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中图分类号：I561.074密级：公开UDC：800学校代码：10094硕士学位论文（学历硕士）ACulturalAnalysisofthe“VillageVirus”inSinclairLewis’MainStreet辛克莱·刘易斯《大街》中“乡村病毒”的文化解读作者姓名：赵洁指导教师：冯梅教授学科专业名称：英语语言文学研究方向：英美文学论文开题日期：2016年6月12日二〇一七年五月二十日 学位论文原创性声明“”？本人所提交的学位论文《辛克莱刘Ｂ斯小说〈大街〉中乡村病毒的文化”’Ａ“１ＣｕｌｔｕｒａｌＡｎａｌｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅＶｉｌｌａｅＶｉｒｕｓｉｎＳｉｎｃｌａｉｒＬｅｗｉｓＭＳ／ｒｅｅ／）解读》（ｙｇ，是在导师的指导下，独立进行研宄Ｔ＿作所取得的原创性成果。除文中己经注明引用。的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体己经发表或撰写过的研究成果对本文的研宄做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均己在文中标明＾本声明的法律后果由本人承担＾＞论文作者（签名）：指导教师确认（签名丨日＾年（；月２ｄ年月ｒ日）学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解河北师范大学有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交学位论文的复印件和磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权河北师范大学、可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印缩印或其它复制手段保存、汇编学位论文＾（保密的学位论文在）年解密后适用本授权书论文作者（签名）：：指导教师（签名）冗杨年６月夂曰年（月夕円＾ 中图分类号：I561.074密级：公开UDC：800学校代码：10094硕士学位论文（学历硕士）ACulturalAnalysisofthe“VillageVirus”inSinclairLewis’MainStreet辛克莱·刘易斯《大街》中“乡村病毒”的文化解读作者姓名：赵洁指导教师：冯梅教授学科专业名称：英语语言文学研究方向：英美文学论文开题日期：2016年6月12日I ACulturalAnalysisofthe“VillageVirus”inSinclairLewis’MainStreetByZhaoJieSupervisor:Prof.FengMeiSpecialty:EnglishLanguageandLiteratureResearchDirection:BritishandAmericanLiteratureSubmittedtoSchoolofForeignLanguagesInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMasterofArtsHebeiNormalUniversity2017II AbstractMainStreetisthemasterpieceofthefirstAmericanNobellaureateSinclairLewis.IttellsthestoryoftheheroineCarol’sfailureinreformingthesmalltownGopherPrairie.Theauthorputsforwardtheideaof“villagevirus”withthewordsofGuyPollock,andthistermistheironicdescriptionofthepopularconservative,arrogant,narrow-mindedwayofthinkingintheearly19thcenturyMidwesterntowns.Thisthesisattemptstoanalyzethe“villagevirus”fromtheperspectiveofculturalstudy,andspecificallyfromtheaspectsofmaterialculture,spiritualcultureandinstitutionalculture.Thisthesisincludesfiveparts:introduction,threechaptersofthemainbodyandconclusion.TheintroductionincludesthelifeofSinclairLewis,the“villagevirus”,theliteraturereviewsofMainStreetfromhomeandabroad,aswellastheconceptandcategoriesofCulture.ChapterOnediscussesthe“villagevirus”inmaterialculture.Itwasmainlyreflectedinthreeaspects:theuglycountrylandscape,themonotonousdressingstyleofcountrypeople,theunsoundculturalandpublicfacilities.ThischaptershowstheconservativesocialrealitiesofAmericansmalltowns.ChapterTwodiscussesthe“villagevirus”inspiritualculture.Itwasmainlyreflectedinthreeaspects:thearroganceandnarrow-mindednessofvillagepeople,thetediousnessofculturalandrecreationalactivitiesofvillagepeople,theweaknessofthevillageintellectuals.Thischapterillustratestheresidents’emptyspiritualworldandlifevalues.ChapterThreediscussesthe“villagevirus”ininstitutionalculture.Itwasmainlyreflectedinthreeaspects:Thestandardizedlifestyle,theconspicuouspatternofconsumption,theunequalstatusofmenandwomeninmarriageandlove.Thischapterpresentstheresidents’pathologicallifestylesandsocialcustoms.Theconclusionsummarizesthethesisandpointsoutthatthe“villagevirus”wasIV concludedbyLewisthroughhisdeepunderstandingofAmericansociety.Andthroughthedescriptionof“villagevirus”,LewismadeafierceattackontheAmericanvillagelifeandadeepponderationoverthehumanlivingconditions.KeyWords:“villagevirus”;MainStreet;materialculture;spiritualculture;institutionalcultureV AbstractinChinese《大街》是美国第一位诺贝尔文学奖获得者辛克莱·刘易斯的代表作，小说讲述了以女主人公卡罗尔为代表的各阶层人士在对戈镇进行改革中遇到的迷惘与困惑。在小说中，作者借盖伊·波洛克之口提出了“乡村病毒”的概念。“乡村病毒”是对19世纪20年代美国中西部小镇中流行的保守、自大、狭隘的思维方式的形象嘲讽。本文从文化研究的角度，论述“乡村病毒”在物质文化、精神文化和制度文化方面的体现。本文包括五个部分：引言、主体三章和结论。引言首先介绍了刘易斯的生平及代表作《大街》，其次是“乡村病毒”的概念，然后是《大街》的国内外研究综述，最后介绍了文化的概念和范畴。第一章论述了“乡村病毒”在物质文化方面的反映。主要体现在：戈镇丑陋的乡村建筑景观，居民保守平庸的穿着风格，以及戈镇不健全的文化和公共设施，呈现了美国小镇落后保守的社会现实状况。第二章论述了“乡村病毒”在精神文化方面的反映。主要体现在：偏狭傲慢的小镇居民，单调乏味的文化娱乐生活，以及软弱消极的小镇知识分子，表现了小镇居民空虚的价值观和意识形态。第三章论述了“乡村病毒”在制度文化方面的反映。主要体现在：标准化的生活方式，炫耀性的消费方式，以及不平等的婚姻和爱情观，剖析了小镇居民病态的生活方式和社会风俗。结论总结了全文，指出刘易斯对“乡村病毒”的描写是在深刻了解美国社会历史现状的前提下，对空虚、落后的小镇生活的激烈抨击，和对人类生存状态的深切关注和思考。关键词：乡村病毒;《大街》;物质文化;精神文化;制度文化VI ContentsAbstract.......................................................................................................................IVAbstractinChinese....................................................................................................VIIntroduction..................................................................................................................1ChapterOneThe“VillageVirus”inMaterialCulture...........................................8A.TheUglyCountryLandscape................................................................................8B.TheMonotonousDressingStyleofCountryPeople...........................................12C.TheUnsoundCulturalandPublicFacilities........................................................16ChapterTwoThe“VillageVirus”inSpiritualCulture........................................19A.TheArroganceandNarrow-mindednessofVillagepeople................................19B.TheTediousnessofCulturalandRecreationalActivitiesofVillagePeople.......24C.TheWeaknessoftheVillageIntellectuals...........................................................28ChapterThreeThe“VillageVirus”inInstitutionalCulture................................33A.TheStandardizedLifestyle..................................................................................33B.TheConspicuousPatternofConsumption...........................................................36C.TheUnequalStatusofMenandWomeninLoveandMarriage.........................39Conclusion...................................................................................................................43Notes............................................................................................................................45Bibliography...............................................................................................................46Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................50AcademicAchievements............................................................................................51VII IntroductionSinclairLewis(February7,1885–January10,1951)isthefirstAmericanNobelPrizeWinnerinliterature.Hewasawarded“forhisvigorousandgraphicartofdescriptionandhisabilitytocreate,withwitandhumor,newtypesofcharacters”1inhisnovels.HisfaithfuldescriptionofthevariousAmericansocialproblemsinhisnovelsmadehimthe“conscienceofhistime”2.SinclairLewiswasborntoacountrydoctorfamilyinaprairievillageinSaukCenter,Minnesota.Hismotherdiedwhenhewasveryyoung,andhedidnothaveaverygoodrelationshipwithhisfatherbecausehisfatherwastoostricttohim.Asaresult,hewastimidandsensitiveinhischildhood.Fortunately,Lewis’stepmothertreatedhimwellandgavevaluableguidancetohiminhisearlyliteraryenlightenmentperiod.HisstepmotherwastransplantedfromChicagotoSaukCenter,andstayedthereuntilherdeath.HerexperiencesinSaukCenterinspiredLewis’creatingoftheheroineCarolKennicottinMainStreet.TheearlymemoryinSaukCentermadeLewishatethebigotryinsmalltownsextremely.In1902,Lewislefthometostudyinaprep-school,andlater,hewasenrolledbyYaleUniversity.Hedidnotgethisbachelor’sdegreequitesmoothly;heoncestoppedhiseducationandtravelledtomanyplacesinAmerica.Allthoseexperiencesgavehimrichinspirationonhisnovelwriting.Lewiscreatedmorethan20booksinhislife,andhiswritingcareercouldbedividedintothreestages.Thefirststagebeganfrom1908to1919,hewrotesixnovelswithromanticfeatures,theywere:HikeandtheAeroplane(1912),OurMr.Wrenin:TheRomanticAdventuresofaGentleMan(1914),TheTrailoftheHawk:AComedyoftheSeriousnessofLife(1915),TheJob(1917),TheInnocents:AStoryforLovers(1917),FreeAir(1919).ThesesixnovelswerecommonlyregardedastheapprenticeworksofSinclairLewis.Thesecondstagewasfrom1920-1929,andLewis’literaryachievementsmainlyconcentratedinthefivenovelspublishedinthisperiod:MainStreet(1920),Babbitt1 (1922),Arrowsmith(1925),ElmerGantry(1927),andDodsworth(1929).HecreatedhisoriginalstylebypicturingthevividAmericancharactersfromdifferentclassesinthosenovels.MainStreetwasthefirstmasterpieceofSinclairLewis;ittellsthestoryofCarolKennicott,arebelliousgirlwhowantstorecreateGopherPrairieintoamoreattractivevillage.Thestoryrevealedthesociallimitationsofthe“mainstreet”,andarousedpeople’sextensiveattentiononthesocialproblemsinAmericansmalltowns.Lewis’anothermasterpieceBabbitdepictedtheimageofthetypicalutilitarianurbanbusinessman,andtheauthorwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1930forthisbook.Thelaststagewasfrom1930toLewis’death,hepublishedabouttennovelsinthisperiod.Buttheliteraryvaluesofthosenovelsinthisperiodcouldnotparalleltohisworksin1920s.Thenovelsinthisperiodinclude:AnnVickers(1933),WorkofArt(1934),ItCan’tHappenHere(1935),GideonPlanish(1943),andKingsbloodRoyal(1947).MainStreetwasthebeginningofLewis’literaryreputation.Thenovelquicklybecamethemostpopularbookamongthewholecountryafteritspublication,butitalsoreceivedsharpcriticismfrommanyconservativeforces.ThelocalnewspaperSaukCentreHeraldrefusedtosayanythingaboutitspublication,andevenLewis’fatherwasangryabouttheradicaldescriptionofGopherPrairieinthenovel.TheexposéoftheAmericansmall-townlimitationsmadeMainStreetagreatworkinchangingthemodernAmerica.MainStreetwaswritteninthe1920swhenAmericanindustrydevelopedrapidly.Atthattime,theindustrialcitiesroseabruptly,whilethesmallruraltownsdeclinedquietly.TheAmericansmalltownswerenolongertheperfectUtopiaforpeopletoresttheirminds.However,manywritersstilldescribedthesmalltownasthefriendly,warmparadise.Lewisabandonedthattraditionalpoeticdescriptionofvillagelife,heportrayedtherealsmalltownlifeinAmerica,andintroducedtheconceptof“villagevirus”inthenovelforthefirsttime.TheheroineCarolKennicottwasabeautiful,romanticlibrarianwhohad2 receivedcollegeeducationinSt.Paul.ShemarriedthecountrydoctorWillKennicott,andcametothetraditional,conservativesmalltownwithherhusband.Shealwayshadthedreamofrecreatingvillages,soshewaseagertotransformhernewhome,GopherPrairie.WhenCarolarrivedinthetown,althoughshewaswarmlywelcomedbythetownspeople,shefeltdisappointedbythegriminessonthe“mainstreet”aswellasthedrabnessinpeople’slife.Shetriedherbesttoraisethetownspeople’saestheticsensebyholdingaChinesestylewarm-housingparty.Hereffortsmadethevillagersfeelrefreshedinashorttime,buttheweekafter,theybecamedrabandboringagainjustlikebefore.WiththesameambitionofreformingGopherPrairie,CarolmadefriendswiththevillageteacherVidaSherwin,thelawyerGuyPollockandeventhepoorSwedishlaborMilesBjornstam.CarolcarriedoutaseriesofactionstochangetheappearanceofGopherPrairie;shewantedtoimprovethelivingconditionsofthepoorandbeautifytheappearanceofthetown.However,shewasdefeatedbytheconservativeforcesinthetown.Itwassoheartbreakingthatshechosetoforgetherambitiontemporarilyanddevotedallherenergytoherbaby–Hughforaperiodoftime.Nonetheless,Carolneverforgotherdreamoftransformingthetown.Later,Carolandherhusbandhadaninterludeintheirmarriage.DoctorKennicottsecretlyvisitedMrs.Dyer,andCarolhadaplatoniclovewiththeyoungtailorEricValborg.InGopherPrairie,peopleregardmen’sbetrayalasacommonthing,whileifawomanhasanyimproperrelationshipwithotherman,shewouldsufferseriouscondemnation.WhenCarol’srelationshipwithEricwasrevealed,shereceivedslanderousgossipsfromthetown,andevenEric’svulgarfathercametocurseherintheface.Carolcouldnotbearthishumiliation,sosheescapedtoCaliforniaforaperiodoftimewithherhusband.WhenshereturnedtoGopherPrairie,Carolrealizedthatshewouldneverbelongtothetown,andshecouldnevertoleratethetowneither.SoshelefttoWashingtonwithherson.ShehadworkedinWashingtonforalmosttwoyearswhenshedecidedtocomebacktoGopherPrairie.Attheendofthestory,Carolstillbelievedthetown3 isnotperfect,andshepinnedherhopeofreformingthetownonhernewlyborndaughter.SinclairLewisdepictedthelimitationsofAmericansmalltownsandthepredicamentsofthesmalltownoutsidersinMainStreet.Asawriterwithrebelliousspirit,hebravelyexposedthesocialmaladiesthroughthenovel.Thegenuinedescriptionofthevillageliferevealedclearlythe“villagevirus”–thehypocrisy,parochialismandnarrow-mindednessofthesmalltown.Broadlyspeaking,thenovelwasalawsuittotheAmericanbackwardlifestyles,anditalsohelpedtheAmericanstolookintothemselves.