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TheEffectofBothHigh-ContextCultureandLow-ContextCultureontheProgressofTimeConceptionofChineseAbstract:Humaneventsoccurringindailylifearecloselyrelatedtotime.Timeisfundamentalbasesonculturesandhumanactivities.Inacademicfields,differentculturesshapedifferenttimeconception,andtimeconceptionisanimportantmirrortoreflectculture.Edwardt.Hallregardedtimeorientationisevidentlydistinctbetweenhigh-contextculturesandlow-contextcultures.Timeconceptionconsistsoftimeorientationandtheviewoftime.TimeorientationandtheviewoftimeofChinesehavechangedalotundertheinfluenceofhighandlowcontextculture,especiallylow-contextculturefromsomewesterncountries.Thepaperaimstofindtheprogresswhichwehaveachievedabouttheconceptionoftimeinourcountry.[KeyWords]high-contextculture;low-contextculture;conceptionoftime;Chinese高语境文化和低语境文化对中国人时间观念进步的影响摘要时间和人们的生活息息相关。任何文化和人类的活动都可以体现在人们对时间的理解和观念上。不同的文化塑造了不同的时间观念，而且时间观念是反应文化的一面重要镜子。爱德华.霍尔认为高语境文化和低语境文化中的时间观念明显不同。在传统儒家文化影响下的中国逐渐形成了高语境文化，由此衍生出了延续五千多年的根深蒂固的传统时间观念。近年来中国和在低语境文化影响下的国家的接触逐渐增多，时间观念的不同引发了很多矛盾。但是受低语境文化的影响中国人的时间取向和时间观也有了很大的改变，更有利于跨文化交际的顺利进行。本文重点探索高语境文化和低语境文化对中国人时间观念的积极影响和改观。[关键词]高语境；低语境；时间观念；中国人1.Introduction10 Twothousandyearsago,theGreekphilosopherSophoclesstated:‘TimeisakinglyGod’(LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani,CommunicationBetweenCulture78).InChina‘Timeismoney’(一寸光阴一寸金)isanevergreenguidelinefromonegenerationtoanother.Therefore,timeisthemostprecioustreasureforeverynation.However,ifwetakeadeepobservationintotheconceptionoftimeindifferentcountries,wecanfindthatculturesvarywidelyinthisaspect.Wheretheydifferisintheviewoftime,usageoftimeandtimeorientation.Halldescribedthattimeisoneofthefundamentalbasesonwhichallculturerestandroundallactivitiesrevolvesandhealsoregardedtimeorientationisevidentlydistinctfromhigh-contextcultures(HC)andlow-contextcultures(LC).Inhigh-contextculture,timeisviewedasmoreopen,lessstructured,moreresponsivetotheimmediateneedsofpeople,andlesssubjecttoexternalgoalsandconstrains.Inlow-contextcultures,timeishighlyorganized,inpartbecauseoftheadditionalenergyrequiredtounderstandthemessageofothers(MyronW.Lustig,JoleneKoesterInterculturalCompetence114).Low-contextculturesareforcedtopaymoreattentiontotimeinordertomaketheirworkandlivesorderly.AccordingtoHall’sculturalcontinuumthatrangesfromhightolow,theculturalpatternofChineseistypicallyhigh-contextculture.Chinesehasastrongbeliefthatthepastshouldbeguideformakingdecisionsanddeterminingtruth.Theyhavenostrictlyorganizedandorderedtimearrangement.TimescheduleischangeableandflexibleforChinese.Theconceptoftimeisvagueandapproximation.However,bycontrast,timeinlow-contextcultureishighlystructuredandtimetableisfirmlyandinflexible.Sincethebeginningofreformandopening-up,exchangesbetweenChinaandsomelow-contextculturalcountriesareincreasingandtheconflictswhichareraisedbythedifferenceofconceptoftimebetweentwoculturalpatternsattractmoreattentions.Soundertheirinfluenceandinordertosolvetheproblems,Chinesestartedtochangetheirconceptoftimegraduallyandachievedprogress.ThedevelopmentofChinesetimeconceptionismovingtothelow-contextculture.2.DefinitionsandFeaturesofHC,LCandTheirRelationswithTimeAccordingtoHall,differentculturescanformacontinuumthatrangesfromhigh-contextculturetolow-contextculture,inwhichsomecountries,suchasJapan,China,KoreaandVietnam,belongtothehigh-contextculture,andothercountries,suchasGermany,Switzerland,andUnitedStates,belongtolow-contextculture.Hall10 definedthesetwotermsinthefollowingmanner:Ahigh-contextcommunicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicitlytransmittedpartofthemessage.Alowcontextcommunicationisjusttheopposite;i.e.,themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.(LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani,CommunicationBetweenCulture79)ThefeatureofHCandLCisdistinctlydifferent.Ahigh-contextculturepreferstousecovertandimplicitmessagethatrelyheavilyonnonverbalcodesystems.ThegroupisveryimportantinHC,andmembersoftheingroupareeasilyrecognized.Timeisnotstrictlyarrangedandmoreresponsivetopeople’sneed.Forexample,onedayaChinesewantstoinvitehisfriendtohavedinner.Theymayhaveaconversationlikethis:A:Hi,oldWang.Howiseverythinggoing?B:Verygood.A:Howaboutyourson?B:Heiswell,buthisstudyisalwaysaworryforme.A:Doyouhaveanyappointmenttonight?Iwanttoinviteyoutohaveadinnertonight.B:Iwanttovisitafriendtonight,butIcanchangeittoanotherday.A:Ok,bye.B:Bye.Inthisconversationwecangetfourpointsabouttime.(1)Thefirstfoursentencesaremeaninglesstothepoint,anditseemsawasteoftime,butinsomehigh-contextculturalcountries,suchasJapanandChina,itisnecessarytowarmuptherelationship.(2)AwillinviteBtohavedinner“tonight”;therefore,itmeansBonlyhave4to5hourstoprepare.Chinesehavebeenusedtoit,butitstimeofpreparationissurprisinglyshorttolow-contextculturalpeople.(3)Beforetheconversation,Bhadaplantovisithisfriend,yetinordertohavedinnerwithAhechangedhisplanatlast.SotimeisopenandflexibleinChina.(4)Fromthebeginningtotheendofthetalk,thereisnoanaccuratetimeofthedinner.“Tonight”isavaguetime,thusvaguetimeiscommoninhigh-contextcountry.Low-contextculturesarecharacterizedbytheoppositeattributes:messagesareexplicitanddependentonverbalcodes,groupmembershipschangerapidly,innovationisvalued,andtimeishighlystructured.(MyronW.Lustig,JoleneKoester10 InterculturalCompetence114)Inlow-contextcultures,timeishighlyorganized,inpart,andeverythingisinschedulesorindetails,becauseoftheadditionalenergyrequiredtounderstandthemessageofothers(Guo-MingChen,WilliamJ.Starosta,FoundationsofInterculturalCommunication51).Takethesameexampleforexplanation:ifapersonwhocomefromalow-contextculturalcountry,suchasUnitedStated,wantstoinviteafriendhasadinner,hewillbearrangeitfourdaysbeforethedateofinvitation.Thefriendwillarrangethisappointmentintoscheduleandhasenoughtimetoprepare.Thestartingtimeofdinnerwillbedetailedintominutes.3.DefinitionsandFeaturesofConceptionofTimePrimitivesocietiesmayarrangetheirlivesbysimplenotions,suchasmorning,afternoon,season,sunrise,sunsetandsoon.TheancientChinesetakesalifeof“Riseandresttogetherwiththesun”(日出而作,日入而息).Forcivilizedsocietiestheconceptoftimeisincreasinglycomplexandtimeismoreprecious.Manyproverbsabouttimearetakenasguidelinestoalertmodernsociety,forexample:“Timeandtidefornoman”(岁月不等人),“Timefletchawaywithoutdelay”(光阴似箭,日月如梭),“Losttimeisneverfoundagain”(光阴一去不复返).Runningthroughallourideasoftimearetwocontrastingnotions:timeasalineofdiscreteevents,minutes,hours,days,months,years,eachpassinginaneverendingsuccession;andtimeasacircle,revolvingsothattheminutesofthehourrepeat,asdothehoursoftheday,thedayoftheweekandsoon(FonsTrompenaars,CharlesHampden-turnerRidingtheWavesofCulture123).Anthropologistsstatedthathowacultureviewsoftimeandmanagesitisacluetothemeaningsitsmembersfindinlifeandthesupposednatureofhumanexistence.Theconceptionoftimeisstronglyaffectedbyculturebecausetimeisanidearatherthananobject.Howwethinkoftimeisinterwovenwithhowweplan,strategizeandcoordinateouractivitieswithothers.KluckholmandStrodtbeckidentifiedthreetypesofculture:(1)present-oriented,whichisrelativelytimeless,traditionless,andignorethefuture.Theypaylittleattentiontowhathashappenedinthepastandwhatthefuturewillbring,becausepastisconsideredasunimportantwhilefutureisunpredictable.(2)past-oriented,mainlyconcernedtomaintainedtraditionsinthepast.Theyhaveahighsenseontraditionsliketotheirancestors,family,ancientproverbs.Thepresentistiredtobemaintained.(3)future-oriented,alwaystakesastrongdesire10 tofutureandsettingouttorealizeit.Theyareeagertochangeandhaveamoredesirabledevelopmentineconomicandsocialscales(Guo-MingChen,WilliamJ.Starosta,FoundationsofInterculturalCommunication51).Somelow-contextcultures,suchasUnitedStates,GermanyandSwiss,seeverysmalloverlapbetweenpresentandpastbutanincreasingimportancefrompasttohighestthefuture.AsimilarbehaviorisreflectedinGermanculture.Everythingelsethanbeingrightintimeisaninsultfrowaitingpersonandshameforthepersonwhokeepswaiting.Timeisconsideredasveryrareandexpensive.Thatiswhytimehastobewellorganized.Therelationbetweenthecontinuumthatrangesfromhigh-contextculturetolow-contextcultureandtimeorientationthatfrompasttofuture:table1.HCCulturesJapaneseChineseKoreanAfricanAmericanNativeAmericanArabGreekLatinItalianEnglishFrenchAmericanScandinavianGermanGerman-SwissLCCulturePast-orientedJapaneseChineseKoreanEnglishPresent-orientedLatin-AmericanFuture-orientedAmericanFinlandSwitzerlandGermanSwedish(Table1:DatafromCommunicationBetweenCulture,LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani77-80)4.TheConceptionofTimeofChineseandItsOriginTheconceptionoftimeisavagueideainancientChinese.Thewholedaywastraditionallydividedinto12two-hourperiods,eachbeinggiventhenameofEarthlyBranch,whichis“ShiChen”(时辰)inChinese,butnoaccuratedividebetweenanytwoShiChen.Intheirmindstimeisconsistedbyaseriesofeventsorhistoryandthey10 areabletodomanythingsatthesametime,whichalsocalledPolychromicTime(PC)accordingtoHall’definition.Besidespolychromictime,HallalsotakestheideaofMonochromicTime(MC)intoourmind,whichisoppositetotheformerone.Table2isacontrastivestudyofPCandMCbyHallandHallin1990.ComparisonofMonochromicandPolychromicPeopleDoonethingatatimeDomanythingsatonceConcentrateonthejobAreeasilydistractedandsubjecttointerruptionsTaketimecommitments(deadlines,schedules)seriouslyConsidertimecommitmentsanobjectivetobeachieved,ifpossibleArelowcontextandneedinformationArehighcontextandalreadyhaveinformationArecommittedtothejobArecommittedtothepeopleandhumanrelationsAdheretoplansChangeplansoftenandeasilyAreaccustomedtoshorttermedrelationshipHaveastrongtendencytobuiltlifetimefriendshipEmphasizepromptnessBasepromptnessonrelationshipShowgreatrespectforprivacyproperty;seldomborroworlendBorrowandlendthingseasilyandoftenAreconcernedaboutnotdisturbingothers;followrulesofprivacyAremoreconcernedwithpeopleclosetothemthanwithprivacy(Table2:DatafromJournalofSichuanThree-GorgesUniversity,董淑铭,No.21999)4.1TheTraditionalAttitudeofChinesetotheTimeandItsEffectTheChineseproverb“Considerthepastandyouwillknowthepresent”(前车之鉴)clearlystateshowimportanttheyconsidertheirculture.EachChinesedevelopshisorherstrongsenseofidentityfromhistory.(LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani,CommunicationBetweenCulture79)Chinesehasalonghistory,whichismorethan5000thousandyears.Theyrespectpastandtakeitasakindofhonorandguidelinetodirecttheirdecisions.ThehistorianFelipeFernandez-Armestooncesaid:“Chinaappearsasthehomeofanuniquelysuccessfulimperialexperiment,whichhasenduredforovertwothousandyearswithnotveryconspicuousdiscontinuities”.Intheagriculture-basedfeudalsociety,farmersriseandresttogetherwiththesun,therefore,theconceptionoftimeisnotasaccurateashighlydevelopedwesterncountries,whichhasdevelopedonthebasisofmechanization.Howeverduring500010 years’history,Chineseancestorshassummarizedmanyproverbsabouttimetopersuadetheirposteritytotreasuretime,suchas“Timeismoney”(一寸光阴一寸金),“Wehaveonlyashortlifetolive”(譬如朝露，去日苦多),“Neverputofftilltomorrowwhatyoucandotoday”(今日复明日，明日何其多),“springisthestarterforayearasdawnisforaday”(一年之计在于春，一日之计在于晨).Inspitoftreasureoftime,actually,frugalChineseismuchmoregenerouswiththetimethanthosefromLCculture.Beijingoperahaswellabstractedtheslow-pacedlifestyleofChinese200yearsbefore,whichisamostappropriatemirrortoshowtheotheraspectofconceptionoftime.Everytimeactorsgetonthestageinsoslowlystepwithdrumsandgongs,thatmanyyoungpeopleandforeignerscannotunderstanditandbearit.Theslow-pacedlifestylewasalsoembodiedingreetings,forinstance:“slowgo/takeiteasy”(慢走),“sloweat/enjoyyourmeal”(慢慢吃),“slowcome/relax”(不要慌,慢慢来).Thatisthereasonwhytimescheduleisflexible,deadlineischangeable,andworkisinefficient.However,Chinesecanenjoyaleisurelylifewithoutmuchpressure.4.2TheAttitudeofChinesetotheElders,AgeandItsEffectTheattitudetoeldersandageisdefinitelydifferentfromthatinLCculturalcountries.AgeissuchimportantinformationinChina,thateverytimewhenwefillintheformwewillofferitandexperiencesinthepast.InChineseconversationageisanecessarytopic,becauseitisausefulwaytoshowtheirconcernandtoestablishfriendship.(陈春卿,JournalofSanmingUniversity,sep.2008,No.23)Accordingtotraditionalproverbs,wecansummarizethatagemeansexperience,knowledgeandwisdom,forexample:“Anoldhorseknowstheway/Anexperiencedpersonknowstheropes”(老马识途),“Theveterangoesintoactiononebeingequivalenttosome”(老将出马，一个顶俩),“Thegingerisstilloldburning/Sureenough,theoldlady”(姜还是老的辣).InLCculturalcountry,takeAmericaforinstance,ageishighlyprivateinformation,especiallyforadultfemale,whichalwaysaforbiddentopicintheirconversation,becauseagemeansnegativeforthemandelderisregardedasuseless.AppellationisanotherwindowtounderstandtheattitudeofChinesetoelders.TheyhavesteepedinConfucianismfor2500years,whichemphasizerespectingtheagedandlovingtheyoung,sotheyoftengiveasignificantlyrespecttoelders.“Grandpa”or“Grandpa”isanidiomaticappellationtoelders,eventhoughtheyhavenorelatives.