhinderedbyexistinghabits.Inthisway,thedifficultyinmasteringsomestructuresofasecondlanguagedependsonthedifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandthemotherlanguage.Andatthistimeitexplainedwhysomefeaturesofacertainlanguagewerehardertoobtainthanothers.Inthe1960s,thetheorymanifestedmanyEuropeanlanguages.ManyofthemweredonatedbytheCenterofAppliedLinguisticsinWashingtonD.C..ResearchersexpectedthatitwouldbepossibletodesignlanguagecoursesmoreefficientlyifthepotentialdifficultyhadbeenmarkedthroughContrastiveAnalysis.ContrastiveAnalysis,BehaviorismandStructuralismhadabasiceffectondesigningsecondlanguageacquisitioncurriculum.ItalsosuppliedthetheoreticalwaysofAudio-LingualMethod.FromthepsychologicalpointofContrastiveAnalysis,ithasthestrongformandtheweakform.ThestrongformoftheContrastiveAnalysisclaimsthatallL2errorscanbepredictedbycomparingthedifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage.AsLee(1968:180)states,theprimecause,oreventhesolecause,ofdifficultyanderrorinforeignlanguagelearningisinterferencecomingfromthelearner'snativelanguage.ButWardhaugh(1970)proposestheweakformofContrastiveAnalysis,andhebelievesthatmanyerrorsarenottheresultoftransferandonlysomeerrorscanbetraceabletolanguagetransferbysomeempiricalstudies.Thatistosay,theweakformofContrastiveAnalysisclaimsthatContrastiveAnalysisshouldbeusedasatooltoidentifywhicherrorsinactualcorpusoflearners'languageweretheresultofinterference.FromthelinguisticpointofContrastiveAnalysis,mostoftheContrastivestudieswerecarriedoutbasedonthesurfacestructurecharacteristicsoflanguage.Theresearchproceduresinvolvedescriptionselection,comparisonandprediction(Ellis,1999:25).Meanwhile,in1965,Stockwell,BowenandMartin,Protorhadproposedthatlinguisticdifferencescanbearrangedina‘hierarchyofdifficulty’(Ellis,1999:26).ManystudiesonContrastiveAnalysishavebeenconductedtocompare9 phonologicalsystemsandsyntacticalfeaturesofdifferentlanguages,onlyafewresearchesonvocabulary.Therefore,itisnotdeniedthatthemainproblemoftheContrastiveAnalysiswasitsfailuretoacknowledgeothersourcesofdifficultyotherthanlearners’L1,anditonlyextrapolatefromageneraltheoryinsteadoftestingouttheorybyexaminingthelanguagethatlearnersoutput.Attheendof1960s,somescholarsheldaviewthatnotallerrorsareinducedbythedifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguageinthelearningprogressofL2.Thatistosay,thenativelanguageisnotthesolesourceoferrorsL2learnersmake.BasedonthelimitationofContrastiveAnalysis,LinguistsstartedgraduallytoturntheirattentiontothelearningprogressofL2insteadofcomparingthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage.AppliedlinguistCordermadeaturningpointfromContrastiveAnalysistoErrorAnalysisthroughhisarticlethesignificanceoflearners'Errorpublishedin1967.TheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesisstatedthatalloftheerrorsinlearningthesecondlanguagecouldreceive“interference”fromthefirstlanguage.However,thisclaimcouldn’tbeprolongedbypracticalevidencewhichwereaccumulatedstepbystepinthemid-andlate1970s.ResearcherssoonclaimedthatmanyerrorswhichwerepredictedbyContrastiveAnalysistheoryweresomehownotfoundinlearner’slanguage.Evenmoresurprisingly,afewerrorsweremadeoffirstlanguage.Therefore,ContrastiveAnalysiswasnotabletopredictalllearningdifficulties.However,itwassurelyhelpfulintheretrospectiveexplanationoferrors.2.3MarkednessTheoryMarkednesstheoryisanimportantstructurallinguisticstheory,pioneeredbythePragueSchool(thePragueSchool)phonemesscientistinthe1930s.Itisanimportantcontributiontolinguistics.Saussure’stheoryoflinguisticsignisasignofthebirthofStructuralLinguistics.Itmainlyconsistsofthreebranches:thePragueSchool,CopenhagenSchool.ThePragueSchoolhasmadeoutstandingcontributionstophonology.MarkednessTheoryhadabroadimpactonsubsequentresearchonlinguistics.Especiallyitsmethodologicalsignificancehasfar-reachingimpact.Markedness,asalanguageanalysistool,hasbeenwidelyusedinvariouslinguisticandinterdisciplinaryresearchesphase,suchassemantics,pragmatics,syntax,10 morphology,appliedlinguistics.AlthoughMentalismrepresentedbyChomskyisdominantinlanguagestudiesandstructuralismseemstogoaway,fromtheperspectiveofteaching,thetheoryofmethodologicalsignificanceisneverobsolete.Howtousethetheoryinappliedlinguisticsresearchneedstobefurtherexplored.Asforlexicalopposites,markedformisoftenonewithinflectionalorderivationalendings,insteadofanon-basicone.Therefore,researchersmarkamorphologicallynegativewordsformasopposedtoapositiveone:friendly/unfriendly,like/dislike,fair/unfair,clean/uncleanandsoon.Inthesameway,un-affixedmasculineorsingularformsareconsideredtobeunmarkedandaffixedfeminineorpluralformsaremarked:host/hostess,automobile/automobiles,child/children.Anunmarkedformisadefaultform,too.Forexample,theunmarkedhostcanrefertoamaleorfemale,whilehostessismarkedbecauseitonlyreferstofemales.Evenwhentheoppositesarenotmorphologicallyrelated,thedefaultnatureallowsunmarkedlexicalformstobeidentified.Inthepairs,happy/sad,big/little,old/young,clean/dirty,thefirsttermofeachpairisconsideredtobeunmarked,becauseitappearsmainlyinquestions.Forinstance,Englishspeakersquintessentiallyask“howold(big,happy,clean)somethingorsomeoneis”,insteadof“howyoung(little,sad,dirty)…somethingorsomeoneis”.Inthe1920s,severalwell-knownlinguistsintheCzechcapitalPragueestablishedTheLinguisticCircleofPrague.ThePragueSchool’smasterpieceisthePrinciplesofPhonologybyTrubetzkoy.Theirmaincontributionistofindthedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology,andthecreationoftheconceptofphonemes.“Whiletheideaoflinguisticasymmetrypredatedtheactualcoiningofthetermsmarkedandunmarked,themodernconceptofmarkednessoriginatedinthePragueSchoolstructuralismofRomanJakobsonandNikolaiTrubetzkoyasameansofcharacterizingbinaryoppositions.”Meaningandsoundwereanalyzedintosystemsofbinarydistinctivecharacteristics.EdwinBattistellastatedthat“Binarismsuggestssymmetryandequivalenceinlinguisticanalysisandmarkednessaddstheideaofhierarchy.”“TrubetzkoyandJakobsonanalyzedphonologicaloppositionssuchasnasalversusnon-nasalasdefinedasthepresenceversustheabsenceofnasality;thepresenceofthefeature,nasality,wasmarked;itsabsence,non-nasality,wasunmarked.”Binaryphonologicalcharacteristicsarepartofauniversalfeaturealphabetapplicabletoalllanguages,forTrubetzkoyandJakobson.InhisarticleStructureoftheRussianVerbin1932,Jakobsonenlargedtheconcepttogrammatical11 meaningsinwhichthemarkedfactor“announcestheexistenceof[somemeaning]A”whiletheunmarkedelement“doesnotstatetheexistenceofA”,i.e.,doesnotannouncewhetherAispresentornot.Fortyyearslater,Jakobsondescribedlanguagelikethat“everysingleconstituentofalinguisticsystemisbuiltonanoppositionoftwologicalcontradictories:thepresenceofanattribute(‘markedness’)incontrapositiontoitsabsence(‘unmarkedness’).”InChildLanguage,Aphasia,andUniversalsofLanguage,Jakobsonalsosuggestedthatphonologicalmarkednessplayedapartinlanguageacquisitionandloss.Makinguseofexistingstudiesofacquisitionandaphasia,Jakobsonsuggestedamirrorimagerelationshipwhichisdeterminedbyauniversalfeaturehierarchyofmarkedandunmarkedoppositions.NowadaysmanystillconsiderJakobson’stheoryofphonologicalacquisitionasidentifyingusefultendencies.(DuanNa，2008)MarkednessTheoryisthefoundationofthePragueSchool,anditisabranchoftheoreticallinguisticstoapplytootherfieldsofstudyquickly.ThisarticlefocusesontheMarkednessTheoryofpracticalvalueinpragmatics.“AmericanlinguistGivonhasacomprehensivediscussionforpragmaticlevelusedmarkednessTheory,andthekeypointofmarkednessisdependsoncontext,maythesamestructureismarkednessinthiscontextbutinanothercontextitisunmarkedness.Thecontextplaysadecisiveroleinthecourseofconversation.”(ZhangFeng，1999）Forexample：(3)a.Wouldyoumindclosingthedoor?b.Couldyouclosethedoor?c.Wouldyoupleaseclosethedoor?d.Closethedoor.InExample(3),wecanseeallthefoursentencesrepresentthesamepropositionthatrequestthepeopletoclosethedoor,buttheyhavedifferentmoodsfordifferentcontexts.Itisproperforthespeakertousethefirstsentencebetweenelders,strangersorsuperiorsbutitisinappropriatebetweenbestfriends.Itisnotonlyakindofmarkednessexpressionbutalsoanunmarkednessstatement.2.4ErrorAnalysisTheoryInthelearning,makingerrorsisinevitableandevenindeednecessaryandusefulwhenlearningaforeignlanguage.Fromthestudyofstudents’errors,teacherscan12 helpstudentstoimprovetheirabilityofcommunicationandaccuracyofgrammar.Then,inaperiodofteaching,teacherssummarizesomedifficultofstudentsstudylanguage.Andtheycanfindtheweaknessofsyllabus,teachingmaterialsandteachingtechniques.finally,theyusethiswaytoperfecttheirteaching.Iftheydon’tgetthe“feedback”fromthestudents,noteachercandotheworkperfectly.Whatisalanguageerror?Linguistsdefineitinmanyways.“Errorreferstotheregularpatternsinthelearner’sspeech,whichconsistentlydiffersfromthetargetwhichfluentornativespeakersofthelanguageregardsasshowingfaultyorincompletelearning”(Richard,2001：85).“Errorisalinguisticformorcombinationofformswhichinthesamecontextandundersimilarconditionsofproductionwould,inalllikelihood,notbeproducedbythespeakers”(Lennon,1991).