“Villagevirus”isSinclairLewis’highlyartisticgeneralizationoftheAmericanmalpracticesinsmalltowns.Itistheironicdescriptiontothepopularconservative,arrogant,narrow-mindedwayofthinkingintheearly19thcenturyMidwesternsmalltowns.Iterodestheoutsiders’mind,harmsthesociallife,andobstructsthesocialreformandinnovation.Asakindofinfectiousvirus,noneofthevillageoutsiderscouldescapeitstoxicity.Peoplefromtheoutsideworldmustacceptthetown,nomatterhowuglyitis;theymustincorporatethevaluesofthelocalresidents,regardlessofthedifferencebetweentheiroriginalideasandthelocalideas.Andtheymustbecomemembersofthetown,althoughtheyfeelthelocalvillagers’actionsawkward,theirlanguagerude,otherwise,theywillsufferfromsharpcriticism.Theuglytown,stubbornpeopleandtheboringlifearethebreedingbedofthe“villagevirus”.ThepublicationofMainStreetwas“themostsensationaleventinthetwentieth-centuryAmericanpublishinghistory”3.Thenovelimpressedthegreatpublicandattractedtheattentionoftheliterarycritics.TheoverseascholarscriticizedMainStreetfrommanyperspectivessuchasthethemes,charactersandthetechniquesofthenovel.Manyscholarspaidattentiontothestudyofcharacters.JosephWoodKrutchinAGeniusOnMainStreet(1925)regardedSinclairLewisasageniusofcreatingtypicalcharacterssuchasCarolKennicottandBabbit.Somescholarsalsoworkontheheroine’sstatusinGopherPrairieandthesocial4 identitiesofthevillagepeople.Forexample,AmyCampionandGrayAlanFinepublishedMainStreetonMainStreet:CommunityIdentityandtheReputationofSinclairLewis(1998).In1975,MartinLightpublishedhisbookTheQuixoticVisionofSinclairLewis,toacclaimLewis’abilityofcreatingsuccessfulcharacterswhochallengesocialconventions.AndJohnE.HartwroteRebellionastradition:SinclairLewis’MainStreet(1980)toexpressCarol’sspiritofresistanceinherpursuitofreformingthetown.In1998,AmyCampionpublishedMainStreetonMainStreet:CommunityIdentityandtheReputationofSinclairLewis,thispaperanalyzedthesharpconflictbetweenindividualityandthesocialbackground.AndH.J.GrabbewroteTheIdealTypeoftheSmallTown:MainStreetinaSocialScienceContext(1987)toexposethemonotonous,hypocriticalsmalltownconventionsandthecollapseofthepoeticcountrylife.In1922,RebeccaWestpraisedLewis’artisticvisioninSinclairLewis:CollectionofCriticalEssays.However,D.J.DooleyalmostdeniedalltheartisticmeritsofLewisinTheArtofSinclairLewis(1967).Inbrief,SinclairLewisreceivedamixedresponseintheAmericanliterarycircleforalongtime.In2002,RichardLingemanpublishedtheautobiographyofLewis–SinclairLewis:RebelfromMainStreet.ThisbookgaveafavorablereviewtoLewis’talent,andwasregardedastheimpartial,preciseviewpointofSinclairLewis.In1983,MainStreetwasfirsttranslatedintoChinesebyMr.PanQingling,andfromthenon,thedomesticreadershadanaccesstoappreciatethenovel.In1987,thefamousBritishandAmericanliterarycriticandtranslatorSunLiangwrotetheearliestdomesticresearchpaperonMainStreet:TheScrollPaintingofSatire–ReviewonSinclairLewisandHisMasterpieceMainStreet,anditwaspublishedonthefirstissueofForeignLiteratureReviewin1987.Ithadsinceopenedthecurtainofthedomesticresearchesonthenovel.ManydomesticresearchersfocusontheheroineCarol’scharacter,personality,includingthebildungsromananalysisonCarol’slife.ZhangDezhongwroteDreamerandDoer–theAnalysisoftheHeroineandHeroinMainStreet(1987)toillustratethedifferencebetweenCarolandKennicott.Scholarsalsodiscusstherebelliousspiritin5 thenovel.In2005,RuanMeiyingwroteTheRebelliousSpiritinSinclairLewis’MainStreet.SheanalyzedthesocialmalpracticesinAmericanandportrayedtheheroine’srebelliousimage.AndDengLinziwroteTheMind’sUtopia–theRomanticisminMainStreettohighlightSinclairLewis’artisticdescriptionoftheUtopianvillage.Inrecentyears,thenumberoftheresearchpapersonMainStreetincreasesrapidly,andtheresearchperspectivesareincreasinglyrichatthesametime.FanYanxiaexploredthestandardizedlifestyleandtheconspicuousconsumptionpatterninRereadMainStreetfromtheConsumerCulturePerspective.AndYeXing,ZhouYa-qionginCarol’sSpiralLifefromthePerspectiveofGrowthNovels(2012)analyzedtherelationshipbetweenpersonandsocietyindeterminingaperson’sgrowth.Withthedevelopmentofdomesticliterarycriticism,manyscholarshavedonethesystematicinvestigationsonMainStreet.Forexample,YangHai-ouactivelyexploredthefeaturesofnarrativecharacteristicinthenovel,andalsopublishedaseriesofpapersandbooksfromtheperspectiveofnarrativeethics.ShepointedouttheidealismandpragmatisminthenarrativestrategyofLewis’worksinOnCulturalNarrative–CommentsonCulturalNarrativeFeaturesofSinclairLewis’MainStreetandOtherThreeNovels.AndZhangHairongalsowroteaseriesofpapersontheperspectiveofnarrativespace.InDecipheringtheLandscapeofSinclairLewis’Fiction,sheexploredtherealmodernAmericanthroughthevillagelandscape.Andtherearealsomanyscholarsresearchedthenovelsfromtheperspectivessuchasfeminism,ecologicalcriticism,andnewhistoricismandsoon.AlthoughthescholarshaveresearchedMainStreetfrommanyperspectives,thestudyof“villagevirus”itselfstillneedstobefurtherdeveloped.Thisthesiswillanalyzethe“villagevirus”fromtheculturalperspective.Theconceptofcultureishardtodefine,accordingtoSimaYunjie,Cultureisthesummationofthematerialandspiritualexistencescreatedbyhumanbeingsintheprocessofhistoricaldevelopment4.Andthestudyofculturealsohasnocleardefinitionorexplicitresearchareas.StuartHallbelievesthemissionofculturalstudiesistohelppeopleunderstandwhatishappening,andsupplywayofthinking6 andlivingstrategiesaswellasresourcesforresisting5.Thisthesisaimstoexploretheculturalimplicationsof“villagevirus”fromthreeaspects:thematerialculture,thespiritualculture,andtheinstitutionalculture.TheanalysishopestohelpreadersawarethelimitationsofAmericansmalltownsandthereformers’perplexitiesinthereformation,andfinally,helpreadersunderstandthenovelcomprehensively.7 ChapterOneThe“VillageVirus”inMaterialCultureMaterialcultureisthefundamentalcomponentofculture;itcontainsthephysicalformofvaluesandideologyofasociety.Thematerialthingsarecreatedbyhuman,sothematerialcultureistheconcreteformofthehumanvaluesandideologies.Theembodimentofmaterialcultureincludesthelayoutofthevillage,thevillagers’clothes,food,housesandvehicles,andsoon.The“villagevirus”erodespeoplefrommanyaspects,andthematerialreflectionof“villagevirus”isthemostobviousone.ThetownspeopleinGopherPrairiebelievetheirhometownhasthemostsplendidhousesandthemostgorgeouspeopleinMinnesota.Whileintheoutsiders’eyes,thetownisonlyafrontiercampandthepeoplethereareasdrabastheirbuildings.Peopleinthetownaresavorless,andtheyfeelsatisfiedwiththemselves.Lewisuseshisauthenticdescriptionoftheuglycountrylandscapetorevealthe“villagevirus”inGopherPrairie.Thischapterwillillustratethe“villagevirus”indetailfromthreeaspects:theuglinessofcountrylandscape,themonotonousnessofcountrypeople’sclothes,andthelackofculturalandrecreationalfacilitiesinGopherPrairie.Astheconcreteexpressionofthematerialculture,thethreeaspectscandirectlyshowthedrabness,mediocrityandparochialismofthevillagepeople.A.TheUglyCountryLandscapeLiteratureandgeographyhaveanaturalconnectionasgeographycanprovideabundantinformationforreaderstounderstandthecontextandbackgrounddirectly.TheelaborationofcountrylandscapeinMainStreetdemonstratesthesocialrealitiesinGopherPrairie.Asthemostfundamentalandobviousembodimentof“villagevirus”,thecountrylandscapeisanimportantwayofliteraryrepresentation.Itisalsotheexternalrepresentationofthesocialandeconomicstructure.AsGopherPrairiewasthemicroscopeoftheAmericansmalltowns,thephysicalappearanceofthemwasugly8 andrigid.InMainStreet,LewisdepictedthevariousgeographicallandscapesinGopherPrairie.ThroughLewis’description,readerscouldnoticetheugly,monotonoushouses,shops,andpublicbuildingsofthetown.AstheAmericanindustrialcitiesdevelopedrapidlyin1920s,thecapitalassembledtobigcities,andthesmalltownsbecamedeclined.Thelocalresidentsofsmalltownswereisolatedfromtheboomingurbanculture.Sothevillagestillkeptthetraditionalbuildingsandhouses.Theywereself-contentedwiththeirownbuildingsandlandscapes,andtheywouldneverrealizetheuglinessofthecountrylandscape.InMainStreet,thecountrylandscapewasdifferentfromthetraditionalbeautiful,quietcountrysidedepictedbythewritersofthe19thcentury.Thelandscapehasbeenchangedcompletelybythetrainandcommercialization.LewisdrewapictureoftherealcountrylifewiththepurposeofexpressingthecontemporaryAmerican’sconfusionintheprocessofgreatsocialtransformation.TheheroineCarolwasabeautiful,romantic,educatedgirlcomingfromSt.Paul.Shehasworkedinalibraryforthreeyears,andshealwayshadtheinterestoftown-planning.ShemetDoctorWillKennicottinherfriend’shome,andfellinlovewithhim.WhenCarolandherfuturehusbandwalkedfromSt.PaultoMendotaalongtheriver,theywereastonishedatthemagnificentviewofSt.Paul.DoctorKennicottsincerelyaskedCaroltocometoGopherPrairiewithhimandmakethetownmoreartistic.SheacceptedKennicott’sinvitationandwasexcitedaboutherimminentfutureachievements.WhentheygotmarriedandcametoGopherPrairiebytrain,Carolfinallysawthevillagelandscapewithherowneyes.Itwasasmalltownwithugly,rigidbuildingsandsprawlingconstruction.TheuglybuildingsinthetownmadeCarolfeeldisappointed.ToCarol,thetownwas“merelyanenlargementofallthehamletswhichtheyhadbeenpassingontheirjourney”6.