自考_00832_英语词汇学-自考本科词汇学重点笔记

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自考本科词汇学重点笔记Lexicology（词汇学）:isabranchoflinguistics,inquiringintotheoriginsandmeaningsofwords.TheNatureandScopeofEnglishlexicology：EnglishlexicologyaimsatinvestigatingandstudyingthemorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandwordequivalents,theirsemanticstructures,relations,historicaldevelopment,formationandusages.ThesubjectsthatEnglishLexicologycorrelatedwithandextentto：EnglishLexicologyiscorrelatedwithsuchlinguisticdisciplinesasmorphology(形态学),semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）andlexicography(词典学)ThereasonforastudenttostudyEnglishlexicology：Accordingtothetextbook,EnglishLexicologywilldefinitelybebeneficialforstudentsofEnglish.AgoodknowledgeofmorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandrulesofword-formationwillhelplearnersdeveloptheirpersonalvocabularyandconsciouslyincreasetheirwordpower.Theinformationofthehistoricaldevelopmentandtheprinciplesofclassificationwillgivethemadeeperunderstandingofword-meaningandenablethemtoorganize,classifyandstorewordsmoreeffectively.Theunderstandingandtheirsenserelationswillgraduallyraisetheirawarenessofmeaningandusage,andenablethemusewordsmoreaccuratelyandappropriately.Aworkingknowledgeofdictionarieswillimprovetheirskillsofusingreferencebooksandraisetheirproblem-solvingabilityandefficiencyofindividualstudy.Chapter1--BasicconceptsofwordsandvocabularyWord（词的定义）:Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.(1)aminimalfreeformofalanguage(2)asoundunity(3)aunitofmeaning(4)aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentenceSoundandmeaning（声音与意义）:almostarbitrary,“nologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundwhichstandsforathingoranideaandtheactualthingandideaitself”Soundandform（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）theEnglishalphabetwasadoptedfromtheRomans,whichdoesnothaveaseparatelettertorepresenteachother（2）thepronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspellingovertheyears（3）someofthedifferencewerecreatesbytheearlyscribes（4）theborrowingsisanimportantchannelofenrichingtheEnglishvocabularyVocabulary（词汇）:allthewordsinalanguagemakeupitsvocabularyClassificationofEnglishWords：Byusefrequency:basicwordstock&nonbasicvocabularyBynotion:contentwords&functionalwordsByorigin:nativewords&borrowedwordsThebasicwordstock（基本词汇）:isthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.ThoughitconstituteasmallpercentageoftheEV,itisthemostimportantpartofvocabulary.TheFundamentalFeaturesoftheBasicWordStock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-Nationalcharacter（全民通用性mostimportant）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectalwords(方言)(6)Archaisms（古语）(7)Neologisms（新词语）:Neologismsmeansnewly-createdwordsorexpressions,orwordsthathavetakenonnewmeanings.(email)Contentwords/notionalwords实词(cloud,runwalk,never,five,frequently)andfunctionalwords/emptywords虚词(on,of,and,be,but)NativeWordsandBorrowedWordsNativewords（本族语词）:knownasAnglo-Saxonwords(50,000-60,000),arewordsbroughttoBritaininthe5th1/10

1centurybytheGermanictribes.(mainstreamofthebasicword-stocks).Twootherfeatures:(1)neutralinstyle(2)frequentinuseBorrowedwords/Loanwords（外来语词）:wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguages.(80%ofmodernEV)4Typesofloanwords:1)denizens(同化词):(shirtfromskyrta(ON))2)aliens（非同化词/外来词）:areborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling(kowtow(CH)磕头)3)translationloans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语longtimenosee(fromChina)4)semanticloans（借义词）：theyarenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform,buttheirmeaningsareborrowedChapter2thedevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabularyTheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily(印欧语系)TheThreeStagesofDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary:1OldEnglish(450-1100)(vocabulary50,000to60,000):wasIhighinflectedlanguage.2MiddleEnglish(1150-1500):retainesmuchfewerinflections3ModernEnglish(1500-uptonow):infactmorethan25%ofmodernEwordscomealmostdirectlyfromclassicallanguages.InModernE,wordsendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexpections.Englishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguage(OldEnglish)tothepresentanalyticlanguage.ModesofVocabularyDevelopment(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：theformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelytoots,affixesandotherelements.