“Anerrorcanbedefinedasadeviationfromthenormsofthetargetlanguage”(Ellis,1994：51).Differentresearcherstalkabouterrorsindifferentways,eachdefinitionisatadifferentlevelofthelanguage.However,thelinguisticareallinagreementthaterrorstudyincludesalmosteveryaspectofthelanguage,likephonology,morphology,syntaxandpragmatics.Fordifferentpurposes,linguistsusuallyfocusondifferentcorrespondingside.Whateverlevelofresearchisconducted,weshouldpayattentiontorecurrent,systematicerrors.Characteristicsofagroupoflearnersatcertainperiodsorthelearningprocessofacertainlearnerarealsopaidattentionto.Itissignificanttodistinguishmistakesfromerrorstoanalyzelearners’errorsinacertainway;theyareconsideredas“technicallytwoterriblydifferentphenomena”.AsCorder(1967)claims,“amistakeisaperformanceerrorwhichiseithera‘slip’orarandomguess,anditistheresultofnotmakinguseofaknownsystemcorrectly;Amistakeoccurswhenlearner’sfailtoshowtheircapability”(Corder,1967：87).Thereforehecancorrectamistakebyhimself.Mistakesareperformancephenomenaandareregularcharacteristicsofnative-speakerspeech,reflectingprocessingfailureswhichoccursasaresultmemorylimitationsandlackofautomaticity.“Anerrorisaresultoflackingcapacityanditappearswhenthedeviationhappensbecauseofbeingshortinknowledge;inotherwords,errorsrefertoanoticeabledeviationfromtheadultgrammarofnativespeakers,indicatingthelearner’slanguageability;errorshappenbecausethecorrectformatargetitemhasnothingtodowiththeuser’scapability,however,‘mistakes’appearseventhoughthecorrectformoruseispartoftheuser’scapability”(Corder1967：78).Inotherwords,ErrorAnalysisshouldbeincludedinthestudyoferrors,butmistakesshouldbe13 excluded.Heinsiststhatmistakesarenotimportantintheprocessoflanguagelearningbecausethey“donotreflectadefectinourknowledge”.Thelearnercanbe“normallyimmediatelyawareofthemandcancorrectthemwithmoreorlesscompleteassurance”.Healsobelievedthatbyclassifyingtheerrorsthelearner’smade,linguistscouldlearnalotabouttheprocessofsecondlanguagelearningbyconcludingthestrategiesadoptedbythesecondlanguagelearners.Itisimportantandnecessarytostudyandanalyzeerrorsbecausetheyreveallearners’transitionalcompetence.2.4.1HistoryofErrorAnalysisandItsPsychologicalBasisInthelate1960s,erroranalysisinsteadofcontrastanalysiswasputforwardforthefirsttime.Itdescribesthelearners'mothertongueandtargetlanguageobjectively,andshowserroranalysisisnotneedtoanalyzethestudents’nativelanguage,butshowssomeerrorsproducedbythetargetlanguage.Thisisthebiggestdifferencebetweentheerroranalysisandcorrelationanalysis.In1967,Corderproposedfivecrucialpointsoferrorsanalysisandintroducedtheerroranalysisasthemainmeansandthebasicmethodoflearnersstudyforeignlanguageandsecondlanguage.A.Weshouldbedistinguishedfrommistakesanderrors,errorandmistakehavedifferentmeansinlinguistics.Errorismoresevere.Itisduetopeoplelackknowledgeormiscalculationleadtowrongjudgment,ontheotherhand,mistakeislessingravity,aspeoplenormallymakemistakes.Itisduetostudentdosomethingunintentionally.B.WeshouldfindparallelsofL1andL2learning,becausethesearealldependsonthesameunderlyingmechanisms,proceduresandpolicies.ThedifferencebetweenthetwopointsistheL1maybetopromotetheknowledgeofthelearners’secondlanguagelearning,thisviewisvalidatedbyRingbom(1987)inthestudyofFinlandlearnerstolearnEnglish.Asmentionedpreviously,positivetransferhavepositiveeffectsonL2/FLlearninganditpromotethelearninglanguage.Itmayhavethesameformbetweenthenativelanguageandtargetlanguage.Itcanhelpstudentsunderstandandmasterthesecondlanguagemorequickly.C.ErrorsshowthatL1andL2learnersbothdevelopanindependentsystemoflanguage,itisneithertheadultsystemnorthatoftheL2,butisevidenceofa“transitionalcompetence”.D.Errorsaresignificantinthreeprospects:first,totelltheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,second,totelltheresearcherhowlearningproceeds.Third,learnersneed14 baseonsometheoriestotesttheirhypothesisabouttheL2.(Corder,1967：166).Obviously,inthestudyofcorder,wecanseetheerroranalysisisaeffectiveassessment,erroranalysisistofindouthowpeopleunderstandalanguage,howtolearnalanguage,andhowtoobtaininformationfromthelanguage.ItAlsoprovidedassistanceforteachingorteachingmaterial(Jack,1985).Erroranalysisisobservebytheerrorstoexplorewhylearners’errorswillhappen.Itanalysisandcheckoftheactualerrorsoflearners'targetlanguage,andlearnerscanactivelyparticipateinit.Basedoncognitivepsychology,theerrorsareseenasanaturalphenomenon,itnotoccurinthecorrectlanguagerulesarefullyinternalizedinsecondlanguagelearning.inotherword,itmustoccurbeforecorrectlanguagerulesarecompletelyinternalizedinsecondlanguagelearning.2.4.2ProceduresofErrorAnalysisCorder(1974)suggeststhattheproceduresofErrorAnalysisaresamplecollection,identification,description,explanationandevaluationoferrors.Thefirststepisthesamplecollectionoferrors.Thestartingpointinerroranalysisisdecidingwhatsamplesoflearnerlanguagetobeusedfortheanalysisandhowtocollectthesesamples.Theerrorsthatlearnersmakecanbeinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors.Sothesefactorsmustbetakenintoconsiderationwhilethelearnerlanguageissampledandanalyzed.Thesefactorsincludemedium,genre.Mediumareoralorwritten.Genreisaconversation,alecture,anessayoraletter.Itisimportantforresearchertocollectsamplesoflearnerlanguagewhichenablesclearstatementstobemaderegardingwhatkindoferrorsthatlearnershavemadeandunderwhatconditions.Anotherdecisiontobemadeindatacollectionisthemannerinwhichthesamplesaretobecollected,whetherthelearnerreflectsnaturallyspontaneouslanguagearecollectedcross-sectionally(atasinglepointintime)orlongitudinally(successivepointsoveraperiodoftime)needstobemadeclear.“Unfortunately,manyErrorAnalysisstudieshavenotpaidsufficienttothesefactors,withtheresultthattheyaredifficulttointerpretandalmostimpossibletoreplicate”(Ellis,2000).Thesecondstepistheidentificationoferrors.Aftercollectingacorpusoflearnerlanguage,theerrorsinthecorpushavetobeidentified.Anerrorcanbedefinedasadeviationfromthenormsofthetargetlanguage.Asecondquestionconcernsthedistinctionbetweenerrorsandmistakes(Corder,1967).Anerrortakes15 placewhenthedeviationarisesasaresultoflackofknowledge.Italsorepresentslackofcompetence.Amistakeoccurswhenlearnersfailtoperformtheircompetence.Corderarguesthaterroranalysisshouldberestrictedtothestudyoferrorsandthatmistakesshouldbeeliminatedfromtheanalysis.Athirdquestionconcernswhethertheerrorisovertorcovert(Corder,1974).Afourthquestionconcernswhethertheanalysisshouldexamineonlydeviationsincorrectnessoralsodeviationsinappropriateness.Thethirdstepisthedescriptionoferrors.AnumberofclassificatorysystemshavebeenusedinErrorAnalysis.DulayandBurt(1974)identifyfourtypesoferroraccordingtotheirpsychologicalorigins:a.Interference-likeerrors.b.FirstLanguagedevelopmentalerrors.c.Ambiguouserrors.d.Uniqueerrors.Thefourthstepistheexplanationoferrors.Explanationisconcernedwiththeestablishmentoftheerrorsources.Thisstageisthemostimportantforsecondlanguageacquisitionresearchasitinvolvesanattempttoestablishtheprocessesresponsibleforsecondlanguageacquisition,whichisperhapsthemostimportantreasonwhywecarryoutErrorAnalysisanyway.Thefinalstepistheerrorevaluation.Errorevaluationstudiesenlargeinthelate1970sandinthe1980sandweremotivatedbythedesiretoimprovelanguagepedagogy.Ifthepurposeoferroranalysisistohelplearnerslearnasecondlanguage,thereisaneedtoevaluateerrors.Someerrorscanbeconsideredmoreseriousthanothersbecausetheyaremorelikelytointerferewiththeintelligibilityofwhatlearnerssayorwrite.Teachersareoftenwillingtofocustheirattentionontheseerrors.Forexample,someerrors,knownasglobalerrors,violatetheoverallstructureofasentence.Andforthisreasonitmaybeverydifficultforthissentencetobeprocessed.Othererrors,knownaslocalerrors,affectonlyasingleconstituentinthesentenceandare,perhaps,lesslikelytocauseanyprocessingproblems.However,manystudiesdonotincludestepfive.Infact,theevaluationoflearnererrorshasgenerallybeenhandledasaseparateissue,withitsownmethodsofenquiry(Ellis,2001：48).FromthedivisionofproceduresitisclearthatintheperformanceofErroranalysis,therearesomepreliminarystepsneededtobedonepriortotheprocessoferrorexplanation.First,amongthesesteps,themostimportantisthethirdone-errordescription,becauseitisonthisstepthatdiagnosingworkshouldbebased.What’smore,explanationisconcernedwithestablishingthesourceoftheerror,forexampleaccountingforthereasonwhatitwasmade.Theerrorsthatlearnersproducecanhavemorethanone16 source.Taylor(1986)pointsoutthattheerrorsourcemaybepsychological,sociolinguistic,epistemic,ormayresideinthediscoursestructure.Differenterrorclassificationsresultindifferentresearchfindingsanddifferentexplanationsoferrors.Flick(1979)notesthaterrorclassificationisanarbitrarymattersubjecttotheindividualbiasesandpointofviewoftheresearchers.BaseontheCorder’ssuggestion,Iplantoresearchrelyonthosefivestepsinmyresearchthatisthesamplecollectionoferrors,theidentificationoferrors,thedescriptionoferrors,theexplanationoferrorsandtheerrorevaluation.BurtandKrashen(1982).Theyaresuggestingfourkindsoferrorclassification:Linguisticcategoryclassification:phonology,graphology,grammar,lexis,textordiscourse.Thesurfacestructuretaxonomy:omission,addition,misformation,misordering.Comparativetaxonomy:developmental,interlingual,ambiguousandunique.Communicativeeffecttaxonomy:globalandlocal.C.James(2001).HepublishedamonographnamedExploringErrorAnalysisandsuggestedthreeerrorsofclassificationthatislexicalerrors,syntacticerrorsanddiscoursalerrors.Thispaperadaptedasimilarclassificationoferrors.2.5ClassificationofLanguageTransferWhenbehaviorismtheoryplayedanimportantpartinthe1960s，languagetransferwasconsideredas“interference”．Afterwards，theresearchersrealizedthatlanguagetransferisofhelpinaWayforsecondlanguagelearners．Languagetransferwasclassifiedaspositivetransferandnegativetransfer．Whentherelatedstructureofthetwolanguagesisthesame，linguisticinterferencecanleadtocorrectlanguageproduction，whichiscalledpositivetransfer．Therefore，thesimilaritiesoftwolanguagesareconducivetoSecondLanguageAcquisitioninsomecases．AsOdlin(1989)putforward，theeffectsofpositivetransfercanonlybedecidedthroughcontrastofthesuccessofgroupswithdifferentnativelanguages．