(42)InMainStreet,Lewisdrewapictureoftheugly,drabtown.Thedescriptionoftheuglyarchitecturescouldbefoundeverywhereinthenovel.WhenCarolvisitedthe“mainstreet”forthefirsttime,shesawthemostpretentiousbuildingofGopherPrairie–theMinniemashieHouse:9 Itwasatall,lean,shabbystructure,threestoriesofyellow-streakedwood,thecornerscoveredwithsandedpineslabspurportingtosymbolizestone.Inthehotelofficeshecouldseeastretchofbareuncleanfloor,alineofricketychairswithbrasscuspidorsbetween,awriting-deskwithadvertisementsinmother-of-pearllettersupontheglass-coveredback.Thedinning-roombeyondwasajungleofstainedtable-clothsandcatsupbottles.(49)TheMinniemashieHousewasthemostfamoushotelaswellasthemostsplendidbuildinginGopherPrairie.Butinfact,thehotelwasshabbyandold,thefurnishingswereworn,andtheenvironmentwasalsoverydirty.Thebuildingwasspottedwithfliesonthewindows,andwithrockingchairs,messytablecloths.Onthestreet,thetelegraphpolesspreaddisorderly.Withvulgarstreetsignshangonthedoor,thetaverngaveoffthesmellofbadbeer.Carolwasverydisappointedwiththeunapologeticuglinessandstraightnessofthe“mainstreet”,andshethoughtherroadofmakingthetownbeautifulwasarduous.Carolwasalsodiscontentedwiththetown’splanlessness.Thetownwasdisorderlyconstructed,likemanycardboardsthrowingontheatticfloor.Andthewhitehouseshiddeninthebushes,theredbarns,therailwaystation,thegloomyoildepot,dairyproductsfactory,anddirtyuglybeastfencewerethebasicestablishmentsofthetown.Thestreetwasalsofilledwithtemporarybuildings,disorganizedfacilitieslikeelectriclightpoles,telephonepolesandtheboxesofgoods.Lackofdrainageditchesmadethestreetdirtyandstinking.Onceitrains,theroadsbecamemuddyditches.Inaword,theconstructionofGopherPrairiewastotallywithoutplan.Astopeople’shouses,theywereallsquare,old-fashionedhouseswithclapboard.Thesamestyleofpeople’shousesshowedthesameaestheticvalueofthelocalpeople.SamClark’snewlybuilthousewasoneofthebiggestmansionsinthetown,itwassquareandsolid.Therewerevastneatclapboards,asmalltower,andabigporch.Kennicottwasalwayslookingforwardtobuildahouselikethatwhenheearnsenoughmoney.ButinCarol’seyes,thiskindofhousewasrigidandboring.10 CarolfinallyfoundthereasonofGopherPrairie’sugliness.Thetownwaswithoutanyplanbeforeitsconstruction,thusthebuildingsweredisorganized:ShehadsoughttobedefiniteinanalyzingthesurfaceuglinessoftheGopherPrairies.Sheassertedthatitisamatterofuniversalsimilarity;offlimsinessofconstruction,sothatthetownsresemblefrontiercamps;ofneglectofnaturaladvantages.(287)Moreover,thebuildingswereneitherbeautifulnorpeople-oriented.Therewasnoescapefromtheheavywindfortheunprotectedhousesonthestreetinwinter,andtheclustersofhouseswerejustlikethenestsofsparrowsinsteadofwarmhousesforpeople:Shethoughtofthecomingofthenorthernwinter,whentheunprotectedhouseswouldcrouchtogetherinterrorofstormsgallopingoutofthatwildwaste.Theyweresheltersforsparrows,nothomesforwarmlaughingpeople.(48-49)LewisdescribedGopherPrairie’slandscapeasaminiatureofthethousandscommonAmericansmalltowns.Nine-tenthsoftheAmericantownsweresoalikethatitwascompletelyboringtowanderfromonetowntoanother.Therewerethesamelumberyard,thesamerailroadstation,andthesameFordgarageintheverymuchaliketowns.CarolwasnotsatisfiedwiththepresentsituationofGopherPrairie,andshewantedtotransformthetownintoabeautifulandfreeplace.Inordertobuildheridealbeautifultown,shemadegreatefforts.Shevisitedthetown’srichestbusinessmanLukeDawson,andinnocentlyhopingthemillionairecoulddonatesomemoneytohelpreformthetown.TheDawsonsdeclaredthattheythoughtGopherPrairiewasjusttheperfectplacetolive,andrefusedtotakeoutanymoney.Nonetheless,the“mostbeautifulandperfectplace”couldnotchangetheDawsons’11 planofmovingtoCalifornia.Undertheprevailingmaterialisminthesociety,Carol’splanwasdoomedtobedefeated.B.TheMonotonousDressingStyleofCountryPeopleThedescriptionofclothingiscloselyconnectedwiththecharacter’spsychologicalactivitiesinliteraryworks.People’spersonalityandmentalstatescouldbereflectedthroughthedescriptionofdressing.Therefore,dressingisnotonlytheexternalizationofcharacters’innermindbutalsotheembodimentofthewearer’sidentityandsocialstatus.Moreover,dressingcouldalsobeusedasthetoolofresistanceandsubversion.ThesameastheuglylandscapeofGopherPrairie,people’sclothesinthetownwerealsoveryconservativeandvulgar.Dressingisfullofrichsymbolicconnotations.Fromtheeconomicperspective,dressingisacommodity;whilefromtheperspectiveofsocialculture,dressingistherepresentationofpsychology,philosophy,aesthetics,sociologyandsoon.InMainStreet,thephenomenonofthematerialworshipwassevere,anddressingwasaperfectmanifestationofmaterialcultureexceptfromthecountrylandscape.Intheconsumersociety,theupperclasspeoplebuilttheirsocialstatusthroughstylizedclothes.Inthenovel,peoplelivedadrabandmediocrelife,thustheirclotheswereallrigidandcommon.Theconservativeconventionconfinedpeople’sdesireofexpressingthemselves.Asaresult,thevillagepeopleworemediocreclothesthemselves;moreover,theyalsocriticizedtheotherpeople’sunique,prettydresses.Theindustryinthetowndevelopedrapidly,howeverthevillagepeople’ssenseofaestheticindressingstillleftfarbehindin1920s.Therefore,dressingbecameawaytoexpressthemediocrityofthelocalvillagers.Andduetothehugegapbetweentherichandthepoor,thevillagepeople’sdressinghabitsvaried.ThepoorpeopleinGopherPrairiebelieveddressingwasonlyatoolforkeepingwarm;astotherichpeople,theychoseexpensivefabricorfurtodemonstratetheirwealthandsocialstatus.12 InthewinterlifeofGopherPrairie,people’sclothingwasanimportanttopic.Theytalkedaboutwinterclothesallthetime,andtheybelievedclothescanrepresenttheowner’sidentity.Asaresult,newlypurchasedandexpensivewinterclothescouldmakeotherwivesfeeljealous.TheeconomicdifferencemadepeoplehavedifferentchoicesofwinterclothesinGopherPrairie.Poorpeopleworedogskincoat,whilerichpeoplelikeDoctorKennicottworeraccoonovercoat.Ifaladyworeanovelanduniquedress,otherswoulddefinitelyinvestigateherfromheadtofeet,andpeopleinGopherPrairiecarednothingaboutthedressbuttheprice.Carol’sclothesvividlyexpressedherbeautyandlivelyinnermind.Asadaughterofajudge,CarolwasborninMinnesota.Aftergraduatedfromuniversity,shewenttoworkinalibraryinSt.Paul.Threeyearslater,withthedesireofreformingasmalltown,shemarriedtothefamouslocaldoctorWillKennicott,andsettleddowninGopherPrairie.Asanewly-weddedwifeofthedoctorKennicott,Carol’sarrivalwasabigeventintheupperclassofthetown,sothewholecelebritiesofthetowngatheredinSamClark’snewly-builthousetowelcomeCarol.Inordertoattendthisgrandgathering,Carolcarefullydressedup:“Herfrockwasaningénueslipoflawn,withawidegoldsashandalowsquareneck,whichgaveasuggestionofthroatandmoldedshoulders.”(56)Carol’sclothesshowedthatsheisslim,lively,andfullofenergy.Herstyleofdressingalsocausedhergreattroubleinthetown.Heryouthfulimageandthevillagepeople’slifelessdressinghabitsformedasharpcontrast.Atthesametime,herrebelagainsttherigiddressinghabitsofthetowncreatedbadimplicationsofCarol’sfuture.Withoutquestion,Carol’sappearanceimmediatelyarousedpeople’saversion.GuyPollockoncesaidtoCarolthatpeople“havetobesocorrectaboutsexmorals,andinconspicuousclothes,anddoingourcommercialtrickeryonlyinthetraditionalways,thatnoneofuscanliveuptoit,andwebecomehorriblyhypocritical”.(175)WearinginconspicuousclotheswasthecommonlyaccepteddressingcodeinGopherPrairie.CarolcarefullypreparedaChinesestylewarmhouseparty,wishingtobringsomefreshnesstotheboringlifeofGopherPrairie.SheespeciallypreparedaChinese13 styledressforthewarmhouseparty.ChoosingtheexoticChinesestyledresswastocoordinatewiththeChinesestylepartyaswellastoinspirethosenarrow-minded,shallowpeople.Carolhopedthatshecouldhelpthevillagepeopleunderstandthattheworldoutsidewasverysplendid.Moreimportantly,sheusedheruniquedresstochallengeandresistthetown’sconservativetradition.WhenCarolappears,“Theysawanairyfigureintrousersandcoatofgreenbrocadeedgedwithgold;ahighgoldcollarunderaproudchin;blackhairpiercedwithjadepins;alanguidpeacockfaninanout-stretchedhand;eyesupliftedtoavisionofpagodatowers.”(95)Herbeautiful,gorgeousimagenotonlymadetheguestsstunnedatpresent,evenherhusbandwassurprised.Fromtheeyesoftheguests,Carolsawtheirastonishmentandenvy.However,theydidnotpraiseherforthebeautyshehadbroughttothem;insteadtheymockedandaccusedher.TheirmockeryandcriticismshowedthattheywereenvyofCarol’sboldnessinchoosingherbeautifuldresses,andtheywerejustlackthecouragetochallengethelocalconservativedressingconventions.WhenCarolworeherbeautifulnewsuits,itinevitablymadeherthetargetforthetownspeopletoinvestigate.Infact,peopleinGopherPrairiewerealsolikebeautiful,freshclothes,buttheywerenotallowedtoacceptthenewthings,theybelievedthatcomplyingwiththesurroundingenvironmentisavirtue.Anotherexampletorevealthetownspeople’sintolerancetouniqueclotheswastheencounteroftheSwedishtailorEric:“Heworeabrownjerseycoat,adelft-bluebow,andapairofwhiteflanneltrousers.Hesuggestedtheoceanbeach,atenniscourt,anythingbutthesun-blisteredutilityofMainStreet.”(351)Whatahandsome,sunshineandyouthfulimage!Andhisimagewasfarbeyondtheaverage,idlehusbandsinGopherPrairie.Lewisshapedsuchagorgeousimagewithahumblesocialstatuswastorebelthe“aristocratic”conceitandconservatisminGopherPrairie.ThesamewithCarol,Ericalsobecamethetargetofmockeryandcriticisminthetown,theylaughedathimfordressinglikeafemaledramaplayer.14 PeopleinGopherPrairiesneeredatCarol’suniquedressingstylebecauseofenvy,theylaughedatEricwasbecausetheycouldnottoleratethatpeoplefromthelowerclasseshavebetterdressingtastethanthem.Thiswasthetypicalmentalityoftheupperclasspeopleinthetown.Inthelatterpartofthenovel,therecameanewdressmakerandmilliner–Mrs.Swiftwaite.ShehadmadeforRitaGouldanorgandyfrockandahatwhichwasuniversallyrecognizedas“toogoodtodescribe”.Asaresult,theladiesinGopherPrairieallcametovisitMrs.Swiftwaite.Usually,thetown’swomeninGopherPrairieliketowanderagainandagainintheshop,becausetheycouldnotdecidewhichsuitsthembest.ButCarolhasherownopinionofdressing;sheisdecisiveandconfidentinmakingherchoicewhenselectingclothes:“WithnoneofthespiritualpreparationwhichnormallyprecedesthebuyingofnewclothesinGopherPrairie,CarolmarchedintoMrs.Swiftwatie’s,anddemanded,‘Iwanttoseeahat,andpossiblyablouse’.”