(最重要方式)2)semanticchange旧词新义:doesnotincreasethenumberofwordformsbutcreatemanymorenewuseagesofthewords.3)borrowing借用外来词:constitutemerely6to7percentofallnewwordsRevivingwordsorobsoletewordsalsocontributestothegrowthofEnglishvocabularythoughquiteinsignificant.Chapter3WordFormationIMorpheme(词素):thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwordsAllomorph(词素变体):isadifferentvariantformofamorpheme，differinphonologicalandspellingform,butatthesameinfunctionandmeaningTypeofMorpheme(词素的分类)（1）FreeMorphemes（自由词素）:havecompletemeaninginthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(independent).（2）BoundMorpheme(粘着语素):Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.BoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:(1)boundroot(粘附词根)(2)Affix(词缀)Affixescanbeputintotwogroups:1)Inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀):affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.2)Derivationalaffixes(派生词缀):A)prefix:Aprefixcomesbeforewords.B)suffix:Anadjectivesuffix（形容词后缀）thatisaddedtothestem,whateverclassisbelongsto,theresultwillbeanadjective.FreeMorpheme=freeroot（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)BoundrootprefixboundderivationalaffixsuffixinflectionalRootandstem（词根和词干）Thedifferencesbetweenrootandstem:Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.2/10

2Astemisthesurpluspartafterthecuttingofinflectionalmorphemeinawordwithinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurtheranalyzed,itsometimescouldbearoot.Chapter4Word-FormationII(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：theformationofwordsbyaddingword-formaingorderivationalaffixestostem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It'stheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaprefixestostems.1)Negativeprefixes(否定前缀):un-,non-,in-,dis,a-,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(notobey)2)Reversativeprefixes（逆反前缀）:un-,de-，dis-etc.unwrap(open)3)Pejorativeprefixes:mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-,pseudo-etc.misconduct(badbehaviour)4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.overweight5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locativeprefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-,etc.extraordinary(morethanordinary)7)Prefixesoftimeandorder（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-etc.monorail(onerail)8)Numberprefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-,bi-，di-,tri-,multi-，poly-，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerningtwolanguages)9)Miscellaneousprefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-,neo-,pan-,vice-.vice-chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）:It'stheformationofanewwordbyaddingsuffixestostems.1)nounsuffixes2)adjectivesuffixes3)Adverbsuffixes4)verbsuffixes2.Compounding复合法（alsocalledcomposition）Compounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestemsCompoundsarewritteninthreeways:solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)andopen分开写(airforce,airraid)Formationofcompounds（复合词的形式）（1）nouncompounds：e.g.:air+plane=airplane,flower+pot=flowerpot（2）adjectivecompounds：e.g.acid+head=acid-head（3）verbcompounds：e.g.house+keep=housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion:istheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functionalshift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending:istheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.e.g:motor+hotel=motel,smoke+fog=smog,formula+translation=FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:istoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.e.g.planefromairplane,phonefromtelephone.四种形式：1).Frontclippings删节前面(phonefromtelephone)2).Backclippings删节后面(dormfromdormitory)3).Frontandbackclippings前后删节(flufrominfluenza)4).Phraseclippings短语删节(popfrompopularmusic)3/10