Thefacilitationofthefirstlanguagemayalsoariseinotheraspectsofsecondlanguageacquisition．Inmostcases，somelanguageshavealotofcognatesincommon，suchasJapaneseandChineseorEnglishandFrench．Forinstance，whenEnglishlearnerstranslateaChinesesentence“他吃早饭”intoEnglish，theycaneasilydoitbecausethesamewordsorder“S+V+O”isexpressedinthissentenceforeitherChineseorEnglish.Therefore,positivetransferisinfavorofsecondlanguagelearners．However，positivetransferisnotalwaysbeneficial,anditmaycauseoveruseofsomeformsin17 somesituations．Forexample,“someChineselearnersliketooveruseexpressionsofregretwhenapologizinginEnglish,inthelightofthenormsoftheirmothertongue”(Ellis，1999:67）Negativetransfertendstoreceivetheinterferenceofmothertongue,whichisharmfulonsecondlanguagelearning.Ifthefirstlanguagestructureisdifferentfromthatofthesecondlanguage,negativetransferappears.FirstlanguagecanalwaysplayanegativepartinSecondLanguageLearning,becauseofdifferencesbetweentwolanguages.WecanfindNegativetransferatdifferentlevelsoflanguageforms,suchasphoneticlevel,lexicallevel,syntaxlevel,etc.Anditisreflectedthrougherrorsofavoidance,substitutions,calques,etc.Asisshowninexample,linguistHakanRingbomin1990shasobservedaSwedishpersonusinghismotherlanguage“bort”(away)inEnglish:“NowIlivehomewithmyparents,butsometimesImustgobort”(1998).Thisisanerrorthatfrequentlyhappenedinsecondlanguagelearning.Zerotransferreferstothatthemotherlanguagehasnoinfluenceontheprocessofthesecondlanguagelearning.2.6ClassificationSystemAdoptedfortheCurrentStudyTheclassificationsystemoferrorscreatedbyJames(2001).Itisillustratedinthefollowingpart:Thelexiscalerrors,syntacticerrorsanddiscoursalerrors.Thelexiserrorsrefertothemis-selectionofadjectiveandtheyhavetheperfectmeaningbutarewronginpartofspeech,justlikethefollowinginstance:*Aftertheflood,alotofpeoplediedofhungry.Aftertheflood,alotofpeoplediedofhunger.Inthesamplesabove,wefoundtheerrorscalledChinglish.Itmeansstudentstranslationofamotherlanguagewordbyword.Forinstance:*TheEnglishCornerprovidesuswithachancetotalkwithforeignpeople.TheEnglishCornerprovidesuswithachancetotalkwithforeigners.*InChina,inthespringfestival,kidscangetalotofhongbao.InChina,inthespringfestival,kidscangetalotofgiftmoney.Jamespointsoutthatweshalluse‘text’inamuchbroadersensetodesignateanyinstanceoflanguagethatresultsfromapplyingtherulesofencodingandoflexis-grammar,whiledecodingorencodingerrorisconcernedwithsubstancesystems;inaddition,distortionsarenottakenintoconsiderationinthepresentstudy;itismore18 appropriatetocategorizetheseerrorsassubstanceerrors,astheyareconcernedwithmisspellings;thesenserelationshipofsemanticconfusionreferstopairsofwordsthataresemanticallygermanearefailedtobedifferentiated(James,2001:142).Forexample:*Manyofuswereaskedtojoinherparty.Manyofuswereaskedtotakepartinherparty.Thewordsemanticrelationshipmodelinvolvesconfusionassociationwiththemeansofconnectionbetweenwords.Whentheerrorofthematch,ifyouchoosethewordsmightnotordinarilyfolloworprecedeanotherword.Forexample:*Shedoesn’tknowhowtododinner.Shedoesn’tknowhowtocookdinner.Semanticcircumlocutionsincludeanindirectexpressionwhichisusuallyusedbyallusionanddirectreference.Forexampleasfollows:*Ihavetoaskmyfathertowritedowntheirnamesafterfinishingmyhomework.Ihavetoaskmyfathertosignupafterfinishingmyhomework.Maybethestudentwhoproducedthesentencedidn’tknowtheexpression“signup”andparaphrasedthisverbphrase.Fourkindsofsyntaxerrorsareinstudents’writings:clause,phrase,sentenceandinter-sentence.Phrasetypesetareneverdiscreteentities.Nounphrasehasthefollowingtypeset:Omissionofarticles;redundancyofthedefinitearticle“the”;miss-selectionof“a”and“an”.Samplesofmiss-selectionof“a”and“the”andthedeterminersprecedinguncountablenounsareasfollows:*Shegotinformationaboutit.Shegotapieceofinformationaboutit.Anotheristhediscourse,amongwhich,“transferofthetopic-commentstructure,andsignagoodexample”(Schachter,J.andRutherford,1979).“Thetopic-commentstructureisaphenomenonwhichisfoundinsecondlanguagelearners’inter-language”(Eillis,2000:56).AgreatdistinctionbetweenChineseandEnglishisthatChinesefocusesonparataxisandEnglishemphasizeonhypostasis.Forinstance:AChinesesentence:一只青蛙，一张嘴，两只眼睛，四条腿。SomestudentstranslatethissentenceintoEnglishis:Onefroghasonemouthtwoeyesfourlegs.Thissentenceisfulloferrorsandmistakes.Firstly,theorganizationanddevelopmentinanEnglishdiscoursewerelinear;onthecontrary,thedevelopmentofChinesediscourse19 wasspiral.Second,asweallknow,ChineseandEnglishbelongtotwodifferentlanguagesandcultures.Obviously,EnglishandChinesehavedifferentwaysofthinking.SoinapassagewrittenbyChinese,nativeEnglishspeakerswillfindalotof“rubbish”or“nonsense”.(WangLi,2013)Asmiddleschoolstudents,theyalwaysfocusonthegrammarlevel,thelexicalandsentencestructural.However,inawholewritingworkthediscourseshouldnotbeignored.2.7TheResearchesonLanguageTransferatAbroadandinChinaNegativetransferresearchbeganinthe1950s.Asoneofrepresentativefigure,LadoputforwardinhisbookLinguisticsAcrossCulturethat”negativetransferisamainobstacleinlanguageacquisition.”(1957).Then,inthisperiod,ContrastiveAnalysisTheoryformed.Sincethe1960s,languagetransferbegantofacecriticismfromresearches.Atthesametime,BehaviorismwaschallengedbytheCognitivism.Transfertheorylostitsdominantposition.Inthelate1960sandearly1970s,peoplebegantouseErrorAnalysisandInterlanguageTheorytoexplainthephenomenonoflanguagetransfer.GraubergsurveyedtheGerman-speakingstudentsandfoundthatthenegativelanguagetransfererrorscausedbymothertongueaccountedfor36%oftheerrorsoflanguagein1971.(NieAiming,2012)In1970sTransferonceagainbecameahottopicinthefieldoflanguageteachinganditisatypeofsignificantstrategyinlanguagelearning.Chau(1975)foundthatthenegativetransfererrorsoftheChinesepeopleaccountedfor51%oftheerrorsoflanguageerrors.Mukkatash(1977)foundthattheArabicaccountedfor23%.Flink(1979)foundthattheSpanishaccountedfor31%.Itcanbeseenthatthenegativetransferinforeignlanguageacquisitionisubiquitous.Fromthelate1960sto1970s,manyresearcherspaidmuchattentiontotheLanguageUniversalastheywereinfluencedbyChomsky’sUG(UniversalGrammar)theoryandthevalidityofContrastiveAnalysishypothesiswasquestioned,theinnateUniversalGrammarratherthanthemothertonguewasregardedastheleadingelementthatinfluencedtheL2learning(YuLiming,2004).AsoneofthemostimportantcomponentsofUGtheory,markednesstheorywasadoptedinthemother20 tongueinfluencestudyandresearcherstendedtoprovethelanguagemarkednessoftheUniversalGrammar.MarkednesstheoryisbasedonlanguageuniversalanditemphasizestheconsistencyofthemothertongueandthetargetlanguagesothattheL1influencewasdenied.Therefore,themarkednessoflanguagewasthedecisiveelementinL2learning.WangYiru(2014)publishesathesisnamedAStudyonChinesNegativetransferinMiddleSchoolStudents’EnglishWriting.TheauthorfocusesonstudyofChinesestudents’60compositionswithnegativetransferbetweenmothertongue.Andfoundthreemainfinding.First,79.75%errorsarebelongtoChineselanguagetransfer,othererrorsaccountsfor20.25%.Second,theauthorfoundthatmoreChinesenegativetransfermorelowerscoresofEnglishwriting.Third,inrespectofthinkingpattern,ChinesestudentshaveinfluencedbyChinesethinkingpattern,especiallyChinesemiddleschoolstudents.WenQiufangandWangLifei(2004)foundthattheChinesestudentshaveusedirectorindirectwaytoimpactonlearners'Englishwritingability.EspeciallythewritingabilityofChinese,ChinesevocabularyandChinesediscoursearesignificanteffectsonEnglishwriting,71.8%errorsaccountsforthetotalaffects,thenChineserestrictstheEnglishlevelandaffectsEnglishwritingability.Inaddition,LiuZuoxiong(2007)hasstudiedthemothertonguetransferonthelexicalinEnglishlevelinEnglishwritingofcollegestudents.ZhaoHongjian(2008)hasstudyonthenegativetransferofmothertonguethinkingmodelinEnglishwriting.MoHaiwen(2011)focusesonthenegativetransferofmothertongueinEnglishwriting.Thoseresearchesshowedthatthetargetlanguagelearners’mothertongueshouldberesponsiblefortheoutputofininferenceprocess,anditseemedthatthereisgreatdifferencebetweenthefirstlanguageandthesecondlanguage.However,studiesstatedabovearetosomedegreelimitedfortheyjustcaredaboutoneofthelevelsoflinguisticsthatmeansstudentsoftenignoretheEnglishwayoflexicallevel,SyntacticlevelandDiscoursallevel,sothisthesesfocusonallthoseparttohelpstudentsimprovetheirEnglishwriting.21 ChapterThreeMethodologySecondLanguageacquisitionisdifferentfrommothertonguelanguageacquisition,andforeignlanguage(English)learnersgenerallyfailtoattainnativespeaker’slanguageproficiencyiftheydonotlearnEnglishinEnglish-speakingcountries.Languagetransferresearchshowsthatnegativetransferisoneoftheimportantfactorsthatinfluencestudents’writing.ErrorAnalysiswhichistheoreticallybasedoncognitivepsychology,examinestheactualerrorsproducedbythelearnerinthetargetlanguage.Itseeserrorsasanaturalphenomenonthatunavoidablyoccurswhenlearningmothertongueorforeignlanguagebeforecorrectknowledgeisacquiredandcompletelyinternalized.AccordingtotheSapir-WhorfHypothesis,thelanguagewelearnfromchildhoodstronglyinfluencethewaywethinkandviewtheworld(HuZhuanglin,2011).Itisinevitablethatinlearningsecondlanguagetransferencehappensandlearnertendstoperceivemeaninginthesecondlanguagefromtheirownculture.Itisnowwidelyheldthatthereareanumberofdifferencesbetweentwolanguagesandculturesaswell,andthelearners’knowledgeofmothertonguewouldinterferewiththeirEnglishwriting.Whenbehaviorismoccupiedaveryimportantstatus,thebehavioristsfoundthedifferencesbetweennativeandtargetlanguagewouldeitherleadtopositivetransferornegativetransfer,alsoknownasinterference.Theyascribederrorslargelytotheinterferenceoflearners’nativelanguage.Theirnativelanguagehabitspreventedthemfromlearningsecondlanguagehabits.Therefore,thispaperanalyzesthenegativetransferofChineseinEnglishwriting.Writingisoneofthefourbasicskillsinlearningasecondlanguage.InChina,writinghasbecomeapopularlanguagetextform.However,EnglishwritinghasbeenadifficultpointfortheChinesestudentsandChinesestudents’writingabilitiesarefarfrombeingsatisfactory.Theymakemanykindsoferrorsinthewriting.AccordingtoEllis(2001),errorsduetonegativetransferandmothertongueinterferenceamountto51percentinChina,whichindicatesthattheintralingualtransferisstillthedominantcauseforChinesestudent’serrors.Amongthem,writingerrorisamajorsort.Duetothefirstlanguageinterference,ChinesestudentsmakevariouserrorsinthecourseofEnglishwriting.Inthischapter,thedesignandoperationoftheresearchwillbeclearlystated,whichincludesresearchquestions,thebackgroundofsubjects,instrumentsforthisempiricalstudy,theprocedureofdatacollectionandtheclassificationofthedata.22 3.1ResearchQuestionsThepurposeofthisresearchistomakeacomparativelysystematicstudyontheinfluenceofthenegativetransferofmothertongue(Chinese)uponjuniormiddleschoolstudents’Englishcompetenceinwriting.Theresearchisconductedinaccordancewithfollowingthreeresearchquestions:(1)WhatarethemaintypesoferrorscausedbyChinesenegativetransferinjuniormiddleschoolstudents’Englishwriting?