(373)AlthoughMrs.SwiftwaiteboastedoffthatsheknewthegenuinefashionstyleinNewYork,Caroldidnotlikeherdresses.However,whenshearrivedathome,thewordsofMrs.Swiftwaiteprovokedherdeepthinking.Onceshewastheenergeticyounggirlcamefrombigcity,everyoneinthetownadoredher,butnow,shehasbecomeatypicalsmall-townwomanabsolutely.Andsheshouldbe“modestandmoralandsafe,andprotectedfromlife”allthetime.Thatwastheoutcomeof“villagevirus”,butthelocalpeopleregarditasthevillagevirtue.Carolhasrealizedtheerosionof“villagevirus”toherself.Shefoundthatshehasbecomeapale,idlesmalltownwomanfromthegorgeousenergeticurbangirl.WhenshefirstcametoGopherPrairie,shewasthespotlightofthelocalwomen.Butnow,sheevenwantedtoimitateFernMullins–thenewschoolteachercamefromcity.The“villagevirus”notonlyinfluencedthelocalpeople’sdressinghabits,butalsoerodedtheoutsiderswhocamehereforacertaintime.Theoutsiderseitherbecameassimilatedbythelocaltradition,orbeexpelledbythetownbecauseofthestrongcontradictionwiththelocalconservativeconventions.15 C.TheUnsoundCulturalandPublicFacilitiesThepursuitofmaterialismisatypicalembodimentofAmericanpragmatism.Fromtheendofthe19thcentury,theindustrialproductionbegantoflourishintheUnitedStates.Andthegreatdevelopmentofproductivitybroughtaboutincreasingmaterialproductioncapacity.Tomaximizetheirbenefits,themanufacturesmustselltheproductssmoothly.Andthispropelledpeopletoworkhardandmakemoremoney.Therefore,mercenarywasveryprevailingatthattime,andnotonlythementalityofcapitalowners,butalsothepublicmentalitywascontaminatedbythispsychology.AllcollectivespaceinGopherPrairiewasbuiltforthemiddleclasstomeettheirmaterialrequirements.Eventheculturalspacewhichshouldbebuilttomeettheresidents’spiritualneedsbecamethetooltovarnishthetown’sculturaldepth.InMainStreet,thematerialinterestsinfluencedallaspectsofsociallife,andthepursuitofinterestsbecamealmostthecenterofallactions.Therefore,thevillageauthoritiesdidnotpayattentiontotheestablishmentofpublicfacilities.Inevitably,thetown’spublicfacilitieswerenotsoundorcomplete.CarolwasencouragedbyKennicott’sagitation,andcametotransformtheappearanceofGopherPrairieeagerly.Andshealsowantedtobecomeaspiritualteachertoeducatethenumbtownspeople.Thetownwaslackofsoundpublicandculturalfacilities.Afterexaminingthebleak,inconspicuouscityhall,Carolproposedaplantorebuildit.ShewantedtobuildaGeorgianstylecityhallwithwarmbrickwallswithwhiteshutters,awidehallandcurvingstair.Itshouldcontainthecourt-room,publiclibrary,acollectionofexcellentbooks,andrest-roomwithmodelkitchenforfarmwives,theater,lectureroom,freecommunityballroom,andgymnasium.Shesoughtsupportfromtheupper-classladies,buttheydismissedherideawithalaugh.Actually,thehusbandsofseveralmembersinthewomen’sreadingclubarerichmerchantswhowereinchargeofthepoliticalandeconomiclifelinesofGopherPrairie.Carolthoughtthatitmustbeoutofquestiontogettheirhusbands’help,soshecametovisitthewealthyandpowerfulladiesandtheirhusbandsinthetownone16 byone,hopingtomobilizethemtodonatesomemoneytobuildabeautifulandpracticalcityhall.WhenshevisitedMrs.Cassforcontributingmoneyofthenewcityhall,Mrs.CasssaidthattheyhadpaidenoughtaxesandshequicklychangedthetopictoMrs.Westlake’spaperaboutTolstoyinthereadingclub.Mrs.Cass’answerwasexactlylikewhatKennicotthadtoldherbefore.Thereformplangotintotroubleonallsides,allthewealthymenrefusedtodonatemoney.CarolrecoveredherzealwhenMrs.GeorgeEdwinMott–thewifeofthesuperintendentofschooltoldhertheschoolbuildingwasterriblycramped.Carolvisitedtheoldbuildingimmediately,andshefoundtheprimaryschoolandthemiddleschoolwerecombinedinadampyellow-brickhousewithnarrowwindows.TheschoolwaslikeaprisonshiptoCarol,andshefeltsheshouldhelpMrs.Motttorebuildtheschoolbuilding.ButCarol’sdecisionwasstronglyobjectedbyMrs.DaveDyer.ShesaidthatMrs.Mottjustwantherhusbandhaveanewofficeroomthroughthereconstructionoftheschoolbuilding.AndMrs.Mottkeptsayingthattheschoolneedsreconstructionandpeopleallfeltsickofhernagging.Intheeyesofthemiddleclassladiesofthetown,theoldbuildingwasgoodenoughforthemwhentheywerekids,soitdidnotneedsrepairatall.Therefore,Carol’splanwasdismissedagain.WhenCarolsawthehelplessorphans,widowsandoldpeoplelivingintheshabbyshacksofthetown,shefeltextremelysympathetictowardsthem.And,shecameupwithanotherplantobuildasheltertohelpthepoorinthetown,butthisideawasalsoopposedbythecommitteeofthewomen’sreadingclub.Theythoughtthattheyhaddoneenoughthingstohelpthepoor:theyhadsetuparestroomforthepeasantwomen,helpedtoplanttrees,heldtheactivityofkillingflies,andtheygavethepoorpeoplealotofworkformakingmoney,forexamplegivingdirtyclothestothemwhentheirmaidscouldnotmanagetowash.ThewealthyladiesthoughtthattherewasnorealpovertyinGopherPrairie,ifsomeonewaspoor;itisbecauseheorsheislazy.Thepubliclibraryalmostexistedinnameonly,peopleinthetownonlyborrowchildrenbooks,womenethicsandreligiousworksfromit.MembersoftheLibrary17 Committeewereonlyinterestedintraditionalbibliographies,insteadofintroducingandpresentingthegreatliteraryworkstotheresidents,theycaredmoreabouttheseventeencentscashgapofthelibrary.WhenCarolwasappointedasamemberofthePublicLibraryCommittee,shethoughtthatshefinallygotachancetorealizeherdream,andsheintendedtoreformthelibrarycompletely.Firstly,shemobilizedKennicotttodonatefifteendollarsforthelibrary,andnext,onthemeetingofthecouncilboard,sheexcitedlyaskedeverycommitteemembertodonatethesamemoneytobuyfiftybookswhichwereurgentlyneededbythelibrary.However,membersofcommitteefiercelyopposedtothisproposalbysayingthattheycouldnotopenthebadprecedent.Asamatteroffact,themembersattachedlittleimportanceonCarol’splan.Theyspenthalfanhour,madebigeffortstoinvestigatethecashshortageofseventeencentsagainandagain.Otherpublicfacilitiesinthetownonlyincludedasmallwoodentheater,apostofficeinamildewedroom.Foratime,Carolthoughtshewascompletelydefeated.However,shestillstickstoherownlinefirmlydeepinherheart,andwillnevergiveintotheconservativeforces.Allinall,themiddleclasspeopleinGopherPrairiecaredonlyaboutthematerialprofitsofthemselves;theypaidlittleattentiontothelackofproperculturalandpublicfacilities.18 ChapterTwoThe“VillageVirus”inSpiritualCultureSpiritualcultureisacrucialcomponentofculture,anditisthereflectionofpeople’sideologicalconcept,folkcustoms,religiousbeliefsandindividualpsychologyandsoon.Itdecidespeople’sstateofmindandtheirspirituallife.The“villagevirus”influencesindividuals’spiritualworlddirectly,asaresult,thevillageresidentsbecameprovincial,emptyandweakintheirminds.Becauseofthe“villagevirus”,thetownspeopleinGopherPrairiewereself-conceited,narrow-mindedandcouldnotacceptanynewideas.Thischapterwillillustratethe“villagevirus”indetailfromthethreeaspects:thearroganceandnarrow-mindednessofvillagepeople,thetediousnessofculturalandrecreationalactivitiesofvillagepeople,andtheweaknessofthevillageintellectuals.A.TheArroganceandNarrow-mindednessofVillagepeopleConservatismwasthepublicconsciousnessofGopherPrairie,anyideawhichwasdifferentfromthestandardwouldbetreatedextremely.Thevillagepeoplewereusedtotheirboringroutinelifeandrefusedtoreinventthemselves,andonthecontrary,theyintendedtotamethepeoplewhowanttoreformthetown.InGopherPrairie,therewasalsoaprevailingviewthatthetownhasbothgloriousandsplendidpastandpromisingfuture.Infact,thepastgloryhasfaded,andthefutureofthetownisvague.Inthenovel,Lewisportrayedthecomplacenceoflocalresidencesincisivelyandvividly.Theyindulgeinthiskindofsmugattitudenumbly,anddenyanyideaandpracticeofchanging.AsthecenterofAmericanculturein1920s,smalltownslikeGopherPrairieperfectlycombinedtheforeigncultureandtheaboriginalculture.Thesmalltownwithrailwayalsomastersitsowneconomy,andkeepstheambitionofbecomingabigcity.PeopleinGopherPrairiefirmlybelievedthetowncouldeasilybecomeabigcitylikeSt.PaulandMinneapolis.Theresidentsinthetownwerepretentious,short-sighted,stubborn,stingyand19 narrow-minded.Thenarrow-mindednessandstubbornnesswasverypowerful,thevillagersreveledintheexistingwayoflifeandrefusedtomakeanychange.Tothem,GopherPrairiewastheperfecttownintheworld,andthetownwasfullofcomfortablehouses,electriclightsandcars.Therewerefullofworkopportunities,ifsomeone’slifewasnotsogood,thatmustbecausehewastoolazy.Andthetownwasthehomeofmanycelebrities.Forexample,GopherPrairiewasthehometownofgreatmanlikePercyBresnahan,hewasthepresidentofamotorcorporationinBoston–amillionaire,andallthevillagerswereproudofhim.Thesmalltownwaswithoutvigorandindividuality,evenpeople’swayofgreetingisthesame.Thementallypoorvillagersholdpartieswithexactlysameperformanceseverytime,thewomen’sreadingclubneverholdmeaningfulactivities.WhenCarolfirstcametoGopherPrairie,sherecognizedthetown’sparochialismimmediately.Andshetiredherbesttosowtheseedsofknowledge,andfreedomtopeople,andtoenrichthespiritualworldoftownresidents.Butthearrogantsmalltownresidentswereconservativeanddull,andtheyfeltsatisfiedwiththeirrigidlives.Carolbegantothinkaboutideastoreformpeople’sspiritualmindsinthesmalltown.Firstly,shewantedtochangethetraditionalroutinemodeofholdingpartieswithheruniquehousewarmingparty,butshereceivedsharpcriticismfromtheconservativepowersinGopherPrairie.Sheputforwardtheimprovementplanforthecityhall,andtriedtoseekthesupportfromtheupperclassladies,butshewastotallyignored.Thetownresidentsweresatisfiedwithmateriallife,andtheirspirituallifewasalsoverybarren.Caroljoinedthewomen’sreadingclub,hopingtofindaplacefortolearnknowledge,howeveritsmembersonlyregarditasanartyclub,andtheirstudyofpoetryonlyconfinedtotheintroductionoftheauthors.Inthewomen’sreadingclub,sheencouragedthemembersreadmoreinsightfulliteraryworks,butshewasrefutedthatthosebookswithnewideasaretooradical.Inthewomen’sreadingclub,Carolcouldnotseeanyhope.Inthedramaclub,sheorganizedaplayTheGirlfromKankakeetoenrichpeople’sculturallife,butagainhereffortwasruinedbytheconservatives.The20 membersofthedramaassociationwerearrogantandself-conceited.Somemembersjustcametotherehearsalroomoccasionally,andtheythoughttheyhavebecometheliterarymagnatesofthetown.AndEllaStowbodyregardedherselfastheprofessionalactressandwasquiteunhappyaboutherunimportantroleintheplay.Theyallbelievedthattheywereofgreatimportancetotheassociation.CarolwantedtoreformthetownfromcultivatingKennicott’sinterestinpoetry,butKennicottwasunwillingtoreadpoems.Hesearchedforexcusestoescapefromthepoemclassforthreetimes.Andinthefourthnight,Carolurgedhimtoappreciatethepoemswithher.Thedoctor’sbewildermentandsufferingmadeCarolfeelsorry.Intheend,Caroldecidednottotortureherhusbandanymore.WhenCarolfinallyfoundthetown’stailorEriclovesreading,shewastouchedbyEric’sstruggleformakingprogress,sosheprovidedalotofhelpandencouragetotheyoungtailor.Carol’sbehaviormadehersufferfromslanderousgossipintheconservativeGopherPrairie.AllthesesocialactivitiesshowedthedefeatofCarol’sreformincompetingwiththearrogantnarrow-mindedconservativepowers.ItisconceivablethatCarol’seffortsofreformingthetownwillgetcompletelyrejection.InGopherPrairie,peopleshouldbe“modest,moral,safe,andprotectedfromlife”.Nomatterherbehaviorisrightorwrong,shewasseverelycriticizedbecausesheoffendedthelocalprinciple.Hernovel,extravagantpartywasdenounced.Evenherpersonalaffairscouldnotescapethevillagepeople’scriticaljudgment:hernewlydecoratedroomwascriticizedtobestrange,herdresswastooexpensive.Surroundedbytheseshort-sighted,small-borepeople,Carolwasdoomedtobedefeated.Asamanifestationof“villagevirus”,people’sarroganceandnarrow-mindednessaffectedtheoutsiders’life.Theoutsidershavetoaccepttheerosionofthe“villagevirus”orleavethetown.ThereisnodoubtthatCarolwasawareofthesmalltown’sboringlife,andpeople’snarrow-mindedness.Shehasadoptedaseriesofmeasurestofightagainstthevirus,butalltheseactionshavefailedintheend.Themiddleclassconstructedtheirsocialstatusthroughtheconsumptionofthesymbolicvaluesofgoods.CarolcriticizedHarryHaydockforhislookingdownupon21 