36.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）:initialismsarewordspronouncedletterbyletter.e.g.:BBC(forBritishBroadcastingcorporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword.E.g.:TEFL(teachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.It’sthemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.(greedfromgreedy)8.WordsFromProperName(专有名词转成法):Namesofpeople,places,book,andtradenames(e.g.:sirwattsiemens(人名)--watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter5WordMeaningThemeaningsof“Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):Itistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheword.Itisthearbitraryandconventional.Itisakindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.Concept（概念）:whichisbeyondlanguage,istheresultofhumancognition(认识),reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Sense（意义）:Itdenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.‘Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.’Motivation(理据)：Itaccountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.1)Onomatopoeicmotivation（拟声理据）:wordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning,forthesewordswerecreatesbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.E.g.:bang,ping-pong,haha.2)Morphologicalmotivation（形态理据）:multi-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanyarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombines.E.g.:airmail,miniskirt.例外：blackmarket,ect.3)Semanticmotivation（词义理据）：referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainstheconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesenseoftheword.E.g:thefootofthemountain(foot)4)Etymologicalmotivation（词源理据）:thehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.E.g:pen-featherTypesofmeaning(词义的类别)1.GrammaticalMeaning（语法意义）:indicatesthegrammaticalconceptorrelationships(becomesimportantonlyinactualcontext)2.LexicalMeaning（词汇意义）(Lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaningmakeuptheword-meaning)Lexicalmeaninghas2components内容:Conceptualmeaning(概念意义)andassociativemeaning(关联意义)1）Conceptualmeaning(概念意义):alsoknownasdenotativemeaning(外延意义)isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword-meaning.2）Associativemeaning(关联意义):isthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning,traditionally4/10

4knownasconnotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：manywordshavestylisticfeatures,whichmakethemappropriatefordifferentcontexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative&pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：isthepartoftheword-meaningsuggestedbythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.]Chapter6--Senserelationandsemanticfield（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Twoapproachedtopolysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronicapproach(历时方法)：fromthediachronicpointofview,polysemyisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.Firstmeaningistheprimarymeaning,thelatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeanings.2.synchronicapproach(共时方法):synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinacertainhistoricalperiodoftime.基本意义是centralmeaning,次要意义是derivedmeaning.Twoprocessesofdevelopment（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerayes.(e.g:face,neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovegraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermhadatthebeginning.(e.g:treacle)3.Inradiation,eachofthederivedmeaningisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning.Inconcatenation,eachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.Thoughthelatestsensecanbetracedbacktotheoriginal,thereisnodirectconnectioninbetween.4.Theyarecloselyrelated,beingdifferentstagesofthedevelopmentleadingtopolysemy.Generally,radiationprecedesconcatenation.Inmanycases,thetwoprocessesworktogether,complementingeachother.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:wordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.Typesofhomonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfecthomonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：wordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:wordsidenticalonlyinspelling,butdifferentinsoundandmeaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.Originsofhomonyms(同形同音异义词的来源)1）changeinsoundandspelling：(eare-ear,lang-long,langian-long)2）borrowing(feria-fair,beallu-ball,baller-ball)3）Shortening(缩略):(ad-advertisement,)ThedifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)Thefundamentaldifference:Homonymyreferstodifferentwordswhichhappentosharethesameformandpolysemyaretheoneandsamewordwhichhasseveraldistinguishablemeanings.2)Oneimportantcriterionistoseetheiretymology(词源)：Homonymysarefromdifferentsources.Polysemantisfromthesamesource.3)Thesecondprincipleconsiderationissemanticrelatedness(语义关联):Thevariousmeaningsofpolysemant5/10