(2)WhatarethecausesofChinesenegativetransferinstudents’Englishwriting?(3)HowdojuniormiddleschoolstudentsimprovetheirEnglishwritingskillbyavoidingChinesetransfer?3.2SubjectInordertohaveanobjectiveandrelevantresult,studentsingrade2injuniormiddleschoolarechosenasthesubjectsofresearchonnegativetransferbecausetheygenerallyhaveEnglishbasicknowledgeandarecapableofcompletingthetaskneededintheresearch.Specifically,thesubjectsofthisstudycomefromClass7andClass8ofGrade2ofShennaMiddleSchoolinXining,QinghaiProvince.Establishedin2007,ShennaMiddleSchoolisaquitelargemiddleschoolwithmorethan200teachersandover3000students.Thenumberofsubjectsintheresearchis120including51boysand69girls.Theirageisbetween12and14yearsold.AllthesubjectsparticipatedinthestudyhaveexperiencedregularEnglishlearningforatleastsevenyears,andtheyhavelearnedthebasicgrammarknowledge.Withthehelpandexplanationoftheclass-mastersoftwoclasses,allofsubjectsarewillingtoprovideconveniencetotheresearcherperformingthisempiricalstudyintheirclasses.ByinterviewingtheEnglishteachers,itcanbeknownthatthesubjectshaven’treceivedtheprofessionalwritingtraining.Hence,wecaninferthatvariouserrorswillappearintheirEnglishwriting.3.3InstrumentsTheinstrumentsusedintheresearchwerecompositionsoffinalEnglishexamination.Allsubjects,atthesametimeandinthesameplace,arerequiredtofinishoneEnglishcompositionwithin30minutes.Theyarenotallowedtotalkor23 consultreferencebookwhilewriting.Thedirectionofthecompositionintheexampaperisasfollow:Forthispart,youareallowed30minutestowriteashortcompositionentitled“Myplanforthesummerholiday”followingtheoutlinegivenbelow:(1)表达清楚、语句通顺、意思连贯；(2)70词左右。3.4DataCollectionAllthe120subjects,whoarefromClass7andClass8ofGrade2ofShennamiddleschoolinXining,wererequiredtocompletetheexampaperwithingiventimethwiththeinvigilationbytheirteachersinJuly14,2015.Afterthat,weaskedthepermissionfromtheteacherstophotocopythecompositionpartofthesubjects’exampapers.Thenextpartofdatacollectionincludesthefollowingfoursteps.Firstly,wefoundoutallkindsoferrorsmadebythesubjectsintheirwriting.Secondly,alltheerrorsaredividedintotwomainparts:errorscausedbytheinterferenceofmothertongueanderrorscausedbyotherfactorslikespelling,partofspeechandsoon.Thirdly,alltheerrorscausedbynegativetransferareclassifiedintermsoflexicalerrors,syntacticerrorsanddiscoursalerrors.Thefourthstepistoanalyzealltheerrorsonebyoneandworkoutthepercentageofthem.Thus,basedonthesedata,wecanhaveathoroughanddetailedanalysisoftheerrorsinstudents’writingandfinallysomeusefulsuggestionsareproposed.3.5TheClassificationofErrorsintheStudents’CompositionNowadays,withthedevelopmentofglobalization,English,asoneoftheinternationallanguages,hasbecomethemostwidelyusedlanguagearoundtheworld.Englishwriting,asoneofthefourbasicskills,isconsideredthemosteffectivemeansofcommunication.EnglishlearnersshouldfocusonwritingpartoftheEnglishlearningsincewritingskillisanimportantmeanstoassessEnglishlearners’languageproficiency.However,thecurrentsituationofEnglishwritinginChinaisfarfromsatisfactory.Englishwritingistheweakestpointofstudents.ChinesestudentsoftenuseChinesewayofthinkingtoexpresstheirthoughtsinEnglishwriting.Generallyspeaking,negativetransferortheChinesenativeculturelargelyresultsintheerrorsinstudents’writing.OnthebasisoftheclassificationoferrorsproposedbyC.Jameswhichisshowedinthefollowingtable,thepaperclassifiesalltheerrorscollectedfromthestudents’compositionsintodifferenttypes,whichshowsinChapterFourto24 explorenegativetransferinEnglishwriting.Table3.1James’ClassificationofErrorsCausedbyNegativeTransferClassificationoferrorsErrornumbersArticlesLexicalerrorsCasesNumbersTensesCompartivedegress/SuperlativedegressDerivativeSubjectomissionsObjectomissionsPredicateomissionsSyntacticerrorsAgreementsChinglishWordordersRepetitionRun-onsentencesIndependent“because”sentencesOveruseof“we”Wronguseof“you”DiscoursalDiscourseerrorsNon-influentialerrorstotal25 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionsTable4.1TheFrequencyandProportionofEachKindofErrorsinTotalNumbers:ClassificationoferrorsErrornumbersPercentage(%)Articles61.79Cases144.18LexicalNumber102.99errorsDerivative133.88Tenses5516.42Therebe3811.34Subjectomissions154.48Objectomissions123.58Predicateomissions102.99Agreements205.97Chinglish195.67SyntacticWordsorder175.07errorsPositionofAdverbial164.78Negativesentences51.49Independent“because”sentences247.16Run-onsentence175.07DiscoursalDiscourse236.87errorsNon-influentialerrors216.27total335100BasedonTable3.1fromC.JameswhopublishedamonographnamedExploringErrorAnalysisin2001,thispaperadaptedasimilarclassificationoferrors(seeTable4.1).AsshowedinTable4.1,335intotalerrorsarefoundinthe120originalwritingsampleswrittenbythestudentsfromClass7andClass8ofShennaMiddleSchoolinXining.Theerrorsbelongtotwotypes:errorscausedbynegativetransferofChinese26 andnon-influentialerrorswhicharenotcausedbynegativetransferofChinese.Table4.2showsthefrequencyandproportionbetweennegativetransferofChineseandnon-influentialerrors.Table4.2thefrequencyandproportionbetweennegativetransferofChineseandnon-influentialerrors.frequencyProportion(%)NegativetransferofChinese31493.73Non-influentialerrors216.27FromTable4.2wecanseethaterrorscausedbynegativetransferofChinesearemuchmorethannon-influentialerrors.Obviously,mostoferrorsbelongtosyntacticerrors,butsomeerrorsarerelatedtosuchtypesasspellingandpunctuationwhichdigressfromthemainsubject.Sothereisnoneedtoanalyzetheseerrorsinthisresearch.Forexamples:(1)Itisatree.(2)Hehasasmallmouth、twobigeyes、andasmallnose(3)mymotherisadoctor.(4)IwanttovisitThesummerpalace.Examples(1)and(2)arewronginpunctuationandexample(3)and(4)haveerrorsinuppercaseandlowercase.Thesemistakesareprobablycausedbythestudentswhoarecarelessandwhosetimeistooshortfinishtheexamwell,sothesemistakesarenotinthescopeofthisresearch.Webster’sNinthNewCollegiateDictionarysaidEnglishbelongstosyntheticlanguagewhichis“characterizedbyfrequentandsystematicuseofinflectedformstoexpressgrammaticalrelationship.”(1983).Incontrast,theRandomHouseCollegeDictionarysaidChinesebelongstoanalyticlanguagewhichis“characterizedbyarelativelyfrequentuseoffunctionwords,auxiliaryverbs,andchangesinwordordertoexpresssyntacticrelations,ratherthanofinflectedforms.”(2000).Accordingtothedataofthisresearch,wecanseefromtable4.2,93.73%ofthetotalerrorsarecausedbynegativetransferofChinese.AsshowedinTable4.1,theseerrorsaresummarizedasthreegroups:lexicalerrors,syntacticerrorsanddiscoursalerrors.Thereare248errorsbelongingtosyntacticerrorsandtheyaccountfor74.02presentofwholenegativetransferofChinese.Allthelexicalerrorsonlyaccountfor12.84percentanddiscoursalerrorsamountto6.87percentofwholenegativetransferofChinese.Morespecifically,themostfrequently-madeerrorsarerelatedtotense27 whichamountsto16.42percent,andthereare38errorsintherebestructure,whichis11.34percent,rankingsecondinthefrequencyoferrors.Therankingorderoffrequencyoferrorsfrom3to10isrespectivelyindependent“because”sentences,discourse,agreement,Chinglish,wordsorder,run-onsentence,subjectomissionsandcases.Errorsrelatedtonegativesentencesamountstheleastpercentageintheresearch.Next,eachkindoferrorswillbediscussedandanalyzedindetail.4.1LexicalErrorsInthisresearch,lexicalerrorsincludetheerrorsinarticle,cases,numberandderivative.4.1.1ArticlesSincetherearenoarticlesinChinese,thestudentsmayhavedifficultyinunderstandingthemandtendtoomitthemorusethemimproperly.Asaresult,errorsinarticlescomeout.WecanseefromTable4.1,thearticleerrorsaccountfor1.79%ofthewholeerrors.Forexample:A.*Thereisaappletreeinthepark.Thereisanappletreeinthepark.B.*Inthesomeothersituations,wewillvisittheSummerPlace.Insomeothersituations,wewillvisitTheSummerPlace.C.*Oneisabouthomework,otheroneisaboutsports.Oneisabouthomework,theotheroneissports.D.