thepoorpeasants.Thesesocalledeliteladiesdonotlikethemaidsorpeasantwomendressedlikepeopleinthetown,andtheydespisethefarmers’purchasingofconsumergoodssuchasvehicles,householdappliancesasawaytomaintaintheirsocialstatus.Infact,inaconsumptionsociety,theupperclassjustusetheoccupationofcertaincommoditiestoconstructtheirownsocialstatus,andtheystrictlyforbidthelowerclasspeople’strespass,iftheirconsumptionmodehasbeenimitatedbytheunderprivilegedpeople,theywillpursuenewconsumergoods,andreconstructtheirownpositions.ThemiddleclasspeopleinGopherPrairiewerearrogantandlackofcompassiontowardsthelowerclasspeople.Theconservativerichpeopleinthetownattackedallcommentsthatinfluencetheirprofits.Thebusinessmeninthetowncolludedwiththerailwaytransportationdepartment,theycutoffthefarmers’externalmarketofagriculturalproducts,andforcedthefarmersselltheirproductsatunreasonableprice.Theygotrichbysqueezingthefarmers,andtheywereinextremelycontempttothefarmersatthesametime.Moreover,theywantedtomonopolythelowerclasspeople’smindandlifestyle.Althoughthemiddleclasspeopleusuallyintrigueagainsteachother,theywereundoubtedlyagainstthelowerclasspeople.Carolonceoverheardafarmer’scomplainofthemerchantsinGopherPrairie.Themerchantsinthetownwouldn’tpaythemadecentpricefortheirproducts,andtheydonotallowthemtotransporttheproductstothecitiessothatthefarmerscouldonlyselltheproductsataverylowprice.Thelawyerscheatedthem,themachinerydealersneverallowthemtopayoffthedebtslaterinbadyears,andthemerchantsinthetowntookthefarmerasabunchofhoboes.Andthefarmerhatedthetownsobitterlythathewouldliketoburnit.Afterhearingthis,Kennicottsaid:“There’sthatoldcrankWesBranniganshootingoffhismouthagain.Gosh,buthelovestohearhimselftalk!Theyoughttorunthatfellowoutoftown!”(248)Kennicottwasoftenregardedasarelativelyenlightenedcharacterinthetown.Butevenheconsideredthefarmer’swordswerenonsenseandwantedtorunthatfarmeroutofthetown.Itcanbeconcludedfromthisincidentthatthemiddleclasspeoplewasarrogantandcrueltothelowerclasspeople.22 “TheRedSwede”MilesBjornstamwasaskillfulcraftsman,atheist,andhemadehislivingbydoingcasuallabors.Hedaredtopublishdisrespectfulwordstotheelitesofthetown.Sohewasdiscriminatedbytherulingclassofthetowndespitehishardworkingandgoodskill.Despitetheirdifferentsocialclasses,CarolmadefriendswithhermaidBeaandtheSwedefamerBjornstam.Shetreatedthemequallyandregardedthemasgoodfriends,andthiswascriticizedbythevillagediehards.LaterBeaandBjornstamfellinlovewitheachotheranddecidedtogetmarried.Carolhelpedthemalotintheirweddingceremony.SheaskedthematronstoattendtheceremonyofBeaandBjornstam,buttheyallrefusedtogo.ThearrogantmatronsbelievedtheyandtheSwedefamilybelongtodifferentsocialclass,andtheywerenoblerthanthecouple.Finally,therewereonlyfiveguestsfromthetownattendtheceremony–Carol,Kennicott,GuyPollock,andtheChampPerrys,andtheywereallbroughtbyCarol.Later,CarolalwaystookhersonHughtoplaywithBea’ssonOlaf.EvenDoctorKennicottbelievedthesonofaformer“Swedemaid”wasinalowerplacethanthesonofDr.Kennicott.WhenBeaandhersongottyphoid,Caroltookafterthemcarefully.Thehypocriticalladiesfromthetowncametovisitthesickmotherandson.ButBjornstamdrovethemaway,becauseBeawasalwaysexpectingtheirvisitsincerely,buttheyneverappeared,andnowitwastoolatetotalktoher.Thenextday,Bjornstam’srebufftoVidaonthefuneralspreadquicklyinthetown,andarousedbigfury.FinallyBjornstamleftindespair,andbecamethevictimofclassprejudiceinthetown.Peopleinthetownwerebenightedandignorant.Insteadoftryingtolearnmoreknowledgeandacceptnewthings,theywereproudoftheirignoranceandfeltateaseabouttheirignorance.Theyfollowedtheoldprinciples,andtheywerefirmlyopposedtothetenetsofnewthoughts,newideaswhichmaydisdaintheiroldbeliefs.23 B.TheTediousnessofCulturalandRecreationalActivitiesofVillagePeopleIntheearly20thcentury,Americanindustrydevelopedquickly.Therapidexpansionofcapitalismstimulatedpeople’smaterialdesire,andmadepeopleneglecttheirspirituallife.Withsomanyboringanddrabresidentslivinginthedullsmalltown,theculturalandrecreationalactivitiesinthevillagewereinevitablytedious.Toenjoytheirlivesandshowofftheirsocialstatus,themiddleclasspeopleinGopherPrairietookpartinendlessdancingparties,dinners,bridgeparties,andotheractivities.T.K.Whipplesaidthe“mainstreet”“isasocialdesert,thehumandesert.Itisalsoasocialvacuum,becauseeverymemberconsistedofthegroupisanihilisticfrompersonalmeaning”7.Thelifeofsmalltownwaschangeless.Shoppingmeansgoingtothesameshops,meetingsamepeople,eventhewaysofgreetingarethesame.Inthesmalltown,mencareonlyaboutmoneyandhunting,andwomencareonlytheirhouseworkandthebridgegames.Underthiscondition,itisnothingstrangethattheirspiritworldislikeadesert.Inessence,thelifeinGopherPrairieisemptyandwithoutanyrealmeaning.TheculturalactivitiesinGopherPrairiewerenotscarce,buttheseeminglyelegantculturalactivitieswereallshallowandperfunctory.TheJollySeventeenwasthemostobviousembodimentoftheupper-class’emptyspiritualandculturallifeinGopherPrairie.TheJollySeventeenwasthemostrepresentativefellowshipclubinthetown,anyonewhojoinedtheclubwillrankamongtheupperclassinthetown.MembersoftheJollySeventeenweremostlymarriedyoungwomen,andtheirhusbandsalsotheunofficialmembersoftheclub.Theyholdonewomenbridgemeetingeveryweek,onebridgepartyeverymonth,andtwoballsinthefreemasonryhalleveryyear.ThemostimportantactivityoftheJollySeventeenwasplayingbridge.Carolwasleftoutbythevillagematronsbecauseshehadnotyetlearnedthegameatfirst.24 Peopletalkedthetrivialthingswitheachotherwhileplaying.ThewivestalkedaboutallthedomesticintimaciesfranklywhichsurprisedCarol.ThehostessservedtypicalGopherPrairierefreshmentsaftertheirgames.Astheprimaryculturalorganizationofthecommunity,theJollySeventeenwasnotaplaceprovidingculturalandspiritualcultivationforpeopleinGopherPrairie,butaplatformforrichpeopletokilltheirtime.TheThanatopsiswasagroupwhichputpeopleintouchwithalltheintellectualthoughts.ItheldweeklymeetingsclaimingtodiscussEnglishpoetry,butinfact,theyjustintroducethelivesandmajorworksofthegreatpoets,andtheyneveranalyzetheessenceoftheworks.WhenCarolwasinvitedtotheweeklymeetingoftheThanatopsisforthefirsttime,sheasked“Whatpoetdoyoutakeuptoday?”Theyansweredher“theEnglishones”.(141)ThemembersoftheThanatopsissattherelazily,atepeppermints.TheytalkedaboutthehometownofShakespeare,andmentionedTheMerchantofVenice–Shakespeare’smostfamousplayintheiropinion,andimmediatelychangedthetopicintootherpoets’lives.TheygaveahurriedandcursoryglanceatByron,Scott,Burns,BrowningandTennysonwithinonemeeting.Thentheydecidedthenexttopicoftheirmeetinghappily.Carolfeltsurprisedattheirattitudetowardsliterature,sosheproposedthatmaybetheycouldtakeuponepoetandtalkaboutsomeactualquotationsfromtheirworks,butsurelyshewasdeclined.Tothepretentiousladiesfrom“mainstreet”,theappreciationofEnglishpoetswasaseasyastheirhousework.Itisabsurdthattheythoughttheyhaveraisedtheirliteraryqualitiesthroughthe“saltedliteraturework”.UnderthecallofCarol,peopleformedtheGopherPrairieDramaticAssociationtoenrichthespirituallifeofthecommunity.However,itbecameavulgarfarcebecauseoftheperformers’incapabilityandself-conceit.Atfirst,Carolwasambitiousaboutthefutureoftheassociation,andshewantedtoimprovetheresidents’artisticappreciationabilitythroughtheplay–TheGirlfromKankakee.Shemadegreateffortstopreparethisplay,andovercomemanydifficultiesinrehearsal.Butfinally,shewastotallydisappointedwiththeperformance.The25 actorswereverynervousandexaggerate:GuyPollockstammeredallthetime,VidaSherwinchatteredallthetimeonthestageassheshouldbetimid,andtheheroineJuanitawasindifferenttotheheroasifshewasrepeatinghershoppinglistatthegrocery.Andthetheatricalscenerywassoflimsyandcarless.Moreimportantly,thewholeperformancewaslackoftheessentialemotions.Shethoughttheplaywasveryembarrassingandevenher“comrade”Bjorstamcouldnotbeartheplayandleftafterthefirstacthadbeenfinished.ThefailureoftheplaywasbecauseCaroltriedto“carveintagliosingoodjackpine”.(246)Theactorswereindifferenttotheplayandtheyoftenabsentedfromtherehearsal.Andthemembersweretooself-contented.WithitsheadquartersinNewYork,thecommercialChautauquacompanieswereeverywhereacrossthecountry,whichgavelecturersandentertainerstopeopleinsmalltowns.ThecomingofChautauquagaveCarolhopethatthereareothersdoingthesameinstructivethingsjustlikesheattempted.However,theChautauquaonlygaveemptyandnoinspirationalspeeches,theytalkedaboutthestruggleexperienceofthePresidentandthecapitalists,andtheprosperousscenesofbigcities.CarolwasdisappointedwhenshesawtheprogramoftheChautauqua.Itwasnotacondenseduniversityprograms,instead,itseemedtobeacombinationofvulgarperformance,YoungMen’sChristianAssociationlectures,andagraduationceremony.Carolgotnothingbutchaffandheavylaughterfromthelectures,buttheresidentsthoughttheyhavereceivedhigheducationfromthat.Similarly,therecreationalactivitieswerecompletelyboredominGopherPrairie.Theyoftenholdparties,butthepartieswereliketheroutinemeetingsofthecommittee.Theirgoalwasnothingmorethaninvitingthesamepeopleatthesametimetodothesamething;talkingaboutthesameboringandmalicioustopics;havingsamediscussiontowardsthefarmers,workers.Therefore,DaveDyer’sgameofcapturinghenswasneverlost,andMissStowbodywasinvitedagainandagaintorecitethepoem“MyOldValentine”.WhenCarolfirstcametoGopherPrairie,Kennicott’sfriendSamClarkheldawelcomeparty.Attheparty,peoplesattheretalkingtediousthings,andputon26 monotonousperformances.“DuringthewinterCarolwastohearDaveDyer’shen-catchingimpersonationseventimes,“AnOldSweetheartofMine”ninetimes,theJewishstoryandthefuneralorationtwice;butnowshewasardentand,becauseshedidsowanttobehappyandsimple-hearted,shewasdisappointedastheotherswhenthestuntswerefinished,andthepartiesinstantlysankbackintocoma.”