“Old”iswordinfrontofthetitletoshowtherespect,suchas“teacher”10 (老师),“boss”(老板),“civilian”(老百姓),“husband/wife”(老伴儿),“veteran”(老将),“aunty”(老大娘)andsoon.Therefore,ChineseismorepositiveandtakesmorereverencetoageandeldersthanLCculturalcountries.ThisisthepreciousculturewealththatHCcultureleavesforus.4.3TheConceptionofAppointmentofLCCultureandItsEffecttoChineseSocietyismuchlikeanet,whichwearelivinginit,therefore,wecannotliveisolatedinthisworld.Canadianphilosopher,communicationtheoristMarshallMcLuhanintroduced“GlobalVillage”forus.Hedescribeshowtheglobehasbeencontractedintoavillagebymanykindsofwaysofcontact.Duringtheprocedureofcontact,appointmentisanecessaryandimportantstep,becauseourpartnerandweneedarrangedatebyourschedules.Butdifferentculturalpatternshavedifferentcustomsandregularaboutappointment,soinordertoachieveasuccessfulcommunicationwemustunderstandthem.ForLCculturalpeople,timeisaspreciousastheirlives.Theytaketimecommitments(deadlines,schedules)seriously,andeverythingadherestoplan.TakeAmericanforexample:whenthefirstAmericanscametoVirginiatheywerelow-efficientalmostineverything.Fourhours’workwasenoughforthewholeday.Butanewformoftimeconceptioncameintotheirminds,insteadoflazinesstobeadoctrine.ThefeelingoflackoftimealwaysthreatAmerican,whichurgethemtohaveawellarrangementandstructureoftime.Childrenwereeducatedtotreattimeseriouslyandtostudyhowtomakeitintodetails.IfanAmericanhasaplantostudyorreadathome,hewillrefuseanyvisitor,includinghis/herbestfriends.(张西玲,JournalofXi’anUnitedUniversity,July2001,No.3).InLCculture,anotebookforscheduleandappointmentiscarry-on.Oncethedatewasfixedtheyseldomchangeitorfailtokeepit.Theywon’thavetwoappointmentsatonetime,buttwoperiodsoneday.Ifthetime,whichusedforaconversationormeetingtheyaretakingnow,nearlyrunout,theywillstopitandshowtheirapology,becausenextappointmentiswaiting.ItisnotawisechoicetodatethemaccordingtoChineseculture,asChineseisusedtoadoptfuzzywordstoappoint,suchastomorrow,today,afternoonortonight.TheconceptionoftimeofChineseisalwayscriticizedandincomprehensibletopeopleinLCculture.NotbeingpunctualisChinesegreatestshortcomingandwe10 havesufferedalotoflossesforthisreason.Livinginglobalvillage,everyvillagerseeksunifiedregulationforharmony;therefore,theregulationoftimeisincreasinglyinternational.Sincethebeginningofreformandopening-up,theconceptionoftimeofChinesehaschangedalot,especiallypeopleintheeasterncoastalareas.Chineseismorepunctualandmorepreciousabouttheirtime.Forinstance:invitationcardforweddingceremonydetailedtohourorevenminute.Past-orientedtimepatternistendingtopresentorfuture-oriented;“Ifyoudon'tworkhardtoday,tomorrowtofindwork”(今天工作不努力，明天努力找工作)isarightlyexample4.ConclusionInordertoachievesuccessfulexchangeincross-culturalcommunication,wemustknowthedifferencebetweenHCandLCculture,becauseunderdissimilarculturalpatterns,differentconceptioncontainsdifferentrules.However,withthedevelopmentoftheworldeconomicintegrationprocess,varietyofculturesismixingandtendingforharmony.TheconceptionoftimeofChineseisincreasinglyinfluencedbywesternculture,butthediversityofculturehasdeterminedthevarianceslastingforever.Knowingtheadvantageanddisadvantageishelpfulnotonlytoourprogressbutthesuccessofcross-culturalcommunication.Asanimportantpartofcontextculturalpattern,theconceptionoftimeisworthwhileforustostudyintodepth.ReferencesFonsTrompenaars,CharlesHampden-turner,RidingtheWavesofCulture,1998,10 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