*Inordertofindhobby,Ineedtofinishmyhomework.Inordertofindahobby,Ineedtofinishmyhomework.Theerrorofthefirstsentence(SentenceA)isthatstudentsmisusethearticleabeforevowelphonemes.ChinesestudentsoftenfeelconfusedbetweenvowelphonemesandconsonantphonemesasChinesespeakersarelesssensitivetothedifferencesbetweenvowelsandconsonants.TheerrorinSentenceBisthatdefinitearticletheisusedwhenitisnotneeded,whiletheerrorinSentenceCisthatdefinitearticletheisomittedwhenitisneeded.TheerrorinSentenceDisthatindefinitearticleaisomittedwhenitisneeded.ErrorsinSentenceB,CandDaremadebythestudentsbecausetheyarenotclearabouthowtousearticlesthe/aandanproperly28 andwhichsituationstouse.Articleisakindofwordwhichservedasspecifyingthefollowingnouns.Ingeneral,threekindsofarticlesareusedinEnglishlanguage:thedefinitearticlethe,theindefinitea/anandzeroarticle.IfthereisnootherdeterminerbeforeanouninanEnglishsentence,onekindofarticlesmustbeemployed.ComparedwithEnglish,thereisnoarticleinChinese.Asaresult,Chineselearnerstendtomakemoreerrorsinarticles.4.1.2CasesNopossessivepronounexistsinChinese,butinEnglishthepossessivepronounscanbedividedintothenominalformandtheadjectivalform,thusitiseasyforChinesestudentstomisusethesetwoforms.A.*Sometimes,thevillageisbetterthantheir.Sometimes,thevillageisbetterthantheirs.B.*Mystudyismoreimportantthanyourswork.Mystudyismoreimportantthanyourwork.Caseserrorsaccountfor4.18%ofthewholeerrors.(Table4.1)Therearetwotypesoferrorsintheuseofgenitivecaseofpronoun,whichareshownbytheexamplesabove.InsentenceA,thetopicofthecompositionisaplanforsummerholiday.thisstudentplantovisitthevillage,he(she)wantstowritethatthisvillageisbetterthancity.Butadjectivepossessivepronoun“their”ismisusedinthissentence,inwhichnominalpossessivepronoun“theirs”iscorrect.InsentenceB,thisstudentplanstostudyhardatsummerholiday.Thenominalpossessivepronoun“yours”isnotrightandshouldbereplacedbyadjectivepossessivepronoun“your”whichservesasanattributive.4.1.3NumberInChinese,peopleusuallyusethecharacter“们”aftersomewordstoindicatingpluralforms,forexamples“姐姐们”,“老师们”,“孩子们”.However,theconceptof“pluralforms”inEnglishisdefinitelydifferentfromthatofChinese.Fromtheexamplesofthepluralformsabove,itcanbeinferredthatpluralformsinChinesehavethefollowingfeatures.First:TheChinesecanusepluralmeaningwhichcannotcollocatewithnumber;forexample:“三个孩子”,thenitiswrongif“们”isaddedafterthewords,suchas“三个孩子们”.Second:“们”canexpressagroupofpeople,Itispersonificationifyouindicateagroupoflifelessthings,suchasthesentence“汽29 车们”“草儿们”areusedinliteraryinChinese.InEnglish,almostallcommonnouns,accordingtowhethertheycanbecounted,canbedividedintocountableanduncountablenouns.Besides,thepluralformsofnounsareoftenachievedbyaddingpluralmarkswiththemostcommonletters“s’’or“es”.AndChinesestudentsmayevenhavedifficultyindistinguishingcountablenounsanduncountable.Therearesomewordswhicharecountableinsomeoccasionsbutareuncountablenounsinotheroccasions,suchastheword“experience”.AstherearenopluralmarksinChineselanguage,itismorelikelyforChinesestudentstoforgettoputapluralmarkafterawordthoughtheyhavealreadylearnedthepluralforms.Examples:A.*Ihavethreesisterinmyhometown,theyareverybeautiful.Ihavethreesistersinmyhometown,theyareverybeautiful.B.*Mothermayhavesomeexperiencesabouttraveltotellme.Mothermayhavesomeexperienceabouttraveltotellme.WecanseefromTable4.1,thereare10numbererrorsinmyresearch.OnecauseofthemistheChinesecanindicatepluralmeaningcannotcollocatewithnumber,inChinesewecansay“我有三个姐姐”,“姐姐”hasnochangeinChinese,butinEnglish,pluralmark“s”shouldbeputbehind“sister”,sowemustsaythreesisters.InerrorsB,astudentsaidmotherhaveexperiencesabouttraveltotellyou.Theword“experience”canbebothcountableanduncountablenoun.Anditisanuncountablenounwhenitmeans“经验”andacountablenounwhenitindicates“经历”.ThewordexperienceintheexampleBmeans“经验”,soitshouldnotaddthepluralmark“s”.AndsomeEnglishwordslikework(工作;作品),works(著作).Paper(纸),papers(论文;报告;文件).area(面积)areas(地区;区域).time(时间),times(次数).room(空间),rooms(房间).Water(水),waters(水域)alsohavethesimilaruse.Studentsneedtopayattentiontothosethatarebothcountableanduncountablenouns.4.1.4DerivativeInEnglish,derivativeisakindofwordformationmethodthatisusedtoformnewwordsbyaddinganaffixorasuffixtoaword.Forexample,throughtheadditionofthesuffix“ness”infrontoftheadjectivewarm,wecangetanewwordwarmness.ThereareagreatnumberofderivationalmorphemesinEnglish,suchasthesuffix:“ness”,prefix:“al”and“non”.Allofthemcanchangethelexicalmeaningorthepartofspeech.ItisdifferentfromEnglishthatChinesedoesn’tformanewwordinthis30 way.Infact,manyChinesewordshavetheirownpartsofspeechandshowtheirpartsofspeechindifferentcontexts.Weoftenuse“的、得、地”togetanewform,like“美丽的”isanadjective.“美丽地”isanadverb.Unawareofthedifferenceinthisaspect,manyChinesestudentsmayuseanEnglishwordlexicalcorrectbutgrammaticallywrong.Example:*IfIcanpassanexam,Icanworkcareful.IfIcanpassanexam,Icanworkcarefully.Icollect13errorsofderivativeinTable4.1,itaccountsfor3.88percentofwholeerrors.Instudents’writing,Ifoundthissentence:IfIcanpassanexam,Icanworkcareful.ItranslateitintoChineseis:“如果要通过考试我就要细心学习”,“细心”isnoinflectioninChineseandChinesestudentsalwaysignorethisdifferencebetweenChineseandEnglish.Aftertheanalysisoftheexample,itissafetosaythattheadjectivecarefulintheexampleshouldbereplacedbyitsadverbialformcarefully.Asadverbsshouldaddafterverbs,socarefulhereisrightlexicallybutwronggrammatically.OneimportantreasonfortheoccurrenceofthiskindoferroristhatEnglishlearnersonlyfocusonthemeaningofthewordswithoutsufficientconsiderationofthepartsofgrammar.4.2SyntacticErrors4.2.1TenseThemostcommongrammaticalerrorsareontensesandverbs.InChinesetherearenoverbinflections.Englishlanguagesystemiscomposedoftense,moodanddifferentformsofwords.TherearethreekindsofEnglishtense:presenttense,pasttenseandfuturetense.“Time”canbedividedintothreeparts:past,presentandfuture,anditbelongstothecategoryofideology,and“tense”withinthescopeofgrammar.Theverbformsaredeterminedby“tense.”Englishhavesixteenformsoftense,whicharenineinoftenuse.Whenthemiddleschoolstudentswritecompositions，theywilloftenmisusethetense.StudentslearntensesofEnglishlaterthanverbs.TherearenoverbmorphologicalchangesofChinese,whetheranactionoccursinthefutureorthepast,theverbsdoesnotchange.Onthecontrary,thetenseismodifiedbyaddingaformofverbinEnglish.Forexample:“tomorrow”meansTheFutureTenseand“havedone”standsforThePastTense.TheChineselearnersmakeerrorsatthispoint.For31 example：*Iwilltodomyhomework.Iwilldomyhomework.*Holidayiscome,I’mveryhappy.Ihavesomeplans.Holidayiscoming,I’mveryhappy.Ihavesomeplans.*IwatchingTVafterdomyhomework.Iamwatching/willwatchTVafterdomyhomework.Thereare55tenseerrorsinmyresearch(Table4.1),itaccountsfor16.42percentofalltheerrors.Inthefirstsentence,Iwilltodomyhomework.Thissentenceisawrongexpression,Chineselanguagehasnosuchinflection.Peoplecansay:“我打算写作业”or“我一会儿写作业”。ButinEnglish,will+doisacommonexpression.Inthesecondsentence,HolidayiscomingisafuturetensethatisanappropriateexpressionofEnglish.ThecauseofwrongexpressionisthatChineselanguagehasnoverbinflection.4.2.2ThereBeNegativeTransferisalsoreflectedin“therebe”structure.InEnglish,both“have”and“therebe”areabletoexpress“have”.Studentscanidentifywhenappearinoneoftheminasentence.Butwhenstudentsusewordsthat“thereis”thismeaningspontaneously,theyusuallyuse“therehave”.Namely,theyareapttoconfusethesetwosentences.Inaddition,itshouldbenotedthatwhenweuse“therebe”structure,thereisaverbbehindthesubject,andstudentsshouldknownhowtoproperlyusethisformoftheverb.Andstudentscannotlearnthewholegrammarsof“therebe”inmiddleschool.Therearesomelimitsintheircomposition.Asentencepatternof“therebe+noun”,passiveformispertainingtothesubjectoftheinfinitive,itcanalsobeusedintheformofinitiative.Forexample：A.*Therehavesomeapplesinmyhometown.Therearesomeapplesinmyhometown.B.*Thereisnotimelosing.Thereisnotimetolose./tobelost.Thereare38errorsintherebestructureofmyresearch(Table4.1),itaccountfor11.34percentofallerrorsinmystudy.InChinese,wecansay“这里有”butinEnglishpeoplecannotsaytherehaveandstudentscan’tavoidtheinfluenceoftheChinesewayofthinking,theyalwaysuseTherehave…intheirEnglishwritingjustlikethefirstsentence:Therehavesomeapplesinmyhometown.First,thetopicof32 compositionistheplanforsummerholiday,thestudentdescribesthelocalproduceofhisorherhometownthatisahighlightinhis(her)writing.Second,thereisanerrorinthissentence,therehaveisawrongexpression.Wecansaythereisorare….Insecondsentence,thisisagrammarerror,theverbsofChinesearenotinflection.Wecansay“时间没有被浪费”,“浪费”hasnochangeinthisChinesesentence.ButinEnglish,theverbshaveinflection,wecansaylose(presenttense),lost(pasttense)andwealwayssaytolose(TheInfinitive)andlosing(PresentParticiple).Inthissentence,thereisnosomethingtodo…isacommonexpressioninEnglish.4.2.3SubjectOmissionsandObjectOmissionsItisdifferentbetweenChineseandEnglish,youcangetthemeaningoftheChinesesentence,thereisnospecialgrammarwhichmusthavesubject,youcanusethenounphrase,verbphrase,prepositionalphrases,adjectives,adverbs,orasentenceasasubject.TheEnglishsentencestructureisalwaysSVO,ifthereisnosubject,thissentenceisaspecialform——Imperative.InEnglish,onlynounsandnounphrasescanactasSubject.Chinesestudentsareaffectedbylanguagetransfer,theyoftenuseverbphraseasSubject.ThisisaproblemofSubjectOmission.*Ihopehaveahappyandbusyholiday.Ihope(that)Ihaveahappyandbusyholiday.WecanseefromtheTable4.1that4.48presenterrorsissubjectomissions,inChinese,wecanwritethesentenceas“我希望有一个开心而充实的假期”.ButinEnglish,weneedaddasubject:IhopeIhaveahappyandbusyholiday.ThatisarightexpressionofEnglish.ChinesestudentsignorethedifferencebetweenChineseandEnglish.AccordingtotheEnglishgrammar,theremustbeanobjectbehindtransitiveverb,whileinChinese,thereisnodifferencebetweenintransitiveandtransitivewords.Aslongassentencemeaningisobvioustounderstand,anobjectisnotneededanymore.InfluencedbyChinesesyntacticprinciples,sentencesbelowoccurinstudents’Englishwritings.Forexamples:*Ihavenoideaabouthowtodo.Ihavenoideaabouthowtodoit.