5arecorrelatedandconnectedtoonecentralmeaning.Meaningsofdifferenthomonymyshavenothingtodowithoneanother.Indictionaries,apolysemanthasitsmeaningalllistedunderoneheadwordwhereashomonymsarelistedasseparateentries.Rhetoricfeaturesofhomonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：Ashomonymsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,particularlyhomophones,theyareoftenemployedtocreatepunsfordesiredeffectof,say,humor,sarcasmorridicule.Synonymy(同义关系):oneoftwoormorewordsintheEnglishlanguagewhichhavethesameorverynearlythesameessentialmeaning.TypesofSynonymy(同义词的类别):(1)Absolutesynonyms（完全同义词）：alsoknownascompletesynonymsarewordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallaspects,i.e.bothingrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning,includingconceptualandassociativemeanings.[Absolutesynonymsarerestrictedtohighlyspecializedvocabularyinlexicology.](2)relativesynonyms（相对同义词）:alsocallednear-synonymsaresimilarornearlythesameindenotation,butembracedifferentshadesofmeaningordifferentdegreesofagivenquality.(e.g:change/alter/vary,stagger/reel/totter,strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sourcesofsynonyms(同义词的来源):1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber,foe-enemy,help-aid,leave-depart,wise-sage,buy-purchase)2)DialectsandregionalEnglish（方言和地区英语）3)Figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords（单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walkoflife,dreamer--star-gazer,drunk-elevated,lie-distortoffact.4)Coincidencewithidiomaticexpressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gaintheupperhand,decide-makeupone’smind,finish-getthrough,hesitate-beintwominds,help-lendoneahand.DiscriminationofSynonyms(1)differenceindenotation外延不同.Synonymsmaydifferintherangeandintensityofmeaning.(rich-wealthy,work-toil,want-wish-desire)(2)differenceinconnotation内涵不同.Byconnotationwemeanthestylisticandemotivecolouringofwords.Somewordssharethesamedenotationbutdifferintheirstylisticappropriateness.(借词：answer-respond,storm-tempest,wood-forest,handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic,fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop,ask-beg-request.古语词、诗歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness,forlorn-distresses,dire-dreadful,list-listen,enow-enough,save-expect,mere-lake)(3)differenceinapplication.Manywordsaresynonymousinmeaningbutdifferenceinusageinsimpleterms.Theyformdifferentcollocationsandfitintodifferencesentencepatterns.(allowsb.todosth.-letsb.dosth./answertheletter-replytotheletter)Antonymy(反义关系):itisconcernedwithsemanticopposition.Antonymscanbedefinedaswordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.TypesofAntonyms:1)contradictoryterms(矛盾反义词):theseantonymstrulyrepresentoppositenessofmeaning.特点：①Theassertionofoneisthedenialoftheother.②Suchantonymsarenon-gradable.Theycannotbeusedincomparativedegreesanddonotallowadverbsofintensitylike“very”toqualifythem.(e.g:single/married)2)contraryterms（对立反义词）:antonymsofthistypearebestviewedintermsofascalerunningbetweentwopolesorextremes.(e.g:old/young,rich/young,big/small)Thetwooppositesaregradableandoneexistsincomparisonwiththeother.3)relativeterms（关系反义词）：thistypeconsistsofrelationalopposites.（parent/child,husband/wife,6/10

6employee/employer,sell/buy,receive-give）Someofthecharacteristicsofantonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonymsareclassifiedonthebasisofsemanticopposition(语义对立)2)awordwhichhasmorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonym3)antonymsdifferinsemanticinclusion（语义内涵）4)contrarytermsaregradableantonyms，differingindegreeofintensity,soeachhasitsowncorrespondingopposite.(hot/warm:hot-cold/warm-cool)Theuseofantonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonymsarehelpfulandvaluableindefiningthemeaningofwords.2)Toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthoughtforthesakeofcontrast.(e.g:nowornever,rainorshine,friendorfoe敌友，wealandwoe哀乐)3）Toformantithesis(对比法)toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideatogether.(proverbsandsayings:easycome,easygo./morehaste,lessspeed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系):Hyponymydealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Themeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.Forexample,acatishyponymofanimalSuperordinateandSubordinate(上义词和下义词)：usesubordinateswhichareconcreteandprecise,presentingavividverbalpicturebeforethereader.Superordinateswhichconveyonlyageneralandvagueidea.SemanticField(语义场)Viewingthetotalmeaninginthiswayisthebasisoffieldtheory.e.g.