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1、RiseandDemiseoftheQingEmpireImperialHegemony,PopularResistancesandArrestedCapitalisminChina’sLongEighteenthCenturyHo-fungHungJohnsHopkinsUniversityTheEnigmaofChina-EuropeDivergenceNow,itiswidelyrecognizedthatthe“riseoftheWest”andthe“falloftheEast”weret
2、wocomplementary,mutuallyconstitutiveprocesses.ButwhenandhowtheEast,Chinainparticular,fellbehindEuropeisatopicofconstantdebate.Abu-Lughod’s(1989)andMarkElvin’s(1973)contentionthatChinaturnedstagnantafteritsfifteenth-centuryretreatfromthemaritimeworldisr
3、ecentlychallengedbyFrankandothers.ItisshownthatChina’spost-medievaleconomicslowdownwasonlytemporary,andwassoonfollowedbyaresurgenceofcommerceinsixteenththrougheighteenthcenturiesasaresultofthemassiveinfluxofAmericansilver(Frank1998;Atwell1998).QingChin
4、awasreputedasthe“sinkofsilver”thatabsorbedmostofthebullionoriginatingintheAmericas,andwasthelargestmarketformationintheeighteenth-centuryglobaleconomy.AspointedoutbyChase-DunnandHall(1997:189-192),inmostoftheearlymodernperiod,Europeatlargewasaperiphera
5、lzoneintheAfroeurasianprestige-goodnetworks,andEurope’s“long-distancetradewithChinawasoneofunequalexchangeinwhichtheChineseweregaininggreaterreturns”(1997:191).CommercialprosperityandpoliticalstabilityinChinawereadmiredbymanycontemporaneousphilosophers
6、andcourt-advisersinEurope,suchasQuesnayandVoltaire,whowroteemphaticallyandconvincedtheabsolutemonarchsthatChinawasthemodeltofollowregardingthedevelopmentoflaissez-faireeconomyandabsolutistrule.Europe’sglobalhegemonywasneverarealitybeforethelatterhalfof
7、theeighteenthcenturywhenChina’smarketeconomy(asaneconomicsystembasedongeneralizedcommodityexchange,ortheformulaofC-M-C)continueditsquantitativeexpansionwithoutanyqualitativetransformationintocapitalism(asaneconomicsystembasedontheceaselessaccumulationo
8、fcapital,ortheformulaofM-C-M’),whilethecapitalistdevelopmentinEuropeenteredanewphaseofindustrialexpansion(seeArrighi’s[1994:1-26]andBraudel’s[1977;1992]delineationofthedistinctionbetweenmarketandcapitalism)Hence,thecentralquestionwaswhy