*ButIdon’tagreethis.ButIdon’tagreewiththis.Thereare12subjectomissionserrorsinmystudy(Table4.1).Itaccountsfor4.4833 percentofwholetheerrors.AfterIanalyzingthefirstsentence,theverb“do”isatransitiveverbandanobjectshouldbeaddedafterit,butChinesestudentsdonotevenhavetheconceptof“transitive”andtheybelievethatthesentenceisquiteclearinmeaningexpression,thusthereisnoneedtoaddtheword“it”inthefirstsentence.Inthesecondsentencetheverb“agree”isanintransitiveverbandcannotbefollowedbyobjectivesdirectly.BecauseoftheinfluenceofChinesepattern,theobject“with”isaddedaftertheword“agree”.4.2.4PredicateOmissionsandIndependent“Because”sentencesPredicateomissionserroraccountsfor2.99presentinmyresearch,(Table4.1)asthenameimplies,verbandparticlesomissionsislackofpredicate.StructureofEnglishisSVO,whilesometimesChinesedonotneedtosubjectandpredicateinthesentences.Inaddition,studentsmaynotunderstandpredicatefeaturesofEnglish,sostudentsoftenusetheformofChinesetowriteEnglish,whichhavealotofmistakes.Inaddition,wecanseefromTable4.1,Independent“Because”sentenceserrorsaccountsfor5.07%ofwholeerrors.Forexamples:*BecauseIthinkthisplanisnotgood.Wecan’tacceptitbecauseIthinkthisplanisnotgood.*Becausethechancesarelargerinbigcities,sostudentsleavetheirvillages.Studentsleavetheirvillagesbecausethechancesarelargerinbigcities.InChinesesentences,causalclausesoftenbeginwith“因为”andarealwaysisolated.WhileinEnglish,causalclauseswith“because”arenotseparatedandhavetobeattachedtoamainclause.Therefore,anisolatedcausalclausebeginningwith“because”isincorrectinEnglish.AvarietyofstudentswhoaregreatlyaffectedbyChineseforms,tendtomakeerrorsinsentences.4.2.5AgreementsTobeexact,discussioninthissubsectionaretheerrorsinagreement,whichmeansagreementbetweensubjectandpredicativeverbwithregardtonumber.Therearethreeprinciplesguidingagreement:principlesofgrammaticalagreement,notionalagreementandproximity(ZhangDecong,1997)withgrammaticalagreementbeingthebasicprinciple,whichrequirestheverbtomatchitssubjectinnumber.Ifthesubjectissingularorisamassnoun,theverbshouldtakethesingularformbyadding34 thesuffix:“s”,ontheotherhand,ifthesubjectisplural,theverbshouldtakethepluralform,forexample,thebasicform,whichsuggestthatthepluralinflectionofacountablenounexcludesthesingularinflectionofafiniteverb,orputitanotherway,themorpheme:“s”,functioningasanindicatorofeitherapluralnounorathirdpersonsingularverb,can,andmust,occuronlyonceinasubject-predicatecombination(YangDafu,2000).Ifound5.97presenterrorsbelongtoagreementinmyresearch.(Table4.1)Thisstudentwritesasentenceinthecomposition:TheoldmenneedshelporTheoldmanneedhelp.Aviolationofthisprinciple,studentsuseChinesewaytowrite,theyignorenounandverbinflectionormisuseinflectionatbothwillresultinerrorinagreement.TheaboveanalysissuggeststhatEnglishdemandsstrictobservationinsubject-verbconcord,whileChineseisalmostabsentofsuchrestriction.ThereisnosyntacticreflectionofsingularofverbsinChinese,andthatofpluralfornounsmayalsobefreeorsimplybeindicatedbyadding“们”.Thedifferencecanbeexplainedbythefollowingexample:IamexcitedorWeareexcited.Inthisexample,thesubjectoftheChinesesentencecouldhaveboththesingularandthepluralsenseswithoutanychangesinthepredicate.ThisistheevidencetosuggestthatChineseissimplerandmoregeneralinagreement.SuchadifferencemayresultinthenegativeinfluenceofChineseonthelearners’commandofsyntacticagreementinEnglish,whichcangivethebestillustrationtothefollowingexamples:Hestillliveinvillage.Theerrorsinsubject-verbagreementintheabovesentencesareevidentofL1influencebecauseverbinflectiontomeettheneedofthirdpersonsingularnounorpronounisnotdemandedinChinese.4.2.6Chinglish(ChineseEnglish)ForthestructureoftheEnglishsentence,thesubjectisthefirst,andthenthepredicate.Therearemanytypesofthesubject:Informationcanbeaddedtotheinthefrontofthebasicstructure,oreventotheend.Wecancombinesentencesbyusingcoordinatorsorsubordinators.Nomatterwhatkindofsentenceformweuse,allthesentencesinEnglishmusthavetheabovebasicsentencestructure:SOV.ButinChinese,itisnotnecessarytomakewithasubjectoraverb.InChinese,Ifthemeaningisclear,maybecoordination,subordination,subject,predicate,orverbsisnotnecessarytobeappliedto.ThereisnobasicsentencestructureinChinese。TheChinesethinkingmodelsandtheChinesesyntaxorChinesesentence35 structuresleadtoChinglish.WeallmustknowsometypicalChinglishlike“Mountainpeoplemountainsea”and“giveyousomecolortoseesee”.Sucherrorsareobviouslyaffectedbythelearners’ChinesethinkingmodelsandChinesesyntax.AndtheyrevealtheseriousproblemamongChineseEnglishlearners.Pronunciation,vocabularyandgrammarinChinesemighthavenegativetransferinfluenceonEnglishlearners.TheChinesestudentsinEnglishwritinghavedevelopedthehabitofwritinginthewayofChinesethinking.AsforChinglish,amixtureofbothChineseandEnglish,pointsareexpressedinEnglishungrammaticallybutwithChinesefeatures.MostChinesestudentstendtoproduceEnglishcompositionsbytransformingtheirthoughtsintoEnglish.Ofcourse,Chinglishusuallyleadstoconfusionfornativespeakers.ChinesestudentssometimesmakeEnglishsentencesbasedonChinesegrammaticalrules.Whentheywanttoexpresstheirthoughtsunconsciously,itisacausetowritesEnglishcompositionsbyliteraltranslations.WecanseefromTable4.1that5.67percentoferrorsareChinglish.Forsurfacestructuretransfer,thatistosaythetransferofmaterialcultureandsystemculture.Peoplecanfeeldifferencesinthesepairs.Deepstructuretransferisatpsychologicallevel,itistheconceptofculturaltransfer,includingwaysofthinking,moral,religiousfeelingsandnationalpsychology,becauseitisthepsychologicallevelinvolvingpeople’sminds,itisdifficulttodetectandperceiveinacross-culturalcommunication.SuchexamplesarenumerousinourlearningEnglish.Thefollowingexamplesarefromthestudents’compositions.*Afterfinishinghomework,mystomachisveryhungry.Afterfinishinghomework,Iamveryhungry.*Youmustverylikeyourparent.Youmustlikeyourparentverymuch.*Ithoughtandthought.Intheend,Isolvedtheproblem.Ithoughtaboutitforalongtime,andintheendIsolvedtheproblem.FromthesentencesabovewecanfindthethinkingmodelinChinesereflectedinEnglishsentences,whichresultfromculturedifferencesinaway.ThefollowingsentencesareshowstheinterferenceofChinesesentencestructureonEnglishwriting.InEnglish,verbsusuallycontainthemeaningsoftheirobjectsandtheobjectsareusuallyomitted.ButChineselanguageoftenhastheobjects.Inthefirstsentence:Afterfinishinghomework,mystomachisveryhungry.ItranslateitinChineseas“写完作业后，我的肚子非常饿”Thereisnoproblem,butweallknowthatEnglish36 sentenceisform-orientedbutChineselanguageismeaning-oriented.Soweneedjusttosay“Iamveryhungry”,itisarightexpression.Asthefirstsentence,thesecondandthethirdsentencesalsosucherrors.4.2.7WordsOrderandPositionofAdverbialThereare17errorsbelongtowordsorderanditaccountfor5.07percentofwholeerrors(Table4.1),thefollowingexamplesarefromthestudents’compositions.*Ihavea7yearsoldlittlesister.Ihavealittlesisterwhois7yearsold.*Thereisasmallbeautifulgardeninthepark.Thereisabeautifulsmallgardeninthepark.Generally,Englishsentencesfollowacertainwordpriorities,especiallyattributive,adverbial,negativewords,andquestions.ForexampleifthereismorethanoneEnglishadjectivesusedasattributive,wewillabidebythefollowinggeneralorder：Qualifier+adjective+size+shape+age,time+color+nationality/source+material+application+noun,forexample：“AbeautifulsmallroundedChinesemarbleball.”Inadverbialstructure,mostChineseasthe“Subject+Adverbial+Predicate+Object,”Englishis“Subject+Predicate+Object+Adverbial.”FromTable4.1,Ifound16errorsofpositionofadverbial,anditaccountsfor4.78ofthewholeerrors.Adverbialscanmodifyverbsandadjectives,inEnglish,peopleoftenputthemattheendofsentence,butinChinese,adverbialsarealwaysplacedinfrontofthesentence.ItisdifferentforpositionofadverbialsbetweenChineseandEnglish,thelearnersofChinesemakeerrorsofputtingadverbialsbeforeverbsintheirEnglishwritings.*Iplanquicklydomyhomework.Iplantodomyhomeworkquickly.*Studentscarefullydothehomework.Studentsdothehomeworkcarefully.“Quickly”isanadverbialphrase,soitiscorrecttoputthephrase“quickly”attheendofthesentence.Asthesameasthefirstsentence,“carefully”inthesecondsentenceshouldbeputattheendofthesentence.37 4.2.8NegativesentenceandRun-onSentencesWecanseefromTable4.1thaterrorofnegativesentenceaccountsfor1.49percentofthewholeerrors.Forexample:*Ithinkthathewillnotagree.Idon’tthinkthathewillagree.InChinese,“我觉得他不会同意”InChinese,privativeisbeforethenegatedverbstandsfornegativemeaningsfromofthesentence.ButinEnglish,privativeofsubordinatecompoundonlyisplacedbeforetheverbofclauseverb.Ifound17run-onsentenceerrorsinmyresearch(Table4.1).Anditaccountsfor5.07presentofthewholeerrors.Forexamples:*Ithinkmybrotherissmart,hecandoeverything.Ithinkmybrotherisaboywhocandoeverything.*Iwillnotgoshoppingtomorrow,tomorrowisveryhot.Iwillnotgoshoppingtomorrowwhichisveryhot.Grammaticallyrun-onsentenceisakindofcompletesentencesthatlacknecessarylinkingwordsandthatareoftenmadeupofsimplesentences.Inmanyoccasions,Chinesesentencescanbecompleteandcoherentwithoutanyconjunction..InEnglish,relativepronounsisoftenneededtomakesurethecoherenceandcohesivenessofthetext.4.3DiscoursalErrorsDiscoursalerrorsaccountfor6.87percentofthewholeerrors.