(63)Carolgotboredwiththosechangelessperformances.Thoseactivitiesinthetowncouldneitherpleasetheguestsnortheperformersthemselves.Peoplejustregardthoseperformancesastheroutineofaparty.Theywereallhappytowatchtheperformances,butwhentheyhavefinished,peopleinstantlybecamenumb,andgaveuptryingtobefestive.AndthetownspeoplehadtoacceptthebondageoftheboringandtediouslifeinGopherPrairie.Tofightagainstthetown’sboring,tediousparties,CarolheldaChinesestylewarmhouseparty,shepreparedthegameofwolvesandsheep,andtheperformanceofthe“Chineseorchestra”dressedinancientorientalcostumes,anddaintyOrientalrefreshments.Theguestswerealldelightedatthattime.Althoughshemadegreatefforts,shestillcouldnotchangetheroutinepatternofpartyinthetown.Theweekafter,thetraditionalpartysoonreturnedbackinChetDashaways’home.Moreover,Carolwasaccusedofextravagance,waste,andconspicuity.Itmustbenotedthat,Lewis’realisticdepictionofthesegroupswasnotaccordingtopureimagination,theywereofhighcredibility.Lewislivedinasmalltownwhenhewasachild.InLewis’hometown,therewerealsosomewomensocialgroups.Hisstepmotherwasoneoftheactivistsofthesegroups.Lewiswasoftenexposedtothesegroupscloselywithhisstepmotherwhenhewasyoung,andthoseexperienceshaveleftadeepimpressiononhim.So,whenLewisdescribesaboutthesedetails,theywereveryconvenient.Inaword,alltheseeventsrevealedthetediousnessofculturalandrecreationalactivitiesofthevillagepeopleinGopherPrairie.27 C.TheWeaknessoftheVillageIntellectualsInthenovel,manyintellectualshaverealizedthatGopherPrairieisnotperfect,andtheywantedtotransformitintheirownways.TheseintellectualsmainlyincludedCarolKennicott,GuyPollockandVidaSherwin.Theyallreceivedcollegeeducationinbigcities,andcametoGopherPrairiewithambition.However,whentheyhavesettleddowninthevillageforyears,theybecamesensitive,numbandindifferent.Thereformersnotonlygotobstructionfromconservativeforcesinthesociety,butalsosufferfromtheirpersonalweakness.LocatedintheremotewestofAmerica,thetraditionalculture,deep-rootedmoralcodesstrictlybindthetown’ssocialorderandvaluesystem.Intheperiodofsocialtransition,thereformconsciousnessbegantoappearintheindustrializedandmodernsociety,butthenewconceptofreformingwastooweaktoestablishamaturevaluesystem.Asaresult,whenanindividualwithmodernreformconsciousnessentersanoldvaluespaceandfightagainstthetraditionalvalues,theindividualwouldinevitablyberejectedbytheinherentsystem.ThemostimportantvillageintellectualwastheheroineCarol.Shewasromantic,energeticandrebellious.Butshewasanunrealistic,impracticalreformer.CaroldreamedthatshecouldmakeGopherPrairieabeautiful,attractivetownthroughherownefforts.ShehadnoideaofhowstrongtheconservativeforceswereinGopherPrairie,andshewasunpracticalinmakingthetownmoreattractive.WhenshefirstmetDoctorKennicott,Carolwasverynaiveintheperceptionofreformingatown;shethoughtthatthedoctorcanhealatownphysically,andshecouldtransformatownmentally.Shewastoooptimisticinestimatingthesituationsinthetown,andoftencameupwithsomeimpulsiveideas.Shevisitedthetown’srichmen,hopingeveryonecoulddonatemoneyinreformingthetown.Aftershewasrejected,Carolcouldnotunderstandthereasonwhytherichpeopledonotwanttotakeouttheirmoney.ThelongerCarollivedinthetown,thebettershecouldunderstandthelocalpeople’spsychology.Carolgrewmaturefromrepeatedlydefeat.Andfinally,shebravelyfacesinthetownandputsthehopeofreformingthetownintothenextgeneration.FromthebeginningofCarol’slifeinGopherPrairie,shetriedherbesttofight28 againsttheprovincial,selfish,coldparochialism.Inspecific,CarolwantedtoreformtherigidbuildingsofthetownandenliventhelifelessspirituallifeinGopherPrairie.Sheheldoriginalpartiestoopenthevillagersmind;shecalledforthereconstructionoftheshabbycityhall,andtheoldschoolbuilding;sheadvisedthelocalauthoritiestohelptopoor,andshealsorehearsedaplaytoentertainthetownspeople.Shedidalltheseactivitiesenergetically,buttheywereallrejectedorcriticizedbythearrogant,stubbornpeopleinGopherPrairie.Inasense,CarolwasabletofeelthebackwardnessofGopherPrairie,butshecouldnotcomeupwithapracticalsolution.Carolalwayshadfierceconfrontationwiththesocialmalpracticesinthetown,thusthelocalconservativesgavehermercilessrepression.Ontheonehand,herhusbandKennicottdidnotunderstandher,andoftenbreakedupherconfidenceandstrengthfrominside.Ontheotherhand,shealsoreceivedrejectionfromoutside.Underthepredicamentfrominsideandout,Carolwasexhaustedanddarednottochallengethesocialhypocrisies.Afterthecontinuousdefeatinthetown,shebecameevasiveandunconfident.HerspirituallovewithEricwastheevidenceofhertimidityinchallengingthevillagevirus.Shewassodisappointedwiththetown,andshedidnotwanttotakeactionstoreformthetown.TheappearanceofEricgaveanescapeofCarol’snegativefeelingsandvoidlife.Ericwasanambitiousyoungmanwhowantedtobecomeanactor.HewasdifferentfromallthemalecharactersinGopherPrairie:hewaselegantinbehaviorandgorgeousinhisappearance.Inevitably,EricattractedCarol,andbecamethehopeofheranguish,despairlife.Thus,herlovewithEricinessencewasalsoakindofrebelliontothemoralcodesofGopherPrairie.Whentheirrelationshipwasrevealedtothepublic,itcertainlycausedherbigtrouble.Theirresponsibleallegationsmadehercouldnotstayinthetownanymore.SosheleftGopherPrairie.Herfinalreturntothe“mainstreet”wastheembodimentofherweakcharacter.Intheprocessofreformingthetown,Carolwasfullofself-doubt,retreatandcompromise,therootofherweaknesswasduetoherinnerambivalence.WhetherthetownwasinneedofthoroughtransformationornothasalwaysbeenthetangleofCarol,thiscanbeseenfromherfondnessofthetown’spastoralscene.Fromher29 childhood,Carolwaslookingforwardtocountryside,evenwhenshestudiedandworkedinbigcitieslikeMinneapolisandStPaul,shealwayswenttotheMississippiRiverinsearchofruralbreath.Shelovesnature,andregardsnatureasthepurelandofheart.EspeciallywhenshewasfrustratedinGopherPrairie,thepastorallandscapearoundthetownwastheonlyplaceshecanreclaimherself.ThebeautifulsceneryofnaturegaveherfreshairandletherforgetthedefeatinthetownofGopherPrairie.Butasamiddleclassintellectual,Carolknewmoreaboutthecitylife,andsheknewtherurallandscapewillfadeawayinthecourseofurbanization.Howtobalancetherelationshipbetweenherreformandnaturemadeherfeelcontradicted.Carol’sambivalencewasarepresentativeofthemiddleclasspsychologyinthetransitionalperiod.Ontheonehand,theyexpectedsocialreformwhichcouldchangethebackwardappearanceofthecountry;Ontheotherhand,theyappreciatedthequietlifeofthecountry,anddidnotwanttheindustrialcivilizationoverturnthisgoodness.Thedifferentvaluesofindustrycivilizationandagriculturalcivilizationcausedboundlessconflictandcontradiction,andthiscontradictiondecidedthattheycouldnotfindaneffectivewaytoreformthetown.CarolwasnottheonlyonewhohatedthesocialmaladiesinGopherPrairie,thelawyerGuyPollockandthevillageteacherVidaSherwinwereallwantedtotransformthetown.GuyPollockwasanothertypicalintellectualimageinthenovel,andhisrebelliousspiritwascompletelyrepressedbythelocalconservatismforces.Asanadvancedmiddleclasslawyer,GuyknewclearlytheillnessofGopherPrairie,anditwashewhopresentstheideaof“villagevirus”.ThemostobviousweaknessofGuyPollockwasthathedidnothavethestrongwilltomakeanyrealreformationtothetown.WhenCarolfirstmetGuy,shediscoveredapersonalityfromhim.Hewasgentleandquietandextremelydeferential.HelovesSirThomasBrowne,Thoreau,AgnesRepplierandotherwriters.Caroladmiredhisartistictasteandthoughtshefinallyfindsalike-mindedfriendthatcouldhelphertorealizeherdream.InacoldeveningwhenKennicottwasaway,CarolvisitedthePerrys.Theywere30 notathome,soCarolknockedthenextdoor–GuyPollock’soffice.WhatimpressedCarolwasarowofoldMoshereditionofthepoetsandaCharlesLambonhisshelf.HewasoneofthosepeoplewhoreallyreadinGopherPrairie.Theytalkedaboutwhatisthematterwiththetown,andGuyclearlyexplainedthe“villagevirus”:TheVillageVirusisthegermwhich—it’sextraordinarilylikethehookworm—itinfectsambitiouspeoplewhostaytoolongintheprovinces.Youwillfinditepidemicamonglawyersanddoctorsandministersandcollege-bredmerchants—allthesepeoplewhohavehadaglimpseoftheworldthatthinksandlaughs,buthavereturnedtotheirswamp.(173)The“villagevirus”wassopowerfulthatalltheoutsideintellectualswouldbeinfectedwiththevirus.GuyPollockwasborninasmalltowninOhio,andhereceivededucationinNewYorkwherehestudiedlaw,readextensivelyandoftenwenttosymphonies.WhenhearrivedinGopherPrairie,hesworehe’dkeepuphisinterests.Hewasatalentedandambitiousman,butafterhesettleddowninGopherPrairie,hecaughtthe“villagevirus”gradually.Hereadcheapfiction-magazinesandputofftheMinneapolistripofgoingtothetheater.Heoncedecidedtoleavethisplace,buthefoundthevirushadgraspedhimtightly;hehasusedtotheeasylifeinthesmalltown,anddidnotwanttofacenewstreetsandyoungermen–realcompetition.Healsocomplainedthebackwardappearanceandtheconservativeforcesofthetown,buthegraduallybecameamemberofthetown,heletthevirusspreadsinhim,andhecompletelybelongedtothetownintheend.CarolrealizedthatalthoughGuystillloveselegantthings,GuybelongedtoGopherPrairietotally.Hewasnottheromanticmessengerfromtheworldoutsideonwhomshecouldcountforescape.Theybecametotallystrangers,andwhentheymetagaininthehigh-schoolcommencementday,Caroljustfoundthatshehadnothingtotalktohim.AnothercharacterwhowantedtochangetheappearanceofGopherPrairiewasVidaSherwin.ShewasborninasmallvillageinWisconsinwhereherfatherwasa31 poorminister,shelaboredthroughhercollegeandtaughtfortwoyearsinableakandshabbysmalltownandthencametoGopherPrairiewhereshethoughtwasinparadise.Vidawasandalwayswouldbeareformerandaliberal.Shebelievedthatdetailscouldbealtered,butthat“thingsingeneral”werereasonableandkindandimmutable.Vida’sbiggestweaknesswasthatsheonlywantedtochangeGopherPrairiethroughsomesuperficialreforms.Shethoughtthepracticalthingsthatwillmakeahappierandprettiertownwereactuallybeingdone,forexample,theThanatopsisClub,thepeasants’rest-room,thefightagainstmosquitoes.Allthesethingswerenotfantasticanddistant,butimmediateandsure.Inasense,theimmigrantfarmerMilesBjornstamwasanindependentperson;althoughhedidnotreceivededucation,hehadanindependentmind.HelovesreadingbooksandtalkingaboutthesocialreformswithCarol.Bjornstamderidedthecustomofthetown,andhedaredtoopenfiretotheimpropervillageconventions.Becauseofhisboldwordsandactions,hewasrejectedbythemiddleclassofthetown.Thethreevillageintellectualswerealleducatedoutsidersofthetown.Theyhaveexperiencedthecomprehensivecultureinbigcities.TheyhaverealizedthebackwardnessofGopherPrairieandfightagainstthevillagevirusthroughdifferentways.Although,theywerealldefeated,theirexplorationswereofgreatimportance.Inconclusion,thereasonsoftheirfailurewere:tooradicalinmakingreforms,lackingofstrongwillandcarryingoutsuperficialreforms.32 ChapterThreeThe“VillageVirus”inInstitutionalCultureCultureismeaningfulonlywhenitwasidentifiedbypeople,andwhenakindofculturewasacceptedbycertaincommunitymembers,itbecametheInstitutionalculture.Institutionalcultureincludescommunityorder,etiquette,customsrules,andthecodeofinterpersonalrelationships.Inthelate19thcenturyandearly20thcentury,duetothedevelopmentoftheindustrialtowns,thesmallruraltownswerenolongerimportantintheU.S.economy.Astheincreasingofconsumergoodsandconsumermarket,coupledwiththepopularizationofcars,supermarketsandtheshoppingcenters,theMidwestoftheUnitedStateswasapproachingtoits“disaster”–thesimple,straightforwardfeaturesofthesmalltownsweregraduallyblurred,andthewarm-heartedwesternspirithasceasedtoexist.Thevirusofmercenaryandmaterialisminthetownerodedpeople’slivesfrommanyaspects.Thischapterwillillustrate“villagevirus”indetailfromthethreeaspects:thestandardizedlifestyle;theconspicuouspatternofconsumption;theunequalstatusofmenandwomeninloveandmarriage.Thestandardizedlifestyleandtheconspicuouspatternofconsumptionwereformedunderthebackgroundofrapidindustrializationandcommercialization,andthesocialconventionsrelatedtoloveandmarriagewasformedbythepertinacioustraditions.A.TheStandardizedLifestyleIn1920s,theAmericansmalltownsdeclinedinitsimportance,buttheidealimaginationoftheinnocent,harmoniousvillagelifestillexistedinpeople’smind.SinclairLewisexposedthetruthofAmericansmalltownsinMainStreet.Withtheadventofmechanicalrevolution,peopleintroducedthesteam-poweredtractorandthreshertotheMidwestwheatandcornproducingareas.Thestandardizedmodeofproduction,landspeculationandrailwaymonopolyhadactuallydestroyedpeopleideal“worldgarden”.Asaresult,thestandardizedlifestylereplacedthesimplerurallifestyleinthecountry.33 