(apple,pear,peach,date,mango,orange,lemon,etc.makeupthesemanticfieldof‘fruits’)Thesemanticfieldofthesameconceptmaynothavethesamemembersindifferentlanguage.e.g.(auntinEnglish,maymeans“父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter7ChangesinWordMeaning词义的演变Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.Comparativelythecontentisevenmoreunstablethantheform.TypesofChanges(词义变化的种类)1.Extension/generalization(词义的扩大):isthenamegiventothewideningofmeaningwhichsomewordsundergo.Itisaprocessbywhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralized.(e.g:manuscript,fabulous,picture,mill,journal,bonfire,butcher,companion)2.Narrowing/specialization(词义的缩小)：istheoppositeofwideningmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.Inotherwords,awordwhichusedtohaveamoregeneralsensebecomesrestrictedinitsapplicationandconveysaspecialmeaninginpresent-dayEnglish.(e.g:deer,corn,garage,liquor,meat,disease,poison,wife,accident,girl).[whenacommonwordisturnedintoapropernoun,themeaningisnarrowedaccordingly.]3.Elevation/amelioration(词义的升华):referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumble（粗陋的）beginningstopositionsofimportance.[nice,marshal,constable,angel,knight,earl,governor,fond,minister,chamberlain]4.Degradation/pejoration(词义的降格):Aprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometousedinderogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor,churl,wench,hussy,villain,silly,knave,lewd,criticize,lust]5.Transfer(词义的转移):Wordswhichwereusedtodesignate指明onethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomething7/10

7elsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer.CausesofSemanticChange(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguisticfactors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1)Historicalreason(历史原因)：Increasedscientificknowledgeanddiscovery,objects,institutions,ideaschangeinthecourseoftime.E.g:pen,car,computer.2)Classreason(阶级原因)：Theattitudeofclasseshavealsomadeinroadsintolexicalmeaninginthecaseofelevationordegradation.3)Psychologicalreason(心理原因)：theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwordsareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Suchslow,humbleanddespisedoccupationstakemoreappealingnamesisallduetopsychologicalreasons.2.Linguisticfactors（语言内部原因）：thechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.1)shorting缩略:gold-goldmedal,gas-coalgas,bulb-lightbulb,private-privatesoldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter8MeaningandContext词义和语境Contextinitstraditionalsensereferstothelexicalitemsthatprecedeorfollowagivenword.Modernlinguistshavebroadeneditsscopetoincludebothlinguisticandextra-linguisticcontexts.Twotypesofcontext（语境的种类）1.Extra-linguisticcontext/Non-linguisticsituation（非语言语境）：Inabroadsense,contextincludesthephysicalsituationaswell,whichembracesthepeople,time,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.(lookout,weekend,landlord)2.Linguisticcontext/grammaticalcontext(语言语境)：Inanarrowsense,itreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappears.Itmaycoveraparagraph,awholechapterandeventheentirebook.分为两类：1)Lexicalcontext（词汇语境）：Itreferstothewordthatoccurstogetherwiththewordinquestion.(e.g:paper,do)2)Grammaticalcontext（语法语境）：Itrefersthesituationwhenthemeaningofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs.(e.g:become)Theroleofcontext(语境的作用)1.Eliminationofambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguityduetopolysemyorhomonymy.2）Grammaticalstructurecanalsoleadtoambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extendtheoriginalsentence②alterthecontextalittle2.Indicationofreferents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①withclearcontext②withadequateverbalcontext3.Provisionofcluesforinferringword-meaning(提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevantdetails8)wordstructureChapter9EnglishIdioms英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）:areexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteralmeaningofindividualelements.Inabroadsense,idiommayincludecolloquialisms（俗语）,Catchphrases（标语）,slangexpressions8/10

8（俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc.TheyformanimportantpartoftheEnglishvocabulary.CharacteristicsofIdioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semanticunity（语意的整体性）：wordsintheidiomtheyhavelosttheirindividualidentity.Theirmeaningsarenotoftenrecognizableinthemeaningofthewholeidiom.Thesemanticunityofidiomsisalsoreflectedintheillogicalrelationshipbetweentheliteralmeaningofeachoftheidiom.2.Structuralstability(结构的稳定性):thestructureofanidiomistoalargeextentunchangeable.1)theconstituentsofidiomscannotbereplaced2)thewordordercannotbeinvertedorchanged3)theconstituentsofidiomscannotbedeletedoraddedto,notevenanarticle.4)manyidiomsaregrammaticallyunchangeableThefixityofidiomdependsontheidiomaticity.习语性表达习惯ClassificationofIdioms（英语习语的分类）1.idiomsnominalinnature名词性习语(whiteelephant累赘物)2.idiomsadjectivalinnature形容词性习语（aspoorasachurchmouse）3.idiomsverbalinnature动词性习语（lookinto）4.idiomsadverbialinnature副词性习语（toothandnail拼命）5.sentenceidioms句式习语（neverdothingsbyhalves）Useofidioms（习语的使用）1.Stylisticfeatures（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）slang（俚语）2）literaryexpressions（书面表达）Thesameidiommayshowstylisticdifferenceswhenitisassigned（指派）differentmeanings.2.Rhetoricalfeatures(修辞色彩)1)phoneticmanipulation（语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexicalmanipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplicationofsynonyms）同义词并举[screamandshout]（2）repetition重复[outandout]（3）juxtaposition(ofantonyms)反义词并置[hereandthere]3.figuresofspeech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：livebyone’spen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earnone’sbread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kickthebucket(die)（7）hyperbole夸张：aworldoftroubleVariationsofidioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter10EnglishDictionaries英语字典Dictionary:presentsinalphabeticalorderthewordsofEnglish,withinformationastotheirspelling,pronunciation,meaning,usage,rulesandgrammar,andinsome,theiretymology（语源）.Typesofdictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual&bilingualdictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的9/10

9(1).Monolingualdictionary:iswritteninonelanguage(LDCE,CCELD).Theheadwordorentriesaredefinedandillustratedinthesamelanguage.(2).Bilingualdictionary:involvetwolanguages(ANewEnglish-ChineseD,AChinese-EnglishD)2.LinguisticandEncyclopedicdictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguisticdictionary:aimatdefiningwordsandexplainingtheirusagesinthelanguage(spelling,pronunciation,meaning,grammatical,function,usageandetymologyetc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedicdictionary:1）encyclopedia(百科全书):isnotconcernedwiththelanguageperse（本身）butprovidesencyclopedicinformation.Concerningeachheadword(notpronunciation,meanings,orusages)butonlyinformation.2）EncyclopedicDictionaries:havethecharacteristicsofbothlinguisticDandencyclopedia()3.Unabridged,deskandpocketdictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）UnabridgedD:basicinformationaboutaword——itsorigin,meaning,pronunciation,cognates(同词源的),usage,grammatical,function,spelling,hyphenation,capitalization,derivedforms,synonymsandhomonyms(同音异意)（2）DeskD:medium-sized[50,000-150,000]（3）PocketD:只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about50,000entriesorfewer4.Specializeddictionaries（专用词典）concentrateonaparticularareaoflanguageorknowledge,treatingsuchdiversetopicsasetymology,synonyms,idioms,pronunciation,usageinlanguage,andcomputer,engineering,literatureandavarietyofothersubjects.Useofthedictionaries(词典的使用)1readthecontentspagetofindoutquicklywhatinformationisincludedinthedictionary2readtheguidetotheuseofthedictionaryContentofthedictionary（词典的内容）1.spelling2pronunciation3definition4usage5grammar6usage7notesandlanguagenotes使用注释和语言注释8etymologicalinformation词源信息9supplementarymatter补充事项Threegoodgeneraldictionaries（3本常用字典）1.LongmandictionaryofcontemporaryEnglish(LDCE)newedition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》新版：特征①cleargrammarcodes②usagenotes③languagenotes2.CollinsCOBUILDEnglishlanguagedictionary(CCELD)(1987)《科林斯合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-infullsentences②extracolumn-dealwithgrammarinformation③usageexamples-toshowitsmeaningsandusages3.AChinese-Englishdictionary(revisededition)(CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》：首版1978年。（1）hasanadditionof800singlecharacterentriesandof18000multi-characterentriesincludingcatchphrases,sayingsandproverbs.（2）revisedsomeoldentries（3）keepsthepreviousalphabeticalorderofentries,whichmakesthedictionaryeasytouse（4）boastsofthequalityoftheEnglishequivalentsitprovidesforitsChineseitems.10/10