(Table4.1)Kaplan(1988)thoughtthattheorganizationanddevelopmentinanEnglishdiscoursewerelinear,whichmeansanEnglishparagraphusuallybeganwithapointwhichwasdirectlypointedoutthetopicalsubject,eachsentenceintheparagraphwasnaturallyproducedafterthepreviousone,themeaningoftheparagraphwasdevelopedinalinearordertomakethewholetopicperfect,Onthecontrary,thedevelopmentofChinesediscoursewasspiral.Thetopicofthediscoursewasnotpresentwithadirectwaybutindirectone.TherearedifferentthinkingmodelsbetweenChineseandEnglish,theChinesespiralthinkingmodelwillaffecttheEnglishwritingindiscourse.MachaelHoeyputsforwardthreethoughtpatternsofEnglishdiscourse:Problem-solutionPattern,claim-counterclaimpatternandGeneral-particularPattern(general-specificpattern).Problem-solutionpatternismorecommoninthescientific38 paper,textreports,newsreportsandsomeliterarytext.Claim-counterclaimpatternisthetypicalpatternforthedebatepassages.Thispatternisnotcommoninmiddleschoolstudents’writing,theChinesediscoursethoughtpatternusuallyemphasizesonProblem-solutionpatternandChinesestudentsarelowin‘General-particularPattern’(LiuXiangtao,2013).Forexample:MyplanforthesummerholidayInmysummerholiday,IthinkofIcaneatbreakfastaftergotoexciseandrunningaroundthepark.Comebackhome,Atfirstdomysummerholidayhomework,after,Intheafternoongetoutplay,Ifweekend,Icanwithmyparentsgetoutplayandclimbmountion.Thisismyplanforthesummerholiday.MyplanforthesummerholidayInthemorning,Idomyhomework,intheafternoon,Icaneatdinner,inthenight.MymomandIgotowalk.MymomandIisgototheparkIfinishmyhomework,myparentsandIcangotoBeijing.Beijingisverybeautifulcity.BeijinghasGreatwall.Greatwallisverylong.Wehavetakesomephotos,Ihavefun,Ijoinisgoodholiday.Theabovearticlesarefulloferrorsandmistakes.Weanalyzeitfromaviewofdiscourseerrors.First,thosetwoarticleshavedifferenceincoherence.ItisbecauseinEnglisheverysentenceandwholeparagraphshouldbelinkedbysomewordsorphrases,whileinChinesetherearenosuchstrictrules.Second,itisacommonthingthatmiddleschoolstudentsarelackingimaginations,studentsneedtoreadalotofbookstogetsomeknowledge.Third,thestructureofthewholediscourseisconfusing,theauthorneitherusedthepureChinesespiralthinkingmodelnortheEnglishlinearthinkingmodel,butmixedthetwodifferentthinkingmodels.Thereisnologicintheirarticles.Theyjustlistthesentencebysentenceanditmakesthereaderdifficulttounderstandthemeaningofthosesentences.Tosumup,iftheEnglishlearnersarenotawareoftheChinesenegativeinfluence,theywillmakealotoferrorsandmistakesinthewholediscourse.Inaddition,Ialsofoundacompositionlikethis:Myplanforthesummerholiday8:00-9:00eatbreakfast.9:00-10:00dosports.10:00-12:00domyhomework.12:00-10:00eatlunch.1:00-3:00playcomputergame.3:00-4:00domyhomework.4:00-5:00dosports,playbasketball.5:00-6:00eatdinner.6:00-9:00watchTVthangobacktosleep.First,studentjustlistsaschedule,thereisnosubject,asweallknowtheEnglish39 sentencestructureisalwaysSVO,ifthereisnosubject,thissentenceisjustaspecialform---Imperative.Butwecan’tfindcompletesentencesinit.AndtheauthorneitherusedthepureChinesespiralthinkingmodelnortheEnglishlinearthinkingmodel.Second,studentislackofimaginations,thetopicforthiscompositionisplanforthesummerholiday.Studentisgoingtohavealittlebitstretchofimagination,thekeypointofcompositionis“plan”,butitisnotjustlistschedule.Studentneedtoreadsomebookstogetsomeusefulinformation,makingEnglishwritingbetter.Andsomestudentsalsowritecompositionslikethis:MyplanforsummerholidayIwanttostayathome.Domyhomework,afterthat.Iwillgotoplay.Thatmyplan.Iwilldoexerciseinthemorningeveryday.Then,Iwilldomyhomeworkandreadabook.Then,IwillwatchTVforthreehoursandplaycomputergamesonehour.Andeveryweekend,Ihavetogotoaschooltolearnmath.Thatisabitofboring,butImustdoitwell.Thereismysummerholiday’splan.Howaboutyou?Canyoutellme?AnEnglishparagraphusuallybeginswithapointwhichdirectlypointsoutthetopicalsubject,allthesentencesintheparagrapharecoherentnaturally,themeaningoftheparagraphdevelopsinalinearordertomakethewholetopicperfect.Onthecontrary,thedevelopmentofChinesediscourseisroundaboutandspiral.Thetopicofthediscoursedoesnotpresentinadirectwaybutindirectone.Aboveallofthis,thisstudentusesthewayofEnglishtowritethatcomposition,forexample,afterthat.Iwillgotoplay.Thatmyplan.Itisanicewritingbecausetheaboveexpressionsdirectlypointoutthetopicalsubject.InEnglish,everysentenceandwholeparagraphshouldbelinkedbysomeconjunctionsorphrases.Intheabovecomposition,theauthorusessomewordslikethen,and,afterandthat,makingitlogicandcomplete.40 ChapterFiveConclusionsInthisstudy,bothqualitativeandquantitativeresearchmethodsareadopted.Theerrorscollectedfrom120Englishcompositionsareclassifiedintodifferenttypesandfurtherdiscussed.TheclassificationisbasedonthecriteriaoferrorsproposedbyC.JamesinhisbooknamedExploringErrorAnalysis.Thepaperlists17kindsoferrorsfrequentlymadebythestudentsintheirEnglishwriting.Itcanbesummarizedaslexicalerrors,syntacticerrors,anddiscoursalerrors.Theerrorfrequencyanalysisshowsthattheerrorsfrommothertonguenegativetransferaccountforthemost,andthemostfrequently-madeerrorisrelatedtotense.Inaddition,errorsintherebestructureandChinglish(ChineseEnglish)arealsoobvious.Byanalyzingtheerrorsinstudents’writing,wefoundthatmiddleschoolstudentstendtothinkinChinesewayanddirectlytranslateoruseChinesesentencepatternsintheirEnglishwriting.ThisisanimportantfactorthatleadstoChinesenegativetransfer.Additionally,therearesomeotherfactorslikemarkedness,learningandteachingthatoftenleadtoChinesenegativetransfer.EnglishandChinesearetwodifferentlanguagesystems,bothofwhichhavetheirownmodesofthinking.Students’languageexpression,languageformandtheapplicationofrhetoricwillinevitablybeaffectedbyChinesethinkingintheirEnglishwriting.Inlinguistics,“transfer”isdefinedbybehavioristpsychologiststorefertotheprocessofautomatic,uncontrolled,andsubconscioususeofpast-learnedbehaviorintheattempttoproducenewresponses.Past-learnedknowledgecanplaytwodefinitelydifferentrolesinthelearningofnewones.Andaccordingly,transferfallsintotwotypes,namely,positivetransferandnegativetransfer.Asthesamesuggests,positivetransferoccurswhenthelearners’previousknowledge,skillorabilityfacilitateshislearningofnewones,whilenegativetransferreferstotheimpedimentofthelearnedknowledge,skill,orabilitythatexertsuponthenewlearning.Despitethefactthatitismisunderstoodbymanypeoplethattheterm“transfer”equalsto“negativetransfer”,theoverallmeaningofitshowsthat“transfer”isaneutralwordinorigin.Languagetransferisacommonphenomenonlyinginthestudyofknowledge,technique,attitudeandaction.Generally,Languagetransfermeanstheinfluenceofnativelanguageinlearningaforeignlanguage.Languagetransferisusuallydividedintotwotypes:positivetransferandnegativetransfer.Positivetransferhelpsstudents41 learnasecondlanguage.Inthecontrary,negativetransferdoesnotimprovestudents’secondlanguagelearning.Whenlearningasecondlanguage,studentstendtomakealotoferrorsandhavemanydifficulties.Thatistheresultofthenegativetransfer.LearnersofChineseoftencomplainEnglishistoodifficulttolearn,especiallythecomplexgrammarrules.SomeofthemevengiveuplearningEnglish.Thereasonsforthoseattitudesareverycomplicated.Englishwriting,fromvocabulary,sentencetodiscourse,involvesmorethantherulesofgrammar.Italsoinvolvesculturaldifferences.Infact,manyreasonscausenegativetransfer.WhenteachersteachEnglishforChinesepeople,theresponsibilityofteachersaretosimplifytherulesoflanguagetoshowthestudents.Besides,teachersshouldpaymoreattentiontostudentsandgivestudentsplentyofexamplestoexplainthecultureandhistorybehindthelanguage.AnunavoidableprobleminEnglishwritingteachingofthemiddleschoolisbetweentheChinesewayofthinkingandtheEnglishhabitofthinking.WritingisnotonlyanimportantpartofEnglishteachingbutalsoadifficultpointofit.Soteacherscannotimprovethestudents’Englishwritinglargelyinashorttime.Thismaybecausedbyavarietyofreasons,oneofimportantreasonisthatstudents’Englishwritingcan’tgetridoftheinfluenceoftheChinesewayofthinking,whichisakeypointtopreventthestudents’Englishwriting.Therefore,thinkingmodeofChineseisoneoftheimportantproblemswemustcarefullystudyonstudents’Englishwriting.InteachingpracticeofEnglish,studentswillusetheknowledgeofthemothertonguetohelpthemfinishthecompositionsintheinitialstageoflearningEnglish.ChineseandEnglisharetwodifferentlanguages,studentsareintheenvironmentofChineselanguage,andtheenvironmentbecomesinterferenceinstudent’sEnglishwriting.Accordingtothediscussionandanalysis,wecanseeChinesestudents’Englishwritingwasinfluencedgreatlybytheirmotherlanguage.ThisstudyshowsthatthenegativeimpactofChineseismorethanthepositiveimpact.Tosolvethisproblem,studentsshouldnotonlyfocusontherelatedEnglishknowledgeandskillsofwriting,butalsoshouldimprovetheabilityofculturalandlinguisticcommunicativecompetence.Inaddition,inordertoavoidnegativetransferinEnglishwriting,teachersshouldunderstandthenegativetransfercompletely,andfindappropriatelearningstrategiesfortheirstudents.Specifically,whenthestudentsinvolvenegativetransferintheprocessofEnglishwriting,teachersshouldnotonlypointouttheerrors,butalsomakestudentsunderstandhowtoavoidproducingerrors42 inEnglishwriting.AsweallknowtherearedifferencesbetweenEnglishandChinese,teachersneedtocontrastthecharacteristicsofthetwolanguagesinEnglishteaching.Inthefaceofstudents’errors,teachersshouldhaveclearunderstandingoftheerrors.Asmentionedpreviously,Chineseisthemothertongueofstudents,studentsbuildaChinesemodeofthinkingintheirmind,sowhenstudentslearnEnglish,theyrelyonChinesewayofthinking.ItistheerrorsthatpreventthestudentsfromlearningEnglishwell.Teachersgettheskillsofteachingexperiencetoanalyzetheerrorsofstudentsandtofindsuitableteachingmethodstoguidestudents.Andtheyshouldhavearightattitudetotreatthiskindoferrors.TheycanenhancethesensitivityofculturaldifferencebetweenChineseandEnglish.TeachingstudentsbuildthewayofEnglishthinkingtowrite.Forstudents,theyshouldlearnmoreknowledgeofEnglish.StudentsmustspendmoretimeinreadingEnglisharticlesandlearningvocabularyandgrammar.TheycanunderstandtheframeworkoftheEnglisharticle.Next,theyoughttopracticeEnglishwriting.Perfectwritingalsoneedstokeeppracticingmore.AndmakethemfallinEnglishmodeltothink.Teachersandstudentsshouldworkhardtogethertoimprovewritingskills.5.1PedagogicalImplicationsTeachersshouldutilizethepositivetransfertoimprovestudents’Englishlearning.Forexample,theChinesecharactersarenotinflectional,butEnglishhavecorrespondingroot,affixes.Teachersshouldtakeadvantageofthesesimilaritiestoenlargestudents’vocabulary.SimplesentencesofEnglisharesimilartoChinesesentencestructure,sotheteachercanusepositivetransfertoteachstudentstomastersimplesentences.5.1.1EnlargingVocabularyandReadingWidelyThekeypointofEnglishwritingisvocabulary.Inotherwords,vocabularydecidesthequalityofstudents’writing.Lauferputforwardtheopinionthatvocabularycanbedividedintoactivevocabularyandpassivevocabularyin1972.Activevocabularyreferstothevocabularythatstudentscanbeusedinspeakingandwriting,passivevocabularyreferstothenecessaryvocabularythatcanbeusedinlisteningandreading(citedfromRuanXiaoliang,2006).Sinceactivevocabularyis43 alwaysfarlessthanpassivevocabulary,wecanturnpassivevocabularyintoactivevocabularytoimprovethewritingskills.Thatmeansstudentsneedtoremembervocabularyasmoreaspossible.Besides,readingisaneffectivewaytoaccumulatevocabularyandimprovewrittenskills.Readingisaneffectivewayoflanguageinput,notenoughinputisimpossibletohavealotofoutput.Thepurposeofreadingisnotmerelytoletthestudentsunderstandthelanguageitself,butalsounderstandtheculturefactorsandformahabitofEnglishthinking.Krashen(1985)thinksthekeyofsecondlanguageacquisitioniscontactalargenumberofcomprehensibleandinterestingarticlestoassociateitwiththetargetlanguage.Undertheguidanceofteachers,studentstrytofigureouttheapplicablescopesofvocabulary,semanticsandsyntaxtocultivatetheirlanguagesensewhilereading.StudentscanuseitforEnglishwriting,andmasterthethinkingmodeofEnglishtoimprovewritingskillsandmakecommunicationfluently.5.1.2DevelopingtheDiscourseAwarenessoftheStudentsThestudentsmustworkhardonthediscourselevelinEnglishwriting.Inordertodevelopstudents’discourseconsciousness,teachershouldanalyzediscoursalconsciousnessofEnglishwriting.Itisimportantforstudentstounderstandtwodifferentlanguagesandmodeofdiscoursestructure，andtodosomepracticestomasterthecharacteristicsofdiscoursetoavoidnegativetransfer.Inaddition,teachersshouldaskstudentstogetthethemewhenstudentsarewriting,makesurethatthecontentisclear.StudentscanavoidChinesethinkingafteraperiodoftraining.Forexample,atthewritingclass,theteachercanprovidemodelessayforstudents,organizeandmonitorthewritingprocessofstudents,provideguidancetostudentsintime,letthestudentsdiscussparagraphstructure,andlisttheframeworkofcomposition.Thestudentsusetheframeworktoimitatewritingconsciously.Andtheypracticewritingtofollowframeworkfromparagraphtowholepart.Itcanimprovethebasicskillsofwritingandmakestudentsusemoreaccuratewordsandwritingmoregrammatically-correctsentences.5.1.3RecitationAnotherpedagogicalimplicationisthatteachersshouldstrengthenrecitation,lettingstudentstorecitesometypicaltextsorsentences,whichcanmakethem44 understandwordsandexpressionsdeeply.Byrecitingwonderfulparagraphsandessays,studentscanenhancethecomprehensionofdiscourse.AsweallknownChinesestudentslearningEnglishintheunnaturalenvironment，recitingisoneofthebestwaystoimproveEnglish.Throughrecitation,thestudents’sensitivityofthetargetlanguagewillincrease,andtheirpotentiallanguageknowledgewillexpand.Asaresult,studentscanlearntoexpresstheirideasinnativeEnglish.Throughlong-termaccumulation,studentshavegoodlanguagesensetosetupagoodhabitforEnglishwriting,andthenstudentscanovercomenegativetransferofChinesetoimprovestudentswritingcommunicationskillsultimately.WecanalsoletstudentslistentoEnglishradio,watchtheoriginalmovies,whichcannotonlymakestudentslearnlanguageknowledge,butalsounderstandEnglishcultureandsocialcustomsoftheEnglishcountry.Intheseways,studentscansetupawayofEnglishthinkingtosolvevariousproblemsinlearningEnglishandavoidtheinfluenceofnegativetransfer.5.1.4Teachers’EncouragementCorrectingandreviewingerrorsintimecanmakestudentsfeelhappy.Itmeanstheteachercareforthem,whichcanimprovestudents’interestinlearningEnglish,andalsoencouragestudentstodomorepracticeafterclass.Whenteachersreviewthestudents’composition,theyshouldneithergiveascoreattheendnormodifythewholeerrors.Teachersshouldgivestudentsmorechancetocorrecterrorsthemselvesandtrytoavoidgivingarightanswerdirectly.Additionally,teacherscangivestudentstheappropriatepromptfortheerrors,suchas“countableoruncountable”,“agreement”,“tense”andsoon.Theycandrawasimplehorizontallinesymbolsorquestionmark,suggestingthatstudentscorrectsentencesthemselvesandlettingstudentspracticeandreinforce.Generally,studentsoftenattachmuchimportancetoteachers’suggestions.Thegoodstudentshaveweakpointsandpoorstudentsalsohavestrongpoints.Teacherscantrytofindhighlightinstudents’compositionandofferthemencouragementwithawavylineunderthebeautifulsentencesorpraisethemwithsuchwordsas“great”,“wonderful”,“cool”,“goodjob”,“welldone”,etc.ThesepraisesnotonlybecomethedrivingforceofprogressbutalsohelpstudentshaveconfidencesandinterestsinEnglishwriting.45 5.2LimitationsoftheResearchBecauseoftheobjectivefactors,somelimitationsexistinthisstudy.Thefirstlimitationoftheresearchisthattherangeofthesubjectsstudiedisnotenough.Intheresearch,theresearcheronlyrecorded120studentsintwodifferentclasses.Theteachersrecordedarefromoneschool.Thesecondlimitationisthatthisresearchwasconductedinashortperiod,sothereliabilityoftheresultswasnotveryhigh.Itcouldnotreflectthereallanguagecompetenceofstudents.Theauthorjustspentonesemesterinthatschool.Onlyfourmonth’studycannotproveeverything.Theresultoftheresearchmaybenotveryeffective.ThethirdlimitationisthattheauthorlistedalltheerrorsmadebythestudentsonChinesenegativetransfer.MiddleschoolstudentshavenotenoughEnglishknowledge.SomeerrorsdonotbelongtoChinesenegativetransfer.Theforthlimitationisthatthenumbersoferrorswerenotveryaccurateinthisstudy.AsImentionedbeforeMiddleschoolstudentshavenotenoughEnglishknowledge.SomeerrorsdonotbelongtoChinesenegativetransfer.AndIBasedonTable3.1fromC.JameswhopublishedamonographnamedExploringErrorAnalysisin2001,thispaperadaptedasimilarclassificationoferrors(seeTable4.1).Ilistederrorsonebyone,somestudents’compositionsweredigressionandIdidnotidentifywhattheywanttotalk.Sothoseerrorswerenotbelistedaccurately.5.3SomeProposalsforFurtherStudyThisresearchshowsthatthereare17kindsoferrorsinEnglishwritingsmadebymiddleschoolstudents,andoverhalfoftheseerrorsarecausedbynegativetransferofmothertongue.AlthoughnegativetransferofChinesehasgreatimpactsonEnglish,weshouldnotignorethepositivetransferofmothertongue.Inotherwords,ChineseissimilartoEnglishinmanyways.ThisishelpfulforChinesestudentstolearnEnglishpositively.Nevertheless,thispaperonlystudiesnegativetransferofmothertongue.ItisexpectedthatpositivetransferofmothertongueintargetlanguagewillbestudieddeeplyinthefuturetopromoteEnglishstudy.Itisinevitablethatsomelimitationsexistinthisstudy,butresearchingthenegativetransferofmothertongueontargetlanguageissignificantingeneral,andsomeusefulandefficientproposalsforEnglishacquisitionarehelpfultoEnglishlearnersinjuniormiddleschool.46 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AppendixAVIII.书面表达(共10分）期末考试即将结束，多姿多彩的暑假生活就要来临。你打算怎样度过一个有意义的假期呢？，请以Myplanforthesummerholiday为题写一篇短文，谈一谈你的假期计划。要求：1.表达清楚、语句通顺、意思连贯；2.70词左右ModeloneThesummerholidayiscoming.Ihavealreadyplannedforit.Atthebeginningoftheholiday,Iwillhaveagoodrest.Studyingmakesmefeelverytired.Iwanttospendsometimereadingbooksandgoingtothemovies,forexample,HarryPotterismyfavorite,andIalsowanttospendlotsoftimeplayingwithmyfriends.Wewillhangoutandgoshoppingtogether.Oh,it'swonderful.Ican'twait.Andintheholiday,Iwanttovisitsomeinterestingplaces,likeSuzhoucity.Ofcourse,inmyfreetime,I'llhelpmyparentstodohousework.I'msureI'llhaveahappyholiday.ModeltwoSummerholidayiscoming.Imakeplansformysummerholidaylife.FirstIwilldobreak.AndIwillgoshoppingwithmygoodfriends.IthinkIwillbuysomegoodbooks,andreadit.Iwillnotonlyfinishmyhomeworkbutalsohelpmymotherdohousework.IthinkIwillhaveagoodtime.Second,Iplantodosomesports;Icangoswimmingandplayping-pongwithmyfriends.Third,IhopetotraveltoHenan.IwanttovisitLuoyang,KaifengandShaolingTemple.IthinkIcanhaveawonderfultime.51 AppendixBStandardofcompulsoryeducationofjuniormiddleschoolEnglishCurriculum1.Noun(1)Possessivecaseofnoun(2)CountableNoun(3)UncountableNoun(4)Propernouns2.Pronouns(1)Personalpronoun(2)Possessivepronoun(3)Demonstrativepronoun(4)Indefinitepronoun(5)Interrogativepronoun3.Numerals(1)Cardinalnumeral(2)Ordinalnumeral4.PrepositionsandPrepositionalphrase5.Conjunctions6.Adjectives7.Adverbs8.Articles9.Verbs(1)Baseverbs(2)TransitiveverbsandIntransitiveverbs(3)Auxiliaryverbs(4)Modalverbs10.Tense(1)Presentprogressive(2)Simplepresent(3)Thepasttense(4)Simplefuturetense(5)Thepastprogressive(6)presentperfect52 11.Thepassivevoice12.Thepredicateverbs13.Wordformation14.Sentencetypes（1）declarativesentence（2）Questions（3）Imperativesentence（4）Exclamatorysentences15.Sentenceconstituents（1）Subject（2）Predicate（3）Predicative（4）Object（5）Attributive（6）Adverbial（7）Objectcomplement16.Basicsentencepattern（1）Subject+Verb+Predicative（2）Subject+Intransitiveverbs（3）Subject+transitive+object（4）Subject+transitive+Indirectobject+directobject（5）Subject+transitiveverbs+object+objectcomplement（6）Therebepattern17.Compoundsentence18.Subordinativecompound（1）Objectclauses（2）Adverbialclauses（3）Attributiveclauses(参见《义务教育英语课程标准》，2011：32.33)53 54 攻读学位期间发表的学术论文白璐.母语负迁移在二语习得中的影响及应对策略[J].《现代交际》2015年8月刊,青海师范大学.55
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