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1、LanguageEmergenceBrianMacWhinney1StipulationismInthe1950s,researchersthoughtthatchildrenlearnlanguagethroughimitation,guidedbyprinciplesofshapingandreinforcement(Skinner,1957).Bytheendofthedecade,thenewinformation-processingpsychology(Newell&Simon,1972)an
2、dtherapidlygrowingtheoryofgenerativegrammar(Chomsky&Halle,1968)werechallengingthisview.Thesenewparadigmsexpressedthecomplexitiesofhumanbehaviornotaslinksbetweenhabits,butascomplexsystemsofinterlockingrules.Thepowerachievedbythesesystemsreliedontheabilityo
3、fthemodelertostipulatetherightsetofrulesintermsoftheirelements,combinations,andpatternsofruleorderings.Thesuccessesofthesestipulativesystemscanbeattributedtotheprecisionoftheirformulationandtheexpressivenessoftheformalproductionsystemlanguageonwhichtheyre
4、lied(Hopcroft&Ullman,1979).Stipulativerulesystemspromotedthearticulationofenormouscognitivearchitecturesofseeminglyimpossiblecomplexity(MacWhinney,1994).Asthesesystemsgrewincomplexity,testingtheempiricalgroundingoftheirindividualcomponentsbecameincreasing
5、lyimpossible.Throughitsdescriptivesuccesses,stipulationismendedupsewingtheseedsofitsownconceptualdestruction.Inthe1980s,theriseofconnectionism(Rumelhart&McClelland,1987)providedanalternativetostipulationism.Neuralnetworksviewedchildrenaslearningcues,rathe
6、rthanrules(MacWhinney,Leinbach,Taraban,&McDonald,1989).Inthe1990s,researchersbegantoexplorestillotheralternativestorulesystems,includingdynamicssystemstheory(Thelen&Smith,1994),optimalitytheory(Tesar&Smolensky,2000),andbiologicalmodelsofneuralplasticity(E
7、lman,1999).Formallinguistictheoryalsobegantomoveawayfromstipulationism,attemptingtoextractaminimalsetofprinciplesfromwhichbroadersyntacticpatternscouldemerge(Chomsky,1995).22EmergentismHistorically,emergentismbeganasareactionagainststipulationism.However,
8、itiswrongtothinkthatanymodeloflanguagedevelopmentthatdoesnotspecificallystipulateparticularrulesorhard-wiredmodulesisemergentist.Ifwesimplyusedtheabsenceofstipulatedrulesasourcriterion,wewouldalloweventhemosthalf-ba
