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摘要近年来，学习者自主已成为外语教学界的热门话题。此概念是由HenriHolec于1981年在其著作《自主性与外语学习》中提出，意指“一种对自己学习负责的能力”。人们普遍认为要提高学习效率，学习者应主动参与到学习过程中去，并承担更多的学习责任。我国教育部2004年颁布的大学英语课程教学要求中强调学生个性化学习方法的形成和自主学习能力的发展是教学模式改革成功的重要标志。自从二十世纪八十年代“学习者自主”这一概念提出以来，人们从不同方面进行了大量的研究探索。西方的研究主要集中在对其理论背景，定义和教学应用的探讨。相比之下，在我国相关的研究还处于起始阶段，大部分的研究不是纯粹的理论溯源，就是通过划分试验班和控制班来证明某种策略培训有效性的实证性研究。很少有调查在中国教育环境下学生自主英语学习现状的研究。鉴于此，本研究旨在调查学生的自主英语学习现状，发现存在的问题，找出帮助他们提高自主学习能力的切实可行的方法。本研究的调查对象是长安大学132名非英语专业二年级学生，采用的工具是一个改编的调查问卷。该问卷共有55个项目，从以下五个方面调查学生的自主学习能力：对学习者自主的态度，对老师角色的看法，自尊和自信程度，学习动机和学习策略的使用情况。然后用SPSS软件对数据进行了描述性统计分析。为了能更详细深入地了解学生自主学习能力以及存在的问题，问卷完成后又与15名同学进行了访谈。通过研究，本文试图探讨以下两个问题：1)中国非英语专业大学生自主英语学习能力的高低程度。2)男生和女生是否具有相同程度的自主英语学习能力?数据显示非英语专业大学生的自主英语学习能力整体程度偏低。他们愿意为他们的学习承担责任，但在实际的学习过程中承担的责任非常有限，在一些方面仍然依赖老师，自尊自信程度不高。他们有一定程度的学习动机，但许多学生，尤其是男生的动机类型偏向于工具型。而且他们缺乏有关学习策略的知识，自然对学习策略的使用也就远远不够。总的来说，大部分学生是过于依赖老师，缺乏自主性的被动的英语学习者。此外，通过比较还发现女生的自主学习能力比男生强。女生在英语学习过程中更加自信，学习动机偏向于融合型，同时她们承担的学习责任多，使用学习策略的频率高，种类也多。在教学过程中教师应注意这些差异。在数据分析和讨论的基础上，作者提出了一些尝试性的建议，希望能对提高中国学生的自主学习能力有所帮助。教师应该转换传统角色，鼓励学生参与到教学过程中去，让学生承担更多的学习责任。不遗余力地通过各种方法提高学生的自尊自信程度，增强他们的学习动机，帮助他们调整动机类型。同时还要将学习 策略培训融入到课堂教学中，这一点对提高学生的自主学习能力是至关重要的。关键词：学习者自主自主英语学习学习动机学习策略学习策略培{J AbstractInrecentyears，leamerautonomyhasbecomeahotissueinforeignlanguageteaching．Theterm“learnerautonomy'’wasfirstadvancedinthebook‘‘AutonomyandForeignLanguageLearning'’byHenriHolecin1981，whichrefersto‘‘theabilitytotakechargeofone’Sownlearning'’．Itisunanimouslybelievedthatlearnersshouldplayanactiveroleandtakemoreresponsibilityinlanguagelearningtoimprovetheirlearningefficiency．In2004，theMinistryofEducationofChinapublishedthelatestCollegeEnglishCurriculumRequirements，whichhighlightsthatlearnerautonomyisoneoftheobjectivesofcollegeEnglishteaching,andthedevelopmentofindividualizedstudymethodsandtheautonomouslearningabilityonthepartofstudentsisanimportantindicatorofthesuccessfulreformoftheteachingmodel．Eversincethebirthoftheconcept“leamerautonomy'’in1980s，aconsiderablenumberofresearchesandexplorationshavebeencarriedoutfromdifferentperspectives．IntheWest，thestudiesmainlyfocusonexploringteachingandlearning．Bycomparison，thestudiesinChinaareininitialstage，whicheitherstayonpuretheoreticalframeworkorbelongtoempiricalresearchthatprovestheeffectivenessofsomestrategytrainingbycomparingtheresultsofcontrolgroupandexperimentalgroup．Fewaredonetoinvestigatestudents’currentautonomousEnglishlearningsituationinChinesecontext．Inthisregard，thestudyaimstoexaminestudents’autonomousEnglishlearningsituation，diagnosetheproblems，andfindoutsomepracticalwaystohelpthemmovetowardsautonomy．132second—yearnon-EnglishmajorsinChang’allUniversityparticipatedinthestudy．TheywererequiredtocompletethequestionnairerevisedfromOxford’sStrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning(versi‘on7．O)andWenQiufang’SquestionnaireontheEnglishLearningSituationofChineseLearnersin15minutes．Thequestionnaireconsistsof55itemsonafive—pointLikertScale，investigatingstudents’autonomyfromfiveaspects：attitudestowardslearnerautonomy,perceptionofteachers’role，degreeofself-esteem，motivationanduseoflearningstrategy．Thechoicesweretransformedintomeans，standarddeviationsandPvaluesbySPSSI4．0．Inordertogetmoredetailedinformationaboutstudents’autonomy,aninterviewwasconductedamong15studentsafterthequestionnaire．Accordingtotheresearch，thethesistriestoexplorethefollowingquestions：1)howautonomousareChinesenon-EnglishmajorstudentsunderinvestigationinEnglishleaming?2)dofemaleandmalestudentsobtainthesamedegreeofautonomyinEnglishleamin醇 Thecollecteddatashowthattheoveralldegreeofnon-Englishmajors’autonomyinEnglishlearningisratherlow．Theyarewillingtotakeresponsibilityfortheirownleaming，buttheresponsibilitytheyactuallytakeistoolimited．Theyarestillinclinedtodependontheirteachersinsomeaspects．TheyalemotivatedEnglishlearnerstosomeextent，butsomestudents，mainlymalestudents，areinstrumentallymotivated．Theirdegreeofself-esteemislowtoo．Additionally,theylackknowledgeoflearningstrategies，andundoubtedlytheirapplicationoflearningstrategiesisfarfromenough．Ingeneral，moststudentsarepassive，dependent，lessautonomousEnglishlearners．Besides，throughcomparison，itisalsofoundthatthedegreeoffemalestudents’autonomyisrelativelyhigherthanthemale’S．FemalestudentsaremoreconfidentandmoreintegrativelymotivatedinEnglishlearning．Theytendtoassumemoreresponsibilityandadoptmorekindsofstrategiestoimprovetheirstudy．Onthebasisofdataanalysisanddiscussion，theauthorputsforwardsometentativesuggestionsinthehopethattheymightbebeneficialfortheenhancementoflearnerautonomyamongChinesestudents．TeachersarcexpectedtoshifttheirtraditionalroleinEnglishteachingandsharetheircontrolovertheclassroomwiththeirstudentsinordertOencouragestudentstoassumemoreandmoreresponsibilityfortheirleaming．Moreover,noeffortshouldbesparedtOimprovestudents’degreeofself-esteem，stimulatetheirmotivation，andhelpthemtoobtainpropermotivation．Finally,incorporationoflearningstrategytrainingintolanguageteachingisstronglyrecommended．whichiSvitaltotheimprovementofstudents’learnerautonomy．KeyWords：learnerautonomyautonomousEnglishlearningmotivationlearningstrategylearningstrategytraining 学位论文独创性(或创新性)声明秉承学校严谨的学风和优良的科学道德，本人声明所呈交的论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。尽我所知，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢中所罗列的内容以外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果；也不包含为获得西安电子科技大学或其它教育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材料。与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中做了明确的说明并表示了谢意。申请学位论文与资料若有不实之处，本人承担一切的法律责任。本人签名：删Iq岘97．；。3期衫L一事．；．关于论文使用授权的说明本人完全了解西安电子科技大学有关保留和使用学位论文的规定，即：研究生在校攻读学位期阳J论文工作的知识产权单位属西安电子科技大学。学校有权保留送交论文的复印件，允许查阅和借阅论文；学校可以公布论文的全部或部分内容，可以允许采用影印、缩印或其它复制手段保存论文。同时本人保证，毕业后结合学位论文研究课题再攥写的文章一律署名单位为西安电子科技大学。(保密的论文在解密后遵守此规定)本学位论文属于保密，在一年解密后适用本授权书。本人签名：_缸备?互导师虢丝 IntroductionThepastfewdecadeshavewitnessedaprofoundchangeinthenotionoflanguageteaching，thatis，thegradualshiftfromteacher-centeredapproachtolearner-centeredapproach．Correspondingtothisshift，aninterestinthelearneraadlearner’Slearninghasbeengrowing,whichhasbeenmirroredinthepopularityoflearnerautonomy．ThetermlearnerautonomywasfirstintroducedintothefieldofSUFLpedagogyinthe1970sbyHenriHolec，whodefineditas‘‘theabilitytotakechargeofone’Sownlearning’’inhisbook‘‘AutonomyandForeignLanguageLearning’’publishedin1981(Holec，1981：3)．Sincethen，ithasbeenabuzzwordinforeignlanguageteachingandlearning，andanincreasingnumberofstudieshavebeenundertakenataninternationallevelfromdifferentaspects．Itiswidelybelievedthatlearnersshouldbehelpedandencouragedtobeindependentfromtheirteachersandtakemoreresponsibilityfortheirlearning．LearnerautonomyhasbeenveryimportantandnecessaryforEnglishleamers，towhichsomefactorsmakecontribution．First，learnerautonomyisrecognizedasanultimategoalofeducation．Educationinitsbroadestsenseisanyprocessbywhichanindividualgainsknowledgeorinsight，ordevelopsattitudesorskillsthroughinstruction．Itspurposeistotrainlearnerstobeindependentindividualsinsocietylivingandworkingsuccessfullyandindependently．Therefore，theend—productofeducationisanindependentlearner(Mcdevitt，1997，citedinLi，1999)．Foreignlanguageteaching，onespecialareaineducation，isnoexception．Second，learnerautonomyisthekeytolife·longeducation．Insuchanepochofknowledgeandinformation，itisimpossibletoprovidethelevelofpersonalinstructionneededbyallthelearnersineveryareaoflearning．What’Smore，“nostudents，anywhere，willhavetheirteacherstoaccompanythemthroughtheirlife'’(Littlewood，1999)．Hence，teachersshouldhelplearners“todeveloptheattitudethatlearningisalife-longprocessandtoacquiretheskillsofself-directedlearning'’(Knowles，1976：23，citedinWenden，1987：9)．AnancientChineseproverb“Giveamanafishandheeatsforaday；teachhimhowtofishandheeatsforalifetime’’cannotindicatethesignificantroleoflearnerautonomyinlife·longeducationbetter．Third，learnerautonomyistheessentialelementtoagoodmasteryofEnglish．WiththeglobalizationofworldeconomyandChina’SentryintoWTO，theimportanceofEnglishisincreasinglyobvious，SOmoreandmorepeoplejoininthetrendofEnglishlearning．However,timeandefforts，investedinlearning，areusuallynotinproportiontotheirlearningoutcomes．Why 2AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon·EnglishMajorscannottheyleamwellwithdiligence?Theproblemliesinthattheylacktheawarenessoftheirstrengths，weaknesses，learningstyles，andtheabilitiestotakecontroloftheirlearning．Wenden(1991：15)pointsoutthereis“aconnectionbetweenlearnerautonomyandSuccessinlanguagelearning'’．Asaresult，itisquitenecessaryandurgentforteacherstohelplearnersmovetowardsautonomy．Asmentionedabove，sincethebirthoftheconcept“learnerautonomy'’in1981，ithasbecomeahotissueinthefieldoflinguistics．Agreatnumberofscholarlyworkshavebeenwritten，exploringthetheoreticalbackgroundoflearnerautonomy,definingit，orstudyinghowtoapplyittolanguageteachingandlearning(BensonandVoller1997；Boud1998；Candy1991；CotteralandCrabbe1999；Dam1995；Dickinson1987，1992；GardnerandMiller1999；Holec1981；Little1991；McGarry1995；Pembertoneta1．1996；Wenden1998，citedinXuJinfenandZhanXiaohai，2004)．ComparedwiththeresearchesintheWest，thestudiesinChinaarejustininitialstage．ManyresearchersemphasizethesignificanceoffosteringlearnerautonomyincollegeEnglishteachingandexploremanydifferentwaystoattainthegoal．Somefocusontheintroductionofthetheoriesonleamerautonomy,suchasHeLianzhen(2003)，HuaWeifen(2001)，PangWeiguo(2003)．Somestudythefactorsaffectinglearnerautonomy,suchasWeiWangdong(2004)，WangXusheng(2005)．SomeinvestigateChinesestudents’learnerautonomybymakingacomparisonbetweenstudentsinChinaandWestEuropeancountries，suchasZhangLixinandLiXiaoxiang(2004)．Someotherscenteronempiricalstudies，likeZhangYanjun(2004)，QianXiaoxia(2005)，LeiXiao(2005)，WangDuqin(2002)．Amongtheempiricalstudies，mostareconductedbycomparingtheresultsbetweenthecontrolgroupandtheexperimentalgrouptoprovetheeffectivenessofsomestrategytraining．Fewaredonetoinvestigatestudents’beliefsonleamerautonomy,andtheirpresentautonomousEnglishlearningsituationinChinesecontext．Inthisregard，thisstudyaimstohaveageneralandmoredetailedknowledgeofstudents’actualautonomousEnglishlearningsituationthrou曲theiranswerstoeachiteminthequestionnaire，whichtriestoexaminestudents'autonomyfromfiveperspectives：attitudestolearnerautonomy,perceptionofteachers’role，degreeofself-esteem，motivationanduseoflearningstrategies，diagnosetheproblems，SOastofindoutsomepracticalwaystohelpthemmovetowardsautonomy．Itishopedthatwhathasbeenfoundinthisstudycouldbringsomeenlightenmenttostudentswhowanttoimprovetheirforeignlanguagelearning，andtoteacherswhowanttoimprovetheirforeignlanguageteaching． Introduction3Thethesisiscomposedoffivechapters．ChapterOnedealswithliteraturereviewonlearnerautonomy．Firstdefinitionsoflearnerautonomymadefromdifferentperspectivesareintroduced．Thenallaccountoftheoreticalbasisoflearnerautonomyisproposed．Finallysomeissuescloselyrelatedtoleamerautonomyarediscussed，includingthedifferencesandfluctuationsinthedegreeoflearnerautonomy,thecharacteristicsofautonomouslearners，thefactorsaffectingthedevelopmentoflearnerautonomyandthedistinctionsbetweenrelevantterms．ChapterTwodescribesthemethodologyofthestudy,whichcomprisesthepurposesofthestudy,subjects，instruments，datacollectionprocedures．ChapterThreereportstheresultsinvolvedinthestudy．Togetdetailedinformationofstudents’actualautonomousEnglishlearningsituation，means，standarddeviationsandPvaluesofallthevariablesaredemonstratedintables．ChapterFourprovidessomeimplicationsonhowtoenhancestudents’autonomyonthebasisofthedataanalysisinthepreviouschapter．ChapterFivemakesasummaryofthemainfindingsandimplications，andthelimitationsofthestudyandrecommendationsforfurtherstudyarealsoproposedinthischapter． ChapterOneLiteratureReviewv-1．⋯一———————A—————————————————————————————————————————————～OneLiteratureReviewThissectionfirstintroducesthedefinitionsoflearnerautonomyfromdifferentperspectivesanditstheoreticalbasis．Thensomerelevantissuesarediscussed，whichincludethedegreeofleamerautonomy,thecharacteristicsofautonomousleamersandfactorsaffectingthedevelopmentoflearnerautonomy．Finallyacoupleofsimilartermsaredistinguished．1．1DefinitionsofLearnerAutonomyFromitsfirstentranceintothefieldoflanguageteachingthroughtheCouncilofEurope’sModemLanguageProjectestablishedin1971tOthepresentday,learnerautonomyhashadahistoryofmorethanthreedecades．Nowadays，autonomyhasbeenwidelyacceptedasaneducationalgoaland‘‘fewteacherswilldisagreewiththeimportanceofhelpinglanguagelearnersbecomemoreautonomousaslearners。。(Wenden．1991：11)．ButastowhatleamerautonomyreallyIS，linguistsandeducationalistshavefailedtoreachaconsensus．Differentlinguistsdefinetheconceptindifferentways，therefore，therehaveemergedaround10definitions．HuaWeifenf2002)dividesallthesedeftnitionsintofourgroups：autonomyasacapacity；autonomyasacontext；autonomyasaresponsibility；autonomyasasynthesis．1．1．1AutonomyasacapacityLinguistslookonautonomyascapacitythatlearnersusetomanagethemselves·LearnerautonomyCanbedescribedasacapacitytotakechargeoforcontroloverone'sleaming．Fromthispointofview,learnerautonomyinvolvesabilitiesthatpeoplepossess．Therearedifferentpointsofviewonwhattheseabilitiesare．Holec(1981)，D锄(1990，citedinGathercole，1990)andLittle(1991：4)holdthispointofview．Holec(1981：3)pointsoutthatautonomyis“apowerorcapacitytodosomethingnotatypeofconductorbehaviour'’．Thusautonomyisatermdescribingapotentialcapacitytoactinagivensituation⋯inourcase，learning⋯andnottheactualbehaviourofanindividualinthatsituation．Hehasdefinedlearnerautonomyas“theabilitvtotakechargeofone’sownleamingintheprocessoflearning”(1981：3)．Totakechargeofone’SlearningistohaveandtoholdtheresponsibilityforallthedecisionSconcerningallaspectsofthislearning，i．e．“determiningtheobjectives； 2AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsdefiningthecontentsandprogressions；selectingmethodsandtechniquestobeused；monitoringtheprocedureofacquisition；evaluatingwhathasbeenacquired”(Holec，1981：3)．Holechasbeenamajorinfluenceinthedebateaboutautonomyinlanguageleamingandhisinitialdefinitionhasbeentakenasastartingpointinmuchsubsequentworkinthearea(Gardner,D．&Mille／,L．1999)．Hedevelopedthisdefinitionfurtherin1985bytalkingaboutautonomyasaconceptualt001．Holec(1985)definestheself-directed1earnerasonewhoexerciseschoiceandcontrolinfivedifferentareasoflearning：a)aims，b)activitiesandtechniques，C)materials，d)time，placeandpaceoflearning，e)assessmentofprogressinlearning⋯efficiencyofthefourfactorsabove(Holec，H．1985)．Little(1991：4)viewautonomyas“acapacity-一fordetachment，criticalreflection，decisionmakingandindependentaction”．However,headdsanessentialpsychologicaldimension，whichentailsthat“thelearnerwilldevelopaparticularkindofpsychologicalrelationtotheprocessandcontentofhislearning”(Little，1991：4)andit‘‘willbedisplayedbothinthewaythelearnerlearnsandinthewayheorshetransferswhathasbeenlearnedtowidercontexts”(Little，1991：4)．Likeanyothercapacity’itwillgrowwithpractice，orbelostthroughinactivity．Littlewooddefinesautonomyineducationaltermsas“involvingstudents’capacitytousetheirleamingindependentofteachers”(1999：73)．Hisdefinitionhasnoculturaldifference，sinceitisobviousthatnostudent，anywhere，willhavetheirteacherstoaccompanythemthroughtheirlives．Autonomyisalifelonggoalforlearnerseverywhere．Littlewood(1996)definesanautonomouspersonas“onewhohasanindependentcapacitytomakeandcarryoutthechoiceswhichgovernhisorheractions”．Wecaninterprethisdefinitioninthiswaytomakeitsuitabletolanguagelearningsituation：anautonomouslearnerisonewhohasanindependentcapacitytomakeandcarryoutthedecisionsthatgovernhisorherlearningactions．AccordingtoLittlewood，thiscapacitydependsontwomaincomponents：abilityandwillingness．Abilityandwillingnesscanthemselveseachbedividedintonocomponents．Abilityinvolvespossessingbothknowledgeaboutthealternativesfromwhichdecisionshavetobemadeandthenecessaryskillsforcarryingoutwhateverdecisionsseemmostappropriate．Willingnessinvolveshavingboththemotivationandtheconfidencetotakeresponsibilityforthedecisionsrequired．AndifalearneristObesuccessfulinlearningautonomously,allofthesefourcomponentsneedtobepresentatthesametime．‘'Themoreknowledgeandskillsthestudentspossess，themoreconfidenttheyarelikelyto be；themoreconfidenttheyare，themoretheyarelikelytobeabletomobilizetheirknowledgeandskillsinordertoperformeffectively'’(Littlewood，1996：428)．IncontrasttOHolec’Sdefinition，Littlewood’Sdefinitionseemsmorecomprehensivebecauseapartfromability,ittakesaffectivefactorsintoconsideration．InLittlewood’sdescriptionofleamerautonomy,motivationistreatedasakeycomponent．Asdiscussedlater,motivationisrelatedtoautonomyintwoways．First，autonomouslearningismotivatedlearningandsecond，itistoalargeextentdependentonself-motivation．LeniDam，drawinguponHolec，definesautonomyintermsofthe1earner’swillingnessandcapacitytocontroloroverseehisorherownlearning．Morespecifically,shelikeHolec，holdsthatsomeonequalifiesasanautonomouslearnerwhenhe／sheindependentlychoosesaimsandpurposesandsetsgoals；choosesmaterials，methodsandtasks；exerciseschoiceandpurposeinorganizingandcarryingoutthechosentasks；andchoosescriteriaforevaluation．1．1．2AutonomyasacontextLinguistswholookonautonomyascontextholdthatlearnershouldberesponsibleforhisownstudyinanycontext．Atthesametime，theythinkthatcontextplaysaleadingpartinpromotinglearnerautonomy．Dickinsonholdsthisview．Dickinson(1987：11)acceptsthedefinitionofautonomyasa“situationinwhichthe1earneristotallyresponsibleforallofthedecisionsconcernedwithhisorherlearningandtheimplementationofthosedecisions”(citedinGardner,D．&Miller,L．1999)．1．1．3AutonomyasaresponsibilityLinguistswhoholdthispointofviewemphasizethatlearnermustberesponsibleforhisorherownbehaviorandresult．Theythinkthatlearner’Sresponsibleconsciousnessmustbecultivatedinordertopromotelearnerautonomy．McGarryconciselysumsuptheessentialargumentsforautonomy．McGarry(1995：1)notesthat“studentswhoareencouragedtotakeresponsibilityfortheirownwork，bybeinggivensomecontrolOVerwhat，howandwhentheylearn，aremorelikelytobeabletosetrealisticgoals，planprogrammesofwork，developstrategiesforcopingwithnewandunforeseensituations，evaluateandassesstheirown 4AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsworkand，generally,toIcamhowtolearnfromtheirownsuccessesandfailuresinwayswhichwillhelpthemtobecomemoreefficientlearnersinthefuture”．Thomsonthinksthatleamerautonomyreferstolearninginwhichthelearnersthemselvestakeresponsibilityfortheirownleaming．1．1．4AutonomyasasynthesisLinguistswhoholdthispointofviewdefineleamerautonomyfromsomeaspects．TherepresentativeisBenson．Benson(1997：29)viewsautonomywithinapoliticalframework．Hedefinesleamerautonomyasrepresenting‘‘arecognitionoftherightsoflearnerswithineducationalsystems”and，withinthecontextofteachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage，as‘‘arecognitionoftherightsofthe‘non-nativespeaker’inrelationtothe‘native-speaker’withintheglobalorderofEnglish”．Hesummarizesfivesituationsinwhichthewordautonomyhasbeenusedinlanguageeducation：Forsituationsinwhichleamerstudyentirelyontheirown；Forasetofskillswhichcanbelearnedandappliedinself-directedlearning；Foraninbomcapacitywhichissuppressedbyinstitutionaleducation；Fortheexerciseoflearner’Sresponsibilityfortheirownleaming；Fortherightoflearnerstodeterminethedirectionoflearning．(Benson&Voller,1997：2)WhatBensonandVollertrytotellUSisthatautonomyrefersnotonlytoaninborncapacityofthelearner,butalsoleamers’actualexerciseoftheirresponsibilityfortheirownlearning．Althoughit’Slearners’righttotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearning，theyarealwayspreventedfromdoingthisbecauseofinstitutionaleducation．Inordertoguaranteethisright，learnersmusthaveself-directedlearningskillsandbeputinsupportiveenvironmentwithrealopportunities．Boud(1988：17)viewsautonomyasaneducationalpractice(citedinGardner,D．&Miller,L．)．Hepointsouttherearethreeaspectsinleamerautonomy：learnerautonomyisnotonlyateachingaimbutalsoakindofteachingtheory,andevenasakindoflearningstrategies(Boud，1998)．AccordingtoPembertonR．eta1．(1996)，autonomyisdefinedas‘‘thetechniquesusedinordertodirectone’Sownlearning”．Thedefinitionsmentionedabovedealwiththeconceptoflearnerautonomyfromdifferentperspectives，buttheyhavesomethingincommon．InChineselearningenvironment，learnerautonomyshouldcoveratleastthefollowingaspects： 1)takeapositiveattitudetowardslearningbyacceptingtheresponsibilityfortheirownlearningandtakeinitiativelearning，2)havetheabilitytolearn，toselectandimplementappropriatelearningstrategies，3)havesomefreetimeandareabletoorganizetheirtimeeffectivelv'4)beabletoevaluatetheoutcomeoftheirlearning．5)beabletoselectleamingmaterialsandmakegooduseofthem，6)formulatetheirownlearninggoalsaccordingtotheirlevels．Insum，learnerautonomycanberegardedasacapacitytomakechoicesrelatingtowhat，whyandhowtolearn，toimplementtheplanandevaluatetheresuitofleaming·Atthesametime，autonomydoesnotmeantotalindependence，forlanguagedevelopmentrequiresinteraction．Inthisthesis，autonomyreferstoapositiveattitudeandacapacityoflearnerst0takechargeoftheirlearninganddisplaytheirinitiatives，especiallyinasituationoflearningEnglishasaforeignlanguage．1．2RationaleofLearnerAutonomyisnotdrivenbysingle，clearlydefinedtheoriesormethods，itsrisehasreflectedamoregeneraltrendinlanguageteaching；however,itsindependencefromspecifictheoriesdoesnotmeanthattheoryisnotrelevant．Infact，manyresearchersintheliteratureseekjustificationsoflearnerautonomyfromawidevarletvofphilosophical，psychological，andpoliticalsources．Andsomeapproachestoeducationalpsychology⋯humanism，constructivism～hadaprofoundimpact0ntheadvocacyofautonomouslearning．Areviewofthetwoapproachestolanguageeducation，especiallytosecondlanguagelearningandteaching，willbeoffered．1．2．1Humanismisaschoolofthoughtthatbelieveshumanbeingsaredifferentfromotherspeciesandpossesscapacitiesthatcannotbefoundinanimals．Humanists．therefore，giveprimacytothestudyofhumanneedsandinterests．Inhumanisticview,thebasicconcernisthehumanpotentialgrowthandeducationistoenhanceactualizationandgivefreeharnesstoonepotential．“Humanisticapproachesemphasizetheimportanceoftheinnerworldofthelearnerandplacetheindividual，s 6AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajorsthoughts，feelings，andemotionsattheforefrontofallhumandevelopment”(Williams，M．&Burden，R．L．1997)．Theseaspectsofthelearningprocessareoftenunjustlyneglected，yettheyarevitallyimportantifwearetounderstandhumanlearninginitstotality．Therearefivebasicobjectivesofthehumanisticviewofeducation：1)topromotepositiveself-directionandindependence(developmentoftheregulatorysystem)；2)todeveloptheabilitytotakeresponsibilityforwhatislearned(regulatoryandaffectivesystems)；3)todevelopcreativity(divergentthinkingaspectofcognition)；4)toarousecuriosity(exploratorybehavior,afunctionofimbalanceordissonanceinanyofthesystems)；5)tocultivateaninterestinthearts(primarilytodeveloptheaffective／emotionalsystem)．ThemainrepresentativefiguresareMaslowandRogers．AbrahamMaslowmakesanimportantcontributiontopsychologyforhisbasicneedstheory．Hesuggestedahierarchyofneedwhichconsistsoftwocategories，maintenance(deficiency)needsatthelowestlevel，be(orgrowth)atthehi【ghest．Thefirstfourlayersaredirectlyrelatedtoaperson’Spsychologicalorbiologicalbalance．Growthneedsarerelatedtothefulfillmentofindividualpotential．Onlywhenthelowerneedsaremetisitpossibletomoveontothehigherlevel．Levelone：basicphysiologicalneedsincluderequirementsforfood，water,sleep，sex，relaxationandtheabsenceofpain．Leveltwo：needsforsafetyandsecuritycallforapredictableandoddlyworld．Ifthesearenotsatisfiedpeoplewilllooktoorganizetheirworldstoprovideforthegreatestdegreeofsafetyandsecurity．Levelthree：loveandbelongingsneedmakespeopleseekwarmthandfriendrelationship．Levelfour：self-esteemneedsincludethedesireforstrength，achievement，adequacy,mastery,andcompetence．Theyalsoinvolveconfidence，independence，reputationandprestige．Levelfive：self-actualizationisfulluseandexpressionoftalents，capacitiesandpotentials．Fewpeopleeverrealizetheirfullpotentialorachieve“self-actualization”．AlthoughMaslow’Stheoryhasbeencriticizedfortheculturalparticularism，ithasnonethelesshadaconsiderableinfluenceoneducationtheory,inthatitstressestheimportanceofanindividual’Swishtodevelopasawholeperson(toactualizeoneself)， andthatthisdesireiSatremendoussourceofmotivationthereforemoreimportantthanobjectiveknowledge．CarlRogersisanothergreatfigureinhumanisticpsychology．Beginningwiththepremisethathumanbeingshaveanaturalpotentialforlearning，hesuggeststhatsignificantlearningwillonlytakeplacewhenthesubjectmatterisperceivedtobeofrelevancetotheleamerwhenitinvolvesactiveparticipationbytheleamer,i．e，，experientiallearning．Learningwhichisself-initiatedwhichinvolvesfeelingsaswellascognitionismostlikelytobelastingpervasive．Healsopointsoutthatwhenthereisaperceivedthreattotheleamer’Sself-image，resistancetolearningislikelytoOCCUr．Independence，creativityself-reliancearemostlikelytoflourishinlearningsituationswhereexternalcriticismiskepttoaminimumwhereself-evaluationisencouraged．Thatis，learningbesttakesplaceinanatmosphereof“unconditionalpositiveregard'’．Thiscanbestbeestablishedonlyifteachersbuildarelationshipoftrust，warmthempathywithstudents．Asatherapist，Rogers(1967)developedanewapproach．Hecalleditclient—centeredtherapy,orperson—centeredtherapytostressthefactthattheclient，ratherthanthetherapist，shouldbethecentralfigure．Heconcludedthattheperson-centeredapproachcouldbeappliedjustassuccessfullytoteaching．1．2．2ConstruetivismConstructivismisoneofthewarmesttopicsineducationalpsychology．ConstructivismisaneweducationalpsychologyschoolwhichisinfluencedbyPiaget’ScognitivedevelopmentalpsychologyVygotsky’Ssocialinteractionism．Learnerautonomyiscongruentwiththetheoryofconstructivism．Constructivismisaphilosophyoflearningfoundedonthepremisethatweconstructourownknowledgeorunderstandingoftheworldweliveinbasedonourpreviouscurrentexperiences．Eachofusgeneratesourown‘'rules’’and‘‘mentalmodels”，whichweusetomakesenseofourexperiences．Learning，therefore，issimplytheprocessofadjustingourmentalmodelstoaccommodatenewexperiences．JeanPiagethasbeenthedominantfigureincognitivedevelopmentalpsychologypartlybecausehewroteSOextensivelyaboutitOVermanyyears．OneofthemostenduringaspectsofPiaget’Sworkhasbeenhisemphasisupontheconstructivenatureofthelearningprocess．Hethinksthat“themainunderlyingassumptionofconstructivismisthatindividualsareactivelyinvolvedfightfrombirthinconstructing AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajorspersonalmeaning，thatis，theirownpersonalunderstanding，fromtheirexperiences”．Inotherwords，‘‘everyonemakestheirownsenseoftheworldandtheexperiencesthatsurroundthem．Inthiswaythelearnerisbroughtintocentralfocusinlearningtheory”(WilliamsM．&BurdenR．L．，1997)．AnimportantadvocateofPiaget’SideashasbeenJeromeBruner,whothinkstheprocessofeducationisatleastasimportantasitsproduct．Tohim，thedevelopmentofconceptualunderstandingandofcognitiveskillsandstrategiesisacentralaimofeducation，ratherthantheacquisitionoffactualinformation．GeorgeKellyhasbeenoneoftheunjustlyneglectedpioneersoftheconstmctivistmovement，eventhoughhispersonal-constructtheoryhasprofoundimplicationsforteachers，teachertrainersandeducationalpsychologists．Kellybeganwiththepremiseof‘man—as—scientist’constantlyseekingtomakesenseofhisworld．Peoplecarryouttheirownpersonalexperiments，constructhypothesesandactivelyseektoconfirmordisconfirmthem．Hemakesacleardistinctionbetweenmeaningfulandmeaninglesslearningactivities．Learnersareinvolvedinanactiveprocessofmakingsense，ofcreatingtheirownunderstandingoftheworldoflanguagethatsurroundsthem．Ameaningfulactivityisonethatencouragesthisprocessofmakingsense，ofmappingthenewontotheoldtocreateanewunderstanding．Inbrief,constructivismbelievesthatlearningisaprocessinwhichlearnersconstructnewideasorconceptsbasedontheirpastknowledge．Constructivistlearningtheoryadvocatesthatlearningisstudent—centeredandinstructedbyteachers，whichputsgreatemphasisonleamers．Studentsarenotpassivereceiver．Instead，theyareactiveconstructors．Theleamersselectandtransfominformation，constructhypothesesandmakedecisionsrelyingonacognitivestructure．Cognitivestructure(i．e．schema，mentalmodels)providesmeaningandorganizationtoexperiencesandallowstheindividualtogobeyondtheinformationgiven．1．3DifferencesandFluctuationsintheDegreeofLearnerAutonomyNunan(1997：I93)pointsout“itmaywellbethatthefullyautonomousleanerisanideal，ratherthanareality'’．Thatmeansitisdifficultorevenimpossibleforonetobecomeafullyautonomouslearner．Hearguesfordegreesofautonomyandthatlearners’potentialforachievingdifferentdegreesdependsonfactorsliketheirpersonality,theirgoals，institutionalphilosophyandculturalcontextwithinwhichthelearningtakesplace．Hesetsoutaschemeproposingfivelevelsfordevelopinglearner ChapterOneLiteratureReview9autonomyinrelationshiptouseoflearningmaterials(seeTable1．1)．Atthesefivelevels，learnerautonomycanbeworkedtowards，fromrelativelysuperficialawarenessrisingallthroughtocompleteautonomywherelearnerstranscendtheclassroomandtakecompletechargeoftheirownleaming．Hedescribestheselevelsofautonomyintermsoftwokeycurriculardomains，theexperientialcontentdomain(whichhastodowiththetopics，themes，languagefunctions，andSOon)andthelearningprocessdomain(whichrelatestomethodology,andisconcernedwithselection，creation，modificationandadaptationoflearningtasksandprocedures)．Table1．1Autonomy：levelsofimplementation(Nunan，1997：193)LevelLearneractionContentProcess1AwarenessLearnersaremadeawareofLeamersidentifystrategythepedagogicalgoalsandimplicationsofpedagogicalcontentofthematerialstheytasksandidentifytheirownareusing．preferredlearningstyles／strate百es．2lnvolvementLearnersareinvolvedinLearnersmakechoicesselectingtheirowngoalsfromamongarangeofoptions．arangeofaltemativesonoffer．3InterventionLearnersareinvolvedinLearnersmodify／adapttasks．modifyingandadaptingthegoalsandcontentofthelearningprogram．4CreationLeamerscreatetheirownLearnerscreatetheirowngoalsandobjectives．tasks．5TranscendenceLearnersgobeyondtheLearnersbecometeachersclassroomandmake1inksandresearchers．betweenthecontentofclassroomlearningandtheworldbeyond．Inadditiontothedifferencesindegreesofautonomy,theremayalsobefluctuationsinthedegreesofautonomyovertimeandfromskillareatoanother．Forexample，alearnermayattainahighdegreeofautonomyinlisteningbutcouldremain AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsteacherdependentinlearningaboutwriting．Thedegreeofautonomyisdecidedbyhowmuchthelearnertakesonresponsibilityforhislearningandhowmuchheisinvolvedintheinitiation，planning，monitoringandassessment．1．4CharacteristicsofAutonomousLearnersInthisthesis，whichplacesthelearneratthecenteroffocus，itisimportanttoidentifythecharacteristicsofanautonomouslearner．Thefollowingtableprovidesacollectionofthecharacteristicsofautonomous1eamers．Tablel．2Characteristicsofautonomouslearners·Firstly,theyareabletoidentifywhathasbeentaughtandwhataretheteacher’Spurposes．·Secondly,theyareabletoformulatetheirownlearningobjectives．Dickinson·Thirdly,theycananddoselectandimplementappropriate(1993：learningstrategies，oftenconsciously．330-336)·Fourthly,theycanmonitortheuseofstrategiesandcanidentifystrategiesthatarenotworkingforthem，thatarenotappropriate，anduseothers．·Finally,theyCanassesstheirownachievement，inotherwords，theycanmonitortheirownlearning．Autonomouslearnerwillassumemostoftheresponsibilityfor"roughplanningstrategy,maintainingmotivationandmakingcertain(1971：4)throughoutthelearningprocessthateverythingnecessaryforSuccessiSdone．RathboneTheautonomouslearnerisaself-activatedmakerofmeaning，an(1971：100，activeagentinhisownlearningprocess．Heisnotonetowhom104，citedinthingsmerelyhappen；heistheonewho，byhisownvolition，Candy,1991：causesthingstohappen．Learningisseenastheresultofhisown271)self-initiatedinteractionwiththeworld． ChapterOneLiteratureReviewAutonomouslearnersarethosewhohaveacquiredthelearningWendenstrategies，theknowledgeaboutlearning，andtheattitudesthat(1991：15)enablethemtousetheseskillsandknowledgeconfidently,flexibly,appropriatelyandindependentlyofateacher．·Autonomouslearnershaveinsightsintotheirlearningstylesandstrategies．·Takeanactiveapproachtothelearningtaskathand．·Arewillingtotakerisks，i．e．，tocommunicateinthetargetOmaggio(1978，languageatallcosts．citedinWenden，·Aregoodguessers．1998：41—42)·Attendtoformaswellastocontext，thatis，placeimportanceonaccuracyaswellasappropriation．·Developthetargetlanguageintoaseparatereferencesystemandarewillingtoreviseandrejecthypothesisandrulesthatdonoapply．·Haveatolerantandoutgoingapproachtothetargetlanguage．AutonomousstudentsshouldhavesufficientunderstandingofTudorlanguagelearning，ofthestudyoptionsavailabletothem，andof(1997：18)theirownaffectiveinteractionwiththeprocesstomakeinformedchoicesabouttheirlanguagestudy．·Knowtheirneedsandworkproductivelywiththeteachertowardstheachievementoftheirobjectives．·Learnbothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom．·Cantakeclassroom．basedmaterialandbuildonit．Hedge·Knowhowtouseresourcesindependently．(2000：76)·Learnwithactivethinking．·Adjusttheirlearningstrategieswhennecessarytoimprovelearning·Manageanddividethetimeinlearningproperly．·Don’tthinktheteacherisagodwhocangivethemabilitytomasterthelanguage． AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsAnactiveparticipantinthesocialprocessesofclassroomDameta1．(1990，learning．．．anactiveinterpreterofnewinformationintermsofcitedinGardnerwhatshe／healreadyanduniquelyknows⋯[someonewho】knows&Miller,howtolearnandcanusethisinher／hislife．Inaddition，Dam1996：6jcharacterizesleamerautonomyasareadinesstotakechargeofone’sownlearning．·Settinglearninggoals；·Identifyinganddevelopinglearningstrategiestoachievesuchgoals；·Developingstudyplans；Chan(2001：506)·Reflectingonlearning(whichincludesidentifyingproblemareasandmeansofaddressingtheseproblems)；·Identifyingandselectingrelevantresourcesandsupport；·Assessingone’Sownprogress(whichincludesdefiningcriteriaforevaluatingperformanceandlearning)．·Taketheresponsibilityforhisownstudy；·Havecleargoalsforlearning；Peng(2002：16)·Makeplansforstudy；·Assesstheprogressofstudy；·Adjustthelearningstrategies．ThesescholarsprovideUSwithdifferentdefinitionsofcharacteristicsofautonomouslearners，whichseemsconfusingatfirstsight，butifwetakeasecondlook，wewillfindtheydoshedalightonsomekeycharacteristicsofalearnerwhocantakeresponsibilityoflearning：anabilitytodefineone’Sownobjectives；awarenessofhowtouselanguagematerialseffectively；carefulorganizationoftimeforlearningandactivedevelopmentofleamingstrategies．1．5FactorsAffectingLearnerAutonomyThesignificanceoflearnerautonomyisself-evident；however,howtodeveloplearnerautonomyiscloselyrelatedtotheissueoffactorsinfluencingitsdevelopmentthatwillbediscussedinthefollowingsection．Learnerautonomyisnotanarticleoffaith，aproductreadymadeforuseormerelyapersonalqualityortrait．Rather,itshouldbeclarifiedthatautonomous ChapterOneLiteratureReviewlearningisachievedoncertainconditions：someinnerfactorssuchasattitudes，motivation，self-esteem，learningstrategiesonthepartoflearnersandsomeexternal／situationalfactorssuchasteachers，educationalsystem，socialandculturalinfluencesOfltheotherpart．Inthispartsomeoftheinnerfactorscrucialtolearnerautonomywillbediscussed．1．5．1Attitudespredisposeapersontoactinacertainway(Baker,1998，citedbyYiXiubo，2004：114)．Wenden(1998：52)definesattitudesas“leamedmotivations，valuedbeliefs，evaluation，whatonebelievesisacceptable，orresponsesorientedtowardsapproachingoravoiding”．Forher,twokindsofattitudesarecrucial：attitudeslearnersholdabouttheirroleinthelearningprocessandtheircapabilityasleamers(Wenden，1998：53)．Inasense，attitudesareaformofmetacognitiveknowledge．Atanyrate，‘‘learnerbeliefsabouttheirroleandcapabilityaslearnerswillbeshapedandmaintainedbyotherbeliefstheyholdaboutthemselvesasleamers”(Wenden，1998：54)．Forexample，ifIearnersbelievethatcertaintypesofpeoplecannotleamaforeignlanguageandtheybelievetheyarethatkindofpeople，theywillthinkthattheyarefightinga“losingbattle”，asfaraslearningtheforeignlanguageisconcerned．Furthermore，iflearnerslabourunderthemisconceptionthatlearningissuccessfulonlywithinthecontextofthe‘‘traditionalclassroom”，wheretheteacherdirects，instructs，andmanagesthelearningactivity,andstudentsmustfollowintheteacher’Sfootsteps，theyarelikelytobeimperviousorresistanttolearner-centeredstrategiesaimingatautonomyandSUCCESSislikelytobeundermined(Dimitrios，2000)．Inaway,attitudesare“partofone’Sperceptionofself,ofothers，andofthecultureinwhichoneisliving【orthecultureofthetargetlanguage]”(Brown，1987：126)，anditseemsclearthatpositiveattitudesareconductivetoincreasedmotivation，whilenegativeattitudeshavetheoppositeeffect．Inshort，theattitudesthatlearnersholdhaveaprofoundinfluenceontheirlearningbehaviour．Languagelearnersshoulddeveloppositivebeliefsandattitudestowardsautonomyiftheyaretotakeresponsibilityfortheirlearning．Inthispapertheauthorinterpretsattitudesaslearner’Swillingnesstoaccepttheresponsibilityfortheirownlearningandtotakeinitiativesinlearning．1．5．2Motivation MotivationmaybedefinedasastateofcognitiveandemotionalarousalwhichJeadstoaconsciousdecisiontoact，andwhichgivesrisetoaperiodofsustainedintellectualorphysicaleffortinordertoattainpreviouslysetgoals．Cognitivepsychologyhasbeen’highlightingthesignificanceofmotivationinlanguagelearning．Motivationisconsideredtobeoneofthemaindete册iningfactorSinsuccessindevelopinganL2．Itdeterminestheextentofactive，perSonalinvolvementinL2，whichenableslearnerstodeveloptheirpotentialL2skills．ThemostextremestatementabouttheimportanceofmotivationinlanguageleamingisprobablyCorder’snotedstatement“Givenmotivation，anyonecanleamaIangua2e”(citedinWeiQiong，2004)．Thisstatementsuggeststhatamotivatedlanguageleamercanovercomeanyunfavorableconditioninlearning．GardnerandLambert(1972)distinguishedintegrativeandinstrumentalmotivationofL2learning．TheformermeansalearnerleamsL2iustbecauseheisInterestedinlanguageitselfortheculturepresentedbythelanguage，andhehasInternaldynamics-InstrumentalmotivationmeansL2learnertrytOachievetheirothergoalsbymeansofmasteringL2．ThatistoForexample，theymaylearnL2tOpassansay,L2isjustatoolmadeuseofbythem．examination，togetabetterjobortoenteranidealuniversity．Itwasoriginallyfoundthatintegrativemotivationcorrelateswithhigherachievementinthelanguage，leadingtosuggestionthatitisamoreimportantformofmotiVation．HoweVer,otherstudieshavechallengedthisview．Brown(2000)makesthepointthatintegrativeandinstrumentalmotiVationarenotnecessarilymutuallyexclusive．Learnersrarelyselectsecondlanguage，butratheracombinationoneformofmotivationwhenleamingaofbothorientations．Students’progressisinfluencedbothbyadesiretodowellinEnglishasaschoolsubject，andbyaninterestinEnglishspeakingpeopleandtheirculture．Bothhaveaparttoplay,andareinf．actlinked．ThereisnodoubtthatpositiveattitudesandmotivationarerelatedtosuccessinSLA．Butinwhatwaymotivationisrelatedtolearningisunknownno、砜andsomeoneevenaskedwhethermotivationproducessuccessfullearningorsuccessfullearningenhancesmotivation·Inmyopinion，therelationbetweenmotivationandsuccess如lleaming1smutua1．itheypromoteeachother．Butatthebeginningoflearning．motivationISanImportantfactortodeterminethelevelofproficiencyachievedbvdifferentlearners．AsEnglishteachers，weallcanseeintheclassroommotivatedstudents-usuallyparticipateactivelyinclass，expressinterestinwhattheteacheris teachingandstudyagreatdeal．Therefore，weshouldtryeverymeanstostimulatestudents’motivation．1．5．3Self-esteemCloselyrelatedtoattitudesandmotivationiStheconceptofself-esteem，thatis，theevaluationthelearnermakesofhimself／herselfwithregardtothetargetlanguagelearningingeneral．Manyresearchfindingsclaimthatnosuccessfulcognitiveoraffectiveactivitycanbecardedoutwithoutsomedegreeofself-esteem，self-confidence，knowledgeofself,andbeliefinone’scapabilityforthatactivity(YiXiubo，2004：122)．Brown(1987：102)definesself-esteemas“apersonaljudgmentofwoahinessthatisexpressedintheattitudesthattheindividualholdstowardshimself’，anddistinguishesthreetypes．Generalself-esteemisthoughttOberelativelystableinamatureadult．Situationalself-esteemiSasecond1evelofself-esteemrelatedtohowweappraiseourselvesinspecificsituations，suchasworkorschool，orasregardsspecificabilities，suchascommunicativeability,athleticability．Taskself-esteemreferstOparticulartaskswithinspecificsituations．Anexampleoftaskself-esteemcouldbehowoneratesoneselfinaparticularskill，suchaswriting，reading⋯lfthelearnerhasa‘robustsenseofself(citedinBenson＆Voller,1997：134)，hisrelationshiptohimselfasaleamerisunlikelytobemarredbyanynegativeassessmentsbysignificantothers．Conversely,alackofself-esteemislikelytoleadtonegativeattitudestowardshiscapabilityasalearner,andto‘adeteriorationincognitiveperformance’，thusconfirminghisviewofhimselfasincapableoflearning(Wenden，1991：57)．Therefore，onlywithhighdegreeofself-esteemwilllearnersreactandjoinactivelyinlearningactivitiesandbecomeautonomouslearners．1．5．4LearningstrategiesAlmosteverystudentisusinghisorherpreferredlearningstrategiesconsciouslyorunconsciouslyintheprocedureofEnglishlearning．Researchershaveoftenfoundthathigher-proficiencylearnersreportedusingmorelearningstrategies，andwithgreaterfrequency,thanlower-proficiencylearners．Moreover,useofappropriatelearningstrategiesenablesstudentstotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearningbyenhancinglearnerautonomy,independence，andself-direction．Hence，developingskillsinlearningstrategiescanhelplanguagelearnersbuildupleamerindependence andautonomywherebytheycantakecontroloftheirownleaming．Giventheimportanceoflearningstrategies，researchersarebecomingincreasinglyinterestedinit，thusvariousdefinitionshavebeenproposedbydifferentscholars．WeinsteinMayerdefinelearningstrategiesasthebehavioursthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearningthatareintrndedtoinfluencethelearner’Sencodingprocess．O’MalleyChamot(1990)seeitasthespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend，leam，orretainnewinformation．Oxford(1990)refersitto“specificactionstakenbythelearnertomakelearningeasier,faster,moreenjoyable，moreself-directed，andmoretransferabletonewsituations”．Cohen(1998)statesitasakindoflearningprocessesthatwillfacilitatetheacquisitionthatthelearnersselectconsciously．Asforclassificationsoflearningstrategies，itisthesamecaseasthedefinition．Quiteafewscholarsadvancedtheirowndivisions．Wenden(1998)dividesthemintothreecategories：beingawareofwhatlanguageleaminginvolves；makingplansaboutthecontentmethodsoflearning；andself-evaluatingtheprogressthelearningexperience．WenQiufang(1996)，onbasisofherresearchonChineseEFLlearner’Slearningstrategies，proposesherclassificationoflearningstrategieswhichconsistsoftwomajorparts：managementstrategieslanguagelearningstrategies．Toher,Englishlearningmethodscompriseaseriesofvariables，someonahigherlevel，theothersonalowerlevel．Inherframework，theefficiencyofusinglanguagelearningstrategiesisdecidedbywhetherlearnerscansucceedinusingmanagementstrategies--．．．．thehigherordel"executiveskills．Oxford(1990)dividesLSintotwocategories：directindirectstrategies，thetwoofwhicharesubdividedintothreegroupsrespectively．Thefollowingfigurepresentsaclearframework．MemoryStrategies·Memorystrategiesareusedforenteringnewinformationintomemorystorage forrefneVingitwhenneededcommunication(e．g．grouping，representingsoundsInmemory,structuredreviewing，usingphysicalresponse)．·CognitivestrategiesareusedlinkingnewinformationwithexistingschemaCaandanalyzingandclassifyingit．Cognitivestrategiesareresponsibledeepprocessing，formingandrevisinginternalmentalmodelsandreceivingandproducingmessagesinthetargetlanguage(e．g．guessingfromcontext，reasoning1nducflVelyanddeductively,repeating,gettingtheideaquickly,analyzingandtakingnotes)．·ComPensationstrategies，whichcompensateaknowledgegap．helplearnersmakeupmissingknowledgewhenusingEnglishinoralorwrittencommunlcatlon(e～gswitchingtothemothertongue，usingotherclues．gettinghelpandusingasynonymetc．)．·Metacognitivestrategiesaletechniquesusedorganizing，planning，focusingandevaluatingone’sownlearning(e．g．1inkingnewinformationwithalreadyknownone，seekingpracticeopportunities，andself-monitoring)．·AffectiVestrategiesareusedhandlingfeelings，attitudesandmotivations．Thevrepresentactionstakeninrelationtoself(e．g．10weringanxietybytheuseofdeepbre越hingandmusicetc．，encouragingoneselfandtakingone’Semotionaltemperaturebywritingalanguagelearningdiaryanddiscussingfeelingswithothersetc．)．·Soclalstrategiesareusedfacilitatinginteractionbyaskingquestions．andcooperatingwithothersinthelearningprocess．Theyrepresentactionstakeninrelationtoothers(e．g．askingclassificationandcorrection，cooperatingwithothers，developingculturalunderstandingandbecomingawareofothers，thoughCsandfeelings)．Themostwidelyusedcategorizationis0’Malley&Chamot，sthree．partapproach(1990)．Itcomprisesthreegroups：cognitivestrategies，metaco．gnitivestrategiesandsocial／affectivestrategies．Cognitivestrategiesrefertoprocessesandbehaviourswhichlearnersusetohelpthemimprovetheirabilitiestoleamor啪embersomething，particularlythosewhichlearnersusewithspecificclassroomtasksoractivities(1990)．Metacognitivestrategiesale“higherorderexecutiveskillslhatmayentailplanningfor,monitoring，orevaluatingthesuccessofalearningacliVity”(1990)·Social／affectivestrategiesrepresent“abroadgroupingthatinvolveseltherinteractionwithanotherpersonorideationalcontroloveraffect”(1990)．Somerepresentativestrategiesarelistedinthefollowingtable． AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsTablel．3O’MalleyandChamot’Sclassificationoflearningstrategies(0’Malley&Chamot，1990：46)ClassificationRepresentativeDefinitionsstrategiesSelectiveFocusingonspecialaspectsoflearningtasks，asattentioninplanningtolistenforkeywordsorphrases．PlanningPlanningfortheorganizationofeitherwrittenMetacognitiveorspokendiscourse．StrategiesReviewingattentiontoatask，comprehensionofMonitoringinformationthatshouldberemembered，orproductionwhileitisoccurring．CheckingcomprehensionaftercompletionofaEvaluationreceptivelanguageactivity,orevaluatinglanguageproductionafterithastakenplace．RehearsalRepeatingthenamesofitemsorobjectstoberemembered．Groupingandclassifyingwords，terminology,Organizationorconceptsaccordingtotheirsemanticorsyntacticattributes．UsinginformationintexttoguessmeaningsofInferencelaewlinguisticitems，predictoutcomes，orcompletemissingparts．CognitiveSummarizingIntermittentlysynthesizingwhatonehasheardStrategiestoensuretheinformationhasbeenretained．DeducingApplyingrulestotheunderstandingoflanguage．Usingvisualimages(eithergeneratedoractual)Imagerytounderstandandremembernewverbalinformation．TransferUsingknownlinguisticinformationtofacilitateanewlearningtask．ElaborationLinkingideascontainedinnewinformation，orintegratingnewideaswithknowninformation． ChapterOneLiteratureReviewWorkingwithpeerstosolveaproblem，poolCooperationinformation，checknotes，orgetfeedbackonalearningactivity．Social／AffectiveQuestioningforElicitingfromateacherorpeeradditionalStrategiesclarificationexplanation，rephrasing，orexamples．UsingmentalredirectionofthinkingtoassureSelf-talkoneselfthatalearningactivitywillbesuccessfulortoreduceanxietyaboutatask．ItISobviousthatnotallstudentsaresuccessfullearnersinEnglishstudybecauseoftheexistenceofmultiplevariables．Theydifferwidelyfromeachotherinabilities，personalities，intellects，interests，needsandSOon．InrelationtoautonomousEnglishlearning，theveryimportantvariablesarethatstudentshavedifferentattitudes，motivations，learningstylesandlearningstrategies．Itisverynecessaryforteacherstopaymuchattentiontothesefactorswiththeaimofdevelopingstudents’autonomousEnglishlearningintheclassroom．1．6DistinctionsbetweenRelevantTermsBesidesthetermofautonomy,someothertermsarealsousedsynonymouslybydifferentwritersintheliteratureofautonomy,suchasself-direction，self-access，self-instruction，andlearnerindependence．Actuallytheyaredifferentfromtheconceptofautonomyinonewayoranother．Therefore，itisquitenecessarytomakeadistinctionoftheseterms．Autonomouslearningisanactoflearningbywhichmotivatedlearnersconsciouslymakeinformeddecisionsaboutthatlearning．Onethingtheauthorwantstomakeclearisthatitistheroleofthelearner,butnotthepresenceorabsenceofateacherthatcontributestothedeterminingfactorofautonomy．Thatistosay,autonomydoesnotnecessarilymeanlearningwithoutateacher．Instead，autonomyisastateofknowingoneselfandknowinghowtodothings．Astudent，learningunderthesupervisionofateacherinclassroom，canalsobeanautonomousleameraslongashe／sheadaptstheclassroomlearningtohis／herownneeds．Incontrast，alearner,whoislearningthroughtelevision(distancelearningorprogrammedlearning)，isnotnecessarilyautonomousbecause“theaims，content，methods，andevaluationofthatlearningareinvariablydecidedfromtheoutside，leavingthelearnernoopportunityto intervene”(Holee，198l：4)．Self-directedlearningisdefinedas‘‘aprocessinwhichindividualstaketheinitiative，withorwithoutthehelpofothers，indiagnosingtheirlearningneed，formulatinglearninggoals，identifyinghumanandmaterialresourcesforlearning，choosingandevaluatinglearningoutcomes”(Knowles，1975：18)．Dickinson(1987：11)seesself-directionasanattitudetothelearningtaskwithinwhichlearnersacceptresponsibilityfordecision-makingbutdonotnecessarilyimplementthedecisions．Self-instructionis“adeliberatelong—termlearningprojectinstigated，plannedandcarriedoutbytheleameralone，withoutteacherintervention(Jones，F．R．1998：378)．Itcontainstwoparadigms：teachyourselfandfullautonomy．Teachyourselfisasoloinstructionledbythesyllabusofalanguage—learningpackage．Fullautonomyisasoloinstructionaccordingtothelearner’Sownsyllabus，thereisnoinvolvementofateacherorinstitution，andthelearnerisalsoindependentofspecificallypreparedmaterials．Self-accesslearningisthekindofleamingthattakesplaceinaself-accesscentre．Itisusedwithmoreemphasison“meansofusing，reachingorobtaining”，suchas“self-accesssystemorself-accesscentre”．AccordingtoDickinson(1987)，self-accessisneitheramethodnoratechnique．ItreferstO“theorganizationoflearningmaterials(andprobablyequipment)tomakethemdirectlyavailabletothelearner”(Dickinson，1987：10)．Benson(1998)summarizesthatifautonomyistheaim，thenself-directionisameanstothisendandself-accessiSanenvironmentwithinwhichitcanbeachieved． ChapterTwoMethodologyThischapterofferssomeinformationrelatedtotheresearch．Firstthepurposeoftheresearchisclarified．Whatfollowsisabriefdescriptionofthesubjectsoftheresearchandtheinstrumentsemployedtocollectandanalyzethedata．Finallydatacollectionandanalysisproceduresareintroduced．2．1PurposesoftheResearchTheprincipalaimoftheresearchistoexaminethedegreeofautonomyofnon‘Englishmajors，whichinvolvesfiveaspects：attitudestowardsleamerautonomy,perceptionofteachers’role，degreeofself-esteem，motivationanduseoflearningstrategies．Italsoaimstotracethereasonsandanalyzetheimplicationstoenhancestudents’learnerautonomy．Thisstudyisintendedtoaddresstwostudyquestions：(1)．HowautonomousareChinesenon-EnglishmajorstudentsunderinvestigationinEnglishlearning?(2)．DofemaleandmalestudentsobtainthesamedegreeofautonomyinEnglishlearning?2．2SubjectsThesubjectsinthestudyare132sophomoresinChang’anUniversity,inwhich66arefemalesand66aremales．Theyarefromfourclasses，majoringinMechanism，ElectronicInformation，AccountingandJournalismrespectively．Theyareusuallyprovidedwith4hoursofclassroomEnglishteachingperweekinintensivereading，extensivereadingandlistening．Bothteachersandstudentsadoptthetraditionalteachingandlearningmethods．Greatimportanceisattachedtogrammarandvocabulary；littleattentionispaidtospeaking．TheteachingCanbedescribedastextbook．based，teacher-dominatedandexam—oriented．2．3．1Questionnaire2．3InstrumentsThequestionnaireisexpectedtomeasurestudents’degreeofautonomy．Itis 22AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsdifficulttofindanavailableready-madeone．Thequestionnaire(seeAppendixA)usedinthestudyisdesignedonthebasisofOxford’SStrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning(SILL)version7．OandWenQiufang’SquestionnaireontheEnglishLearningSituationofChineseLeamers(WenQiufang&WangLifei，2004：307—311)．Itconsistsoftwosections．Thefirstsectionisaboutthesubjects’personalinformation，i．e．，gender,age，major．Thesecondsection，aimingtoinvestigatethesubjects’beliefsaboutlearnerautonomyandtheirautonomousEnglishlearningbehaviors，iscomposedof55items，whichconcernsfiveaspects．Thefirstaspectisaboutstudents’attitudestowardslearnerautonomy(6items)．Thesecondaspectisaboutstudents’perceptionofteachers’role(6items)．Thethirdaspectisaboutstudents’degreeofself-esteem(5items)．Thefourthaspectisaboutstudents’motivation(7items)．Thefifthaspectisaboutstudents’useoflearningstrategies，whichissubdividedintothreesubsections．Theyareaboutcognitivestrategies(11items)，metacognitivestrategies(13items)，andsocial／affectivestrategies(7items)respectively．Eachitemwasonafive-pointLikertScale，rangingfrom“stronglydisagree’’to“stronglyagree”．ThequestionnaireforstudentsiswritteninChineseSOthattheycanunderstandatease．Besides，thereliabilityoftherevisedquestionnaireistested．TheCronbachalphacoefficientisO．870，higherthantheacceptablevalue0．70，whichindicatesthattheintemalconsistencyofthequestionnaireisstrongenoughandthecollecteddataarereliable．Togetthedetailedinformation，pleasesconsultAppendixB．ReliabilityStatisticsCronbach’SAlphaBasedNofltemsAlphaonStandardizedItems0．8700．872552．3．2InterviewAfterthequestionnaireinvestigation，asemi—instructedinterviewwasconducted，whichlastedanhourandahalforso．I5studentswerechosentotakepartinatrandom．Thequestionsintheinterviewfocusedontheitemsinthequestionnaire．ItwascarriedoutinChineseSOthatstudentscouldexpresstheirideasclearlyandaccurately．Duringthecourse，Itriedtospeakinasoftandtendertoneandtape—recordedsecretly,afraidlesttheyfeelnervousandconcealtheirrealideas． ChapterTwoMethodology232．4DataCollectionApilottestwasfirstcarriedouttoensuretheclarityofeachiteminthequestionnaire，20studentsparticipatedin．Thensli曲tchangesweremadeSOastothesubjectscouldunderstandthestatementseasilyandproperly．ThentheformalinvestigationwasconductedinSeptember,2008．Afterabrieforalinstructionbytheteacher,135studentswereaskedtocompletethequestionnaireaccordingtotherequirement，however,3studentsstilldidnotrespondtothequestionnairecorrectly．Asaresult，132students’datawerevalidandcollected．ThecollecteddatawereprocessedandanalyzedbySPSS14．0(theStatisticalPackageforSocialScience)．Beforetheanalysis，thescoresoftheresponsestothenegativedirectionitems(6，8，11，14and15)hadbeentransformed，accurately,thescore“1’’into“5”，“2’’into“4”andSOon．TheresultsandfindingswillbepresentedinThree． ChapterThreeDataAnalysis25ThreeDataAnalysisInthischapterthecollecteddataareprocessedandanalyzedwithSPSS14．0．Togetdetailedinformationofstudents’autonomoussituation，means，standarddeviationsandPvaluesofallthevariablesaredemonstratedintables．Fortheconvenienceofreading，onlythemostsignificantpartsoftheoriginalindependentsamplet-testresultsarepresentedinthefollowingtables．PleaserefertoAppendixCfortheoriginalresults．Itisnecessarytoexplainthewayofinterpretingthedataoftheindependentsamplet-test．Ifthevalueinthe“sig．(2一tailed)”columnishi曲erthan0．05，wecansaythereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwogroups．Ifitislowerthan0．05．thenthereis．3．1AttitudestowardsLearnerAutonomyTable3．1AttitudestowardslearnerautonomyMeanStd．DeviationMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)FemaleMaleFemaleMaleIteml3．353．6l1．0601．1223．481．0950．177Item33．423．710．9461．1473．571．0570．118Item54．454．420．6120．7254．440．6680．796Item74．200．7890．8084．200．7951．000ItemlO3．954．OO0．6890．9453．980．8240．753Iteml53．824．000．959O．9113．910．9370．266Totle3．873．993．93O．143Item1：Ithinkknowledgeshouldbeobtainedautonomouslybythelearneratcollege．Item3：IpreferclasseswhereIamencouragedtotakepartindecidingwhatandhow1willleam．Item5：Itisimportanttosetreasonablegoalsandmakeplansinlanguagelearning．Item7：IamwillingtotaketheresponsibilityofmyEnglishlearning．Item10：ItisimportanttoevaluatemyprogressItem15：Knowledgeshouldbetransmittedbyteachersratherthandiscoveredbystudents．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．93(rangingfrom3．48to4．44)，withthatoffemalestudents3．87(rangingfrom3．35to4．45)andmalestudents3．99(rangingfrom3．61to4．42)respectively,andthePvalueisO．1'43，higherthanO．05．Thatindicatesbothfemaleandmalestudentshaveapositiveattitudetowardslearnerautonomy,and 26AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsthedifferencebetweenthemisnotsignificantonthewhole．Whiletosomedegree，wecansaymalestudentsarealittlebitmorewillingtotakeresponsibilityfortheirEnglishlearningbecausethemeanofmalestudents(3．99)ishigherthanthatoffemale(3．87)，andofthesixitemstherearefouritems(itemsl，3，10，15)onwhichthemeansofmalestudentsarehigherthantho：；eoffemaleandoneitem(item7)onwhichtheyareequal，buttherearenosignificantdifferencesbetweenthemasthePvaluesofeachitemareallhigherthanO．05．Fromitems1，7and15，weknowthatstudentshaverealizedtheyarethecenterandshouldtakeanactiveroleinlearningprocess，whichimpliesthatthenotionofshiftingresponsibilityfromteacherstoleamershasbeendeep·rootedamongstudents．Moreover,thedataofitems3，5and10furtherreflectthefactthattheyarewillingtotakechargeoftheirownstudiesindetails，tonameaf．ew'settinggoals，makingplans，decidingleamingmaterialsandwaysandself-evaluation．Intheinterview，studentsexpressedtheiropinions．“Weshouldberesponsibleforourselvesbecausewearenolongerchildren．’’“Universityislikeaminisociety,inwhichyouhavetodependuponyourselftodealwitheverythingsincenobodycandoitforyou．’’“Iknowmysituationmost，SOIshouldshouldersomeresponsibilityinsettinggoal，makingplan，decidingwhattoleamandhowtolearn，SOonandSOforth．Butatthesametime，teachers’guidanceandhelpcannotbeignoredsincetheyaremoreexperienced．’’3．2PerceptionofTeachers’RoleTable3．2Perceptionofteachers’roleMeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2-tailed)Item23．553．241．1121．1103．391．1170．120Item63．823．701．2641．0223．761．1470．546Item83．413．360．9921．1853．391．089O．812Iternll1．971．740．6560．5631．86O．6190．055Iteml24．203．94’0．7890．8574．07O．8310．075Iteml94．444．42O．61】0．8424．430．7330．906Totle3．563．403．480．065Item2：Idonotthinkthebestwaytolearnalanguageisthroughteacherexplanation． Item&Idonotlearnalotofthingsiftheteacherdoesnotspeakonthetextsbutengagesstudentsintalksandgames．Item8：IusuallyviewtheteacherastheauthorityinEnglishclasses．ItemIl：Ithelpsmealotwhentheteachercorrectsandanalyzesmymistakesinmyforeignlanguagelearning．Item12：Teacherisiustafacilitator．InordertolearnEnglishwell，weshouldmainlydependonourselves．Item19：Ithinklearnerautonomydoesnotdenytheroleoftheteacher．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．48(rangingfrom1．86to4．43)，withthatoffemalestudents3．56(rangingfrom1．97to4．44)andmalestudents3．40(rangingfrom1．74to4．42)respectively,andthePvalueis0．065，higherthan0．05．Wecanconcludethatbothfemalestudentsandmalestudentshaveproperunderstandingtowardsteacher’Srole，furthermore，thereisnosignificantdifferencebetweentheirperceptions．Thedataofitems8，12and19suggestthatforallthestudentsteacherisnotanunchallengeableauthority,butafacilitatorinEnglishlearning．AlthoughtheytrylearningEnglishindependently,teacherstillplaysallimportantandindispensablerole．Wealsoknowfromthedataofitems2and6thatstudentsaremoreactiveparticipatorsthanpassiveknowledgereceiversinclass，theywanttogetmoreinvolvedinvariousactivities(e．g．games，discussions)．Intheireyes，anidealteacherisnotonlyaknowledgeinstructor,butanorganizer．Yet，fromthetablewecaneffortlesslypickoutasetofdatawhichdoesnotmatchtheothers．Themeansofitem1arealllowerthan2，whichdisplaysaveryseriousproblem．Traditionally,itistheteacherthatmakesassessment，SOstudentstakeitforgrantedthatitisteacher’Sresponsibilitytoassesstheirwork．Theyarewillingtotaketheresponsibilityoftheirlearning，buttheresponsibilitytheyshoulderislimited．However,self-assessmentisakeyelementinautonomousEnglishlearning，thusitisofgreatsignificancetopassthisresponsibilitytolearnersgradually．Somestudentstalkabouttheirideasfranklyintheinterview．c'TeachersareimportanttoUSbecausetheyareknowledgeableandexperiencedSOmuchSOthattheycanexplainthelanguageinthewaywecanunderstandwithease，andcananswerquestions．’’“Teacherneednotexplaineverythinginthetextbook．’’“Teachershouldcheckourprogressandevaluateourperformance．’’‘‘WehopeteachercanofferUSusefulsuggestionsOilhowtolearnEnglisheffectivelyandefficiently．’’ 28AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajors“Welikeinteractionsinclass．TeachershouldengageUSinavarietyofactivities．’’3．3DegreeofSelf-esteemTable3．3Degreeofself-esteem’MeanStd．DeviationMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)FemaleM!aleFemaleMaleItem43．263．360．7300．7773．310．7530．420Iteml43．483．110．8460．9793．30O．93l0．019Iteml73．763．480．7860．9163．620．8610．069Item213．300．7640．9603．300．8641．000Item233．392．830．9590．7763．11O．9130．000Totle3．443．223．330．018Item4：IhavetheabilitytOgetthescoreIamtryingforinmynextEnglishtest．ItemI4：Havingmyworkevaluatedbyothersisscary．Iteml7：IknowwhatIshouldpracticemoreinEnglishlearning．Item21：IfIhaveaproblemwithEnglish，IamconfidentIcansolveit．Item23：IhavetheabilitytolearnEnglishsuccessfully．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．33(rangingfrom3．11to3．62)，withthatoffemalestudents3．44(rangingfrom3．26to3．76)andmalestudents3．22(rangingfrom2．83to3．48)respectively,andthePvalueisO．018，lowerthan0．05．ThesefigurestellUSthatfemalestudentsaremoreself-confidentthanmalestudentsinEnglishlearningonthewhole，andthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthem．What’Smore，thedataofitems14and23apparentlyshowmalestudents’lackofself-confidenceasthemeansofthemarejustaround3(3．I1and2．83)andthereissignificantdifferencebetweenfemaleandmalestudents(thePvaluesareO．019andO．000，lowerthanO．05)．However,thereisonemorepointtomakeclearthatbothofthemarenotconfidentenoughEnglishlearnersbecause3．44and3．22arelowerthan3．5(AccordingtoOxford’Sinterpretationofaverages，mean_>3．5indicatesthegeneralsituationisgood；mean<3．5meansthewholesituationisnotfavorable．)．Therefore，despitethesignificantdifference，theirself-confidenceshouldbestrengthenedmoreorless．The ChapterThreeDataAnalysis29followingwordsarethemostrepresentativeideaintheinterview：“Ihavetriedmybest，spentmostofmyleisuretimeonEnglishstudy,butIjustcannotmemorizeEnglishwordsandunderstandgrammars，nottospeakofemployingthemskillfully．MaybeIhavenotalentinlanguage．IcannotbecomeasuccessfulEnglishlearnerallmylife．’’3．4MotivationTable3．4MotivationMeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMcanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Iteml33．473．120．9641．1033．301．0470．055Iteml83．552．951．0401．0293．251．0730．001Item223．613．170．9091．1583．391．0600．017Item243．453．201．0261．0843．331．059O．163Totlel3．523．113．320．005Item93．824．030．9590．7193．930．8690．060Iternl63．173．530．8870．7893．350．856O．014Itern203．053．441．0551．0963．251．127O．016Totle23．353．673．5l0．018Totle3．443．393．420．075Totlelincludesitems13，18，22and24，whichbelongtointegrativemotivation．Totle2includesitems9，16and20，whichbelongtoinstrumentalmotivation．Item13：IlearnEnglishinordertocommunicatewithforeigners．Iteml8：IamveryinterestedinEnglish．Item22：IlearnEnglishinordertospeakEnglishfluently．Item24：IlearnEnglishinordertoreadEnglishmagazinesornovelsandwatchEnglishmovies．Item9：IthinklearningEnglishisveryimportantanduseful．Item16：IlearnEnglishinordertofindagoodjobinthefuture．hem20：IlearnEnglishinordertogetcollegediplomabypassingEnglishexams．InOne，Ihaveintroducedtheclassificationofmotivation，i．e．integrativemotivationandinstrumentalmotivation．Accordingly,table3．4isdevisedOilthebasisofthecategories．Items13，18，22and24belongtointegrativemotivation；items9，16 30AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajorsand20belongtolnstrumentalmotivation．Let’Stakealookattheoverallsituationfirst．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．42，withthatoffemalestudents3．44andmalestudents3．39respectively,andthePvalueis0．075，higherthanO．05，whichrevealsthatbothfemaleandmalestudentsaremotivatedlanguagelearnerstoacertaindegree，andthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthem．Thenlet’Sstudythedataindepth．Intermsofintegrativemotivation，femalestudentsaremoremotivatedthanmalestudentsbecausethemeanoffemalestudents(3．52)ishigherthanthatofmale(3．I1)，andthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthem(Pvalueis0．005)．Amongthefourmeansoffemalestudentsonitems13，18，22and24，thelowestoneis3．45，weknowthattheyputmoreemphasisonthepracticalapplicationofEnglishlanguagethanontheacquisitionofthewesternculture．Whileformalestudents．thelowestoneofthefourmeansis2．95(itemI8)，insharpcontrastto3．55(themeanoffemalestudents)．Malestudentsarelessintegrativelymotivated．Asfarasinstrumentalmotivationisconcemed，malestudentsaremoremotivatedthanfemalestudentsbecausethemeanofmalestudents(3．67，rangingfrom3．44to4．03)ishigherthanthatoffemale(3．35，rangingfrom3．05to3．82)，andthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthem(PvalueisO．018)．Fromthedataofthethreeitems，weknowbothmaleandfemalestudentsbelieveEnglishisimportantanduseful，buttherearesomebasicdifferences．Malestudentsaremoremotivatedbythepressurefromexamsandemployment，andtherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenthemasthePvaluesofitems16and20are0．014and0．016respectively,lowerthanO．05；whilefemalestudentsagreeonitem9mainlybecausetheyareinterestedinthelanguageitselftoalargeextent，althoughtheyareunavoidablymotivatedbyexamsandemployment．Insum，allthestudentsaremotivatedEnglishleamers，however,malestudentsaremoreintegrativelymotivatedandmalestudentsaremoreinstrumentallymotivated．Therefore，students，especiallymalestudentsneedtobehelpedtoadjusttheirmotivationtype．