ThelifeinGopherPrairiewasrigidandconservative.Formen,iftheywanttobeacceptedbythetown’sresidents,theyjustneedtolikedrivingacar,hunting,andbelievedinGodandsenator,theycouldeasilyincorporateintothesmalltownlife.Forwomen,theirfocusoflifewastotakecareofthehouseworkandraisechildren.Inthenovel,thereweretwoimportantitemsinmodernhouseholdconsumption:standardizedhousingandautomobile.TheyembodiedtheextensionofFordism8productioninthefieldofconsumption.Fordismdescribesthemoderneconomicsystembasedonthestandardizedmassproduction.SamClark’shousewasoneofthemanifestationsofthestandardizedlifestyle.Clark’snewly-builthousewassolidsquareandwithasmalltowerandalargescreenedporch.PeopleinGopherPrairiealldreamedofbuildingtheirownhouseslikeClark’s.Therefore,thehousesinthetownwereuniversallysimilar.WhenCarolarrivedatthetown,itwasSamClarkwhodrovethecouplehomewithhisFord.Ontheirwaytohome,theymetthreeFordsintheheavytraffic.ThefordalsobecamethestandardizedvehicleofthewelltodofamiliesinGopherPrairie.InDanielJ.Boorstin’sTheAmericans–TheDemocraticExperience,theauthorarguedthatdemocracymeanspersonal,economicorpoliticalequalityinothercountries,whileintheUnitedStatesithasakindofnovel“environmentaldemocracy”,namely,ademocracybetweentimeandspace,andthisdemocracy“destroysthedifferencebetweenregionsandtimesandmakesdifferentplacesanddifferentthingsalike”9.Infact,theenvironmentaldemocracyistheconsequenceoftheconsumptionsociety.Inconsumptionsociety,thestandardized,large-scaleproductionofgoods,theprogressofpurchasepatternallleadedtotheunanimityoflifestylesbetweendifferentplaces.Takeclothingasanexample,inthe20thcentury,Americanwasprobablythemoststandardizedindustrialnationinpeople’sdressingmode.LewisnoticedthisphenomenonofunanimityinAmerica,andhepresentedthestandardizedlifestyleofAmericansmalltownsinMainStreet.Hewroteinthebook:“Nine-tenthsoftheAmericantownsaresoalikethatitistotallyboredomtowanderfromonetoanother.”(287)34 FromtheoutsidesurfaceofGopherPrairie,therewasabusinessdistrict,whichwascalledthe“mainstreet”.Onbothsidesofthe“mainstreet”therewere“two-storybrickshops,itsstory-and-ahalfwoodenresidences,itsmuddyexpansefromconcretewalktowalk,itshuddleofFordsandlumber-wagons”.(48)People’shouseswereallthesame:yellow,squareandold-fashioned,withimpeccableclapboard.Peoplewholiveinsuchenvironmenthavesimilarappearanceandvalues.WhenCarolfirstmetthetownspeopleofGopherPrairieatthetrainstation,shegottheimpressionthat:“allthemenhadcoarsevoices,largedamphands,toothbrushmustaches,baldspots,andMasonicwatch-charms.”(43)Alltheseordinarypeopleworshipedthestandardizedproductsproducedacrossthecountry,thustheyhadthesameappearance.Atthattime,thestandardizationofgoodsalmostreplacedthepositionofreligionwhichcouldmakepeopleconvert.Commoditieshadthefeatureofdivinity,andleadpeopleenterarealmofunification,thusbecomeagroupwith“commonfaith”.However,therewasnodoubtthatthegroupiseasytobedestroyed,becausetheircommonspiritualbelief–goodsareeasytobechanged.Fastfashionconstantlycreatesnewitems,andpromptstheconsumptionstylecontinuallychange,hence,thestandardizedgroupwillreadjustaccordingtotheemergenceofnewproductsandformnewconsumptionstandards.ThestandardizedlifestyleofGopherprairienotonlyaffectedthelocalresidents,butalsoaffectedtheimmigrantsfromothercountries:“theScandinavianwomenzealouslyexchangingtheirspicedpuddingsandredjacketsforfriedporkchopsandcongealedwhiteblouse.”(285)TheAmericancustomshadinfluencedthealienlifestyleeasily.AndCarol’smostfearfulthingistobecomeaglossymediocritylikethoseimmigrants.Theimmigrantsjoinedthestandardizedindigenousgroupbyconsumingthelocalproducts“friedporkchop”,“whiteblouses”,singingthelocalsongs,andobtainingthelocalidentities.Therefore,theimmigrantslosttheirself-independenceoftheirculture,andmadethemselvessimilartothevillagersinGopherPrairie.Consumptionculturehadstrongpowertomakedifferentgroupsblendtheiridentitieswitheachother,anditledtotheerosionoftraditionalcultureandforeignculture,thusmadedifferentculturesinthecommunitybecomemoreandmore35 similar.Thismadepeopleineveryregioncouldenjoythesameculture,however,italsoeliminatedtheuniquenessoftheoriginalculture,madetheworldasameconsumptiongroup,andgraduallyformedthestandardizedlifestyle.B.TheConspicuousPatternofConsumptionIn1920s,theAmericasocietywasexperiencingasignificanttransformation.Thisinvolvednotonlytheeconomicandtechnologicalchanges,butalsotheconsumerstructurerevolution.Therapiddevelopmentofindustrialcivilizationpenetratedtheconsumerismvaluesintothepublic’smindquickly.AndtheconsumerismvaluesinAmericansocietyprojectintothevillageresidents’dailylife,makingthecommunityculturebecamematerialisticandconspicuousinconsumptionconcept.TheAmericaneconomistThorsteinBVeblenputforwardtheconceptsofthe“leisureclass”and“conspicuousconsumption”inTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass10.Veblenbelievedthattheleisureclasspeopleneedobvious“consumption”torevealtheiridentity.Theobviousconsumptioncanbeembodiedintheirpurchaseofluxurygoodstorevealtheirwealthandstatus.Inthetraditionallife,thepurchasingofgoodswasinordertosatisfythenecessityoflife,andpeopleusuallypaysattentiontothevalue-in-useofcommodity,whiletheleisureclasspurchaseconsumergoodsforcompetition,andtorevealtheiridentityofnobility.Here,thegoodsusedforshowingoffwereakindofmarkswithsymbolicmeaning.Toattracttheconsumers’attention,commoditiesmusthavesymbolicvalueofidentityinconsumptionsociety.InMainStreet,theconsumptionofsymbolicvaluewasmainlymanifestedinthemiddleclasslife,becauseatthattimeonlytheyhadthetimeandmoneyforconspicuousconsumption.Alongwiththedevelopmentofconsumptionculture,thecurrentconsumptionofthesymbolicvaluewasnolongerlimitedtotheleisureclass,ithasspreadtoalmosteveryconsumers.Underthiscircumstance,GopherPrairieshowedstrongcharacteristicsofconsumerism,andthematerialwealthbecamethemostimportantthinginpeople’s36 mind.Thesatisfactoryofmaterialneedsmadepeopleneglectthespiritualneeds.TheconsumerismvaluesmadethemiddleclassofGopherPrairieonlyinterestedincreatingandshowingofftheirmaterialwealth.Theconspicuousconsumptioncouldbeembodiedfrommanyaspects,forexampleclothing,furniture,automobile,tourismandsoon.Clothesbecomesymbolsofpeople’smaterialwealthandsocialstatus.Themiddle-classtirelesslypursuedmaterialthingstoprovetheirownsocialposition.Gradually,thematerialisticvaluedominatespeople’sculturalpsychology,whilethespiritualandculturalpursuitisexcludedtotheedgeofthepeople’spsychologicalspace.Inwinter,thetown’speoplewerescramblingtoputontheirfurcoatstoshowoffthevalueoftheirclothing.Whenpeoplegatheredtogetherintheirsparetime,theytalkedaboutmoreaboutwinterclothesthantheirpersonalaffairs.ThefunctionofwinterclothesinGopherPrairiewasnotonlytokeepwarmbutalsoforpeopletoexpresssocialidentities.Apartfromthewinterclothes,automobilewasalsoanembodimentofpeople’ssocialandeconomicstatus.Withtheprosperityofmaterialculture,thecarwhichwasonceconsideredluxurynowbecamepopularamongthemiddleclassesinGopherPrairie.Carbecomesthedailytopicoftheresidents,andasignoftheuppersocialidentity.Thus,carsbecomethecommonpursuitofresidentsinGopherPrairie.InGopherPrairie,EzraStowbody’sgreycarriagewasoncequiteacenterofattention,butnow,themostspectacularviewsonthestreetwerethecompellingFordcars.Peoplenotonlyappreciateditsconvenience,butalsopaidattentiontoitssymbolicmeaningoftheowner’swealthandsocialstatusinthetown.Thedivisionofclassbecamesimple:havingaFordcarmeansapersonhastheidentityofupperclass.NoonewouldputChampPerryintotheuppersocietyanymore,becausethepioneerspirithasbeenleftbehindofthetimes.Tourismconsumptionwasalsoameansofshowingoffpeople’sstatus.Peopleoftenfelteagertotellotherstheirtravelexperiencewhencamebackfromoutside,butnobodywouldlistentothat,theyinterruptedinjusttotelltheirowntravelexperiences.WhenKennicottandCarolcamebacktoGopherPrairiefromCalifornia,theJollySeventeencametopokeabouttheiritineraries,andtheJollySeventeenliked37 tomentiontheexpensiverestaurantsandhotelstheyhadwentto.Exceptthecommonconsumptioncommodities,therewasaspecialcommoditywhichwasusedbythemiddleclasspeopletovarnishtheirculturalstatus–theculturalcommodities.Inthetown,culturewastreatedasacommodityforconsumptionbymiddleclasspeople.InSamClark’shouse“thebarred,shut,forbiddingunitbookcasesthatwerehalffilledwithswashbucklernovelsandunread-lookingsetsofDickens,Kipling,O.Henry,andElbertHubbard”.(68)Thesebooksweresetsteadilyinthebookcase,withthedoorclosed,andalsolocked.Clarkneverreadtheseliteraryworks,inhiseyes,thebooksweresomethingimpossibletobeverified.Clarkjustboughtthesebooks,andputthebooksafelyinthebookcase.PeoplelikeClark“possessed”theirculturalcapitalsinthisway,andbelievedthattheycouldimprovetheirsocialstatusaccordingly.Clarkdidnotlikeliteratureatall;hesaidhewouldneverreadthosebookswhichcouldnotbechecked.Althoughhewouldneverreadthosebooks,heboughtandlockedthemintothebookcasetodisplayhispossessionofculturalcapital,andtherebytoincreasehisculturalidentity.Inthetown,therewasawomen’sreadinggroupcalled“Thanatopsis”,themembersmakeliterarydiscussionandsubmitpaperstostudyliterature.Buttheirstudyplanistakenfromasimpleculturalguidemagazine;theywantedtostudyalltheEuropeanliteraturewithinoneyear,andalltheEnglishpoetsinonemeeting.Carol’scommenttothereadingclubpiercedtothetruth:“Buttheyaresoself-satisfied.Theythinkthey’redoingBurnsafavor.Theydonotbelievetheyhavea‘belatedquest’.They’resurethattheyhaveculturesaltedandhungup.”(144)Inthereadingclubmembers’mind,theyhavemasteredtheliteratureaftertheyhadthem“saltedandhungup”.Thesaltedculturewasnolongertheoriginalculture;itbecametheprocessedproductsforpeopletoshowofftheirculturalstatus.TheMiddleclassinGopherPrairieworkedhardtotransformtheireconomiccapitalintoculturalcapital,suchascollectingbooks,holdingreadingactivities,settingupdramasocietytoincreasetheirsocialfameandsocialcapital.Withthevulgarizationoftheelitecultureintheprimaryperiodofconsumptionsocietyandthe38 globalepidemicpopularculturetoday,peoplewouldfindthattheartanddailylifehasbeenintegrated.Artisunabletoavoidtheimpactoftheconsumptionsociety,andinaconsumptionsociety,artisdestinedtobecomeapastimeanddecoratingproductsforpeople.C.TheUnequalStatusofMenandWomeninLoveandMarriageThestatusofmaleandfemalewasapermanenttopicinallages.MenandwomenweretreateddifferentlybecauseofthetraditionalmoralcodesandtheeconomicpositionofwomeninGopherPrairie.Women’slifewasattachedtotheirhusbandsbecausewomenarenotindependentfinanciallyandspirituallyinthetown.Thereforethetownspeopletreatedmenandwomendifferentlyinloveandmarriage.Kennicotthadfivehobbies:medicine,land-investment,Carol,motoring,andhunting.Fromthat,onecouldeasilynoticethatCarol’sstatuswaslowerthanKennicott,becauseshewasjustoneofthefivefavoriteitemsofKennicott.InGopherPrairie,thefamilythingsweredeterminedbymen,theyjustinformthedecisionstotheirwives.KennicottnevertoldCarolhisplanofmakingmoney,andheonlymentioneditwhenhehasmadeprofitsfromtheinvestment.EventhedecisionofhavingachildwasmadebyKennicott.Wivesworkeddiligentlyonthehousework,andtheyhadtoaskforthefamilyexpensefromtheirhusbandshumiliatingly.Beforegettingmarried,Carolhadtoldherlibrarycolleagues,whenshegetsmarriedinthefuture,shemusthavearegularamountofmoneyeverymonth.ButwhenshecametoGopherPrairie,thelocaltraditionwasthatwomendonotwork,alltheexpensesshallbebornebythemen.Intheirhoneymoon,Carolfeltembarrassingtotellherhusbandthatshewaspennilesstosupportthefamily.However,thehouseholdexpenseslistremindedherclearlythatshewasfinanciallyembarrassed.CarolhasexperiencedtwothingsinGopherPrairiewhichmadeherrealizedthewomen’ssubsidiarypositionsinthefamilyandsociety.First,shewantedtoopenaccountsintheshopstoavoidtheembarrassmentofaskingformoneytoherhusbanddirectly.Butshewasrejectedbytheshopowners.Next,shewitnessedthat.Mrs.Dyer39 wasrefusedbyherhusbandwhenshecametoaskmoneyfortheirkids’clothes.Peopleallregardeditasajoke,butCarolknewthatallwomenwereinseriouseconomicdisadvantageinGopherPrairie.Yesterday,infrontofasaloon,IheardaGermanfarmwifebegherhusbandforaquarter,togetatoyforthebaby—andherefused.JustnowI’veheardMrs.Dyergoingthroughthehumiliation.AndI—I’minthesameposition!Ihavetobegyouformoney.Daily!IhavejustbeeninformedthatIcouldn’thaveanysugarbecauseIhadn’tthemoneytopayforit!(89)AboveisthecommonsceneinGopherPrairie,almosteveryhousewifehadthiskindofexperience.Withoutanyincome,theyhadtorelyontheirhusbandscompletely.Inthevillage,menobjectedtheirwivestoworkinsocialgroup,theythoughtitwasawasteoftime;moreover,theywereafraidofthegossipthatwomenwenttoworkbecausetheirhusbandscouldnotaffordtosupportthem.Asaresult,womencoulddonothingexceptdoinghouseholdchores,eatingsnacks,watchingmovieorplayingbridge.FeministSimonedeBeauvoirputsit:“Oneisnotbornawoman,butbecomesone.”11Theawakeningofself-awarenessmadeCaroltrytofightagainstthedifferencebetweenwomenandmen.Atfirst,shedecidednottoaskherhusbandformoney,andshewenttoworkinWashingtontosupportherself.Shewantedtogetridofthepatriarchalbondagethrougheconomicindependence.Carolwantedtochangetheexistingsituationofwomen,butshefeltsopowerlessinfrontofthetraditionalideas.Inearly20thcenturyAmerica,mendominatedthehusbandandwiferelationship.Intheeyesofmen,womenshouldbecontenttotoilforthefamily,raisethechildren.ButCarolwasnotcontenttothatkindoflife,andshehopedtodosomemeaningfulthingswithherknowledge.Shetookthetown’sreformashercareer,andtriedherbesttofigureoutwhatmakeswomenlivinginthedark.Inchapter16,CarolsaidtoGuyPollock:40 “IthinkIwantyoutohelpmefindoutwhathasmadethedarknessofthewomen.We’reallinit,tenmillionwomen,youngmarriedwomenwithgoodprosperoushusbands,andbusinesswomeninlinencollars,andwivesofunderpaidminers,andfarmwiveswhoreallyliketomakebutterandgotochurch.Whatisitwewant—andneed?Wewanteverything.Weshallneverbecontent”(219-220)Carolgraduallyrealizedthatmarriedwomenwerenotspirituallyindependentinthefamily,soshedemandedtomovetotheguestroom.Heractionarousedcriticismthroughthecommunity,butMrs.WestlakeactedtounderstandCarolverymuch.Shealsosaidthateverywomanshouldhaveherownlittleworld,sothatitcanbemulledoverallsortsofproblems.ButCarollaterdiscoveredthatMrs.Westlakewasjustidentifiedwithheronthesurface,actually,shecriticizedCarolthatherbehaviorwassoabnormal.AsaneducatedofwomanlikeCarol,Mrs.Westlakeknewclearlythatwomenwereinavulnerableposition,butshechosetoyield,toacceptthedomesticationofmalechauvinism.Itwasthusclearthat,thestruggleofwomentofightforequalpositionwasnotonlyobstructedbythemen,butalsobythetraditionalwomen.Inmiddle-class’circle,havingloveaffairswithotherwomenwasacceptedbyeveryoneaslongasitwasdonesecretly.Inthenovel,menwerealsoagreedtohavethiskindofrelations.WhenCarolknewsomebodyinthetownwashavingmistressandscoldedhiminfrontofKennicott,heblamedCarolforsheshouldnotspeakoutthesethingsout.Hethoughthavingmistresswasanormalthing.Carolandherhusbandalsohadaninterludeintheirmarriage.DoctorKennicotthadvisitedMaudDyersecretly,andCarolhadaplatoniclovewiththeyoungtailorEricValborg.ItwasunsurprisingthatpeopleregardKennicott’sbetrayalasacommonthing,whiletheymadeslanderousgossipsaboutCarol’srelationshipwithEric,andevenEric’svulgarfathercametocurseherintheface.Carolcouldnotbearthishumiliation,soshetraveledtoCaliforniaforalongtime.Anotherincidentalsorevealedclearlytheinequalityofmenandwomen.The41 newlycomehighschoolteacherFernMullins,agirloftwenty-twowhowastall,weedyandpretty.OnedayshewasdrivenawayfromtheboardinghouseofMrs.Bogartbecauseof“hermisconduct”withCy–Mrs.Bogart’sson.Theeveningbefore,FernMullinsandCydrivenalonetoabarndanceinthecountry.Atthedance,CyhadkissedFern,andhehadstolenabottleofwhiskeyfromafarmerandgotdrunkwithit.Fernhadurgedhimtoreturnthewhiskeytotheowner,butCydidnotlistentoher.Finally,FerntriedherbesttotakeCybackwithacarriage.WhentheyarrivedCy’shome,hermotherMrs.BogartcursedFernloudly,sayingthatFernhasseducedhersonandcompletelyignoredherson’sbadbehaviorofdrinkingandharassing.Intheend,peopleinthetownallscoldedanddespisedher,eventheschool-boardhasdecidedtoaccepther“resignation”.Andtheschoolboardmadethispublic.Theteachers’agencieshaveknownMissFern’sstory,shewastreatedunfairlyinfindinganewjob.Butastothemaleparticipatorinthisincident,althougheveryoneknewhewasayoungmangoodfornothing,hedidnotreceiveanycriticism.Inthischapter,theanalysisof“villagevirus”ininstitutionalculturereflectstheAmericanvillagepeople’sgenuinewayoflivingofin1920s.Atthattime,womencouldnotgotowork,sotheyhadtorelyontheirhusbandsfinancially.Moreover,womenwerenotallowedtohaveindependentidea,andhadtoberestrictedwithintheirfamilychores,furthermore,womenwerenotequallytreatedintheaffairsrelatedtodifferentgenders.Mencouldhavesecretloversaslongastheydonottalkitinpublic,butwomenwillbespitiftheydothesamething.42 ConclusionThe“villagevirus”isconcludedbySinclairLewisthroughhisdeepunderstandingofAmericansociety.ItisnodoubtthatLewisisthemostoutstandingwriterinpicturingtheauthenticAmericansmalltownlife.Throughthedescriptionof“villagevirus”,hemadeafierceattackontheAmericanvillagelife.Thisthesishaselaboratedtheembodimentof“villagevirus”inmaterialculture,spiritualcultureandinstitutionalculture.Inthematerialreflection,thevillageisuglyinitslandscape,monotonousinpeople’sdressings,andlackofcompletepublicandculturalfacilities.Andtheyaretheconcreteexpressionofthevillagepeople’sdrabness,mediocrityandparochialism.Inthetermofspirituallife,theinhabitantsareconservative,arrogantandself-contented,andthereformersareweakandpowerless,andthisistheresultoftheconfrontationbetweentraditionalideasandthereformatoryideasinsocialtransformation.Intheinstitutionallevel,thestandardizedlifestyleandtheconspicuouspatternofconsumptionaretheresultoftherampantmaterialism,whiletheunequalemotionalandmaritalordersformenandwomenaredecidedbythedeep-rootedmoralvalues.The“villagevirus”representsthevacuous,backwardlifestyleandwayofthinkingintheAmericanMidwestsmalltowns.Thevirusdestroyspeople’sambitionandanyonewhorefusestobeinfectedhastoleavethetown.TheheroineCarolwasobstructedbytheconservativeforces.ShelostherconfidenceandhadtoescapefromGopherPrairieeventually.ThelawyerGuyPollockalsocaughtthe“villagevirus”.AlthoughhecouldseetheproblemsofGopherPrairie,hecouldnottakeanypracticalactions.ItmustbepointedoutthatLewis’criticismisuniversal.GopherPrairieisjustamicrocosmofthewholecountry.Throughtheattackof“villagevirus”ofGopherPrairie,LewisalsoattackedallAmericansmalltownsin1920s.Lewisboldlyputsforwardtheconceptof“villagevirus”tocriticizethevacuous43 cultureandsocialrealitiesinAmericansmalltowns.Andhehassuccessfullycalledforpeople’sconcernaboutthesocialproblemsinAmericansmalltowns.Althoughhedidnotoffersolutionstotheproblem,hehasopenedthepeople’smindandmadethemthinkabouttheproblem.44 Notes1.http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/press.html2.SheldonNormanGrebstein,SinclairLewis(NewYork:TwaynePublishers,Inc.,1962),92.3.MarkSchorer,SinclairLewis:AnAmericanLife(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1961),332.4.司马云杰著.《文化价值论：关于文化建构价值意识的学说》(北京：人民出版社，1988),1-2.5.LawrenceGrossberg,CulturalStudies(London:Routledge,1992),Introduction.6.SinclairLewis,MainStreet(London:PenguinBooksLtd,2000.)(Allthequotationsinthisthesisrefertothisbook,unlessotherwisestated.)7.T.K.Whipple,SinclairLewis:ACollectionofCriticalEssays,(New-Jersey:Prentice-Hall.Inc.,1962),74.8.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordism9.丹尼尔·J·布尔斯廷，谢延光译．《美国人：民主的历程》(上海：上海译文出版社，1997),451,134.10.ThorsteinVeblen,TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass(NewYork:DoverPublications,1994),8.11.Simonede.Beauvoir,TheSecondSex,Trans.AndEd.H.M.Parshley,(NewYork:VintageBooks,1974),23.45 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AcknowledgementsAttheendofmythesiswritingaswellasmymastercareer,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetoallthosepeoplewhohavehelpedmeinthepastthreeyears.Firstandforemost,Iwanttoexpressmydeepestgratitudetomysupervisor,Pro.FengMei,whohasgavemesomuchhelpinmystudyandthethesis.Idoappreciateherpatience,encouragement,andprofessionalinstructionsduringmythesiswriting.Secondly,IamsogratefulforalltheprofessorsintheSchoolofForeignLanguages.Theyhaveofferedmemanyusefulsuggestionsandwarmencouragements.Ihavebenefitedsomuchfromtheirdevotedinstructions.Thirdly,Iowemuchtomyfriendsandclassmatesfortheirvaluablesuggestionsandcritiqueswhichareofgreatimportanceinmythesiswriting.Lastbutnottheleast,mythankswouldgotomybelovedfamilyfortheirlovingconsiderationsandsupportinmeallthroughthesethreeyears.50 AcademicAchievements署名文章名称发表刊物刊发时间刊物级别次序《哈姆雷特》中奥菲利娅疯癫《文学教育》2016年3月省级1现象的弗洛伊德式解读《黑暗的心》中的荒诞性分析《青年文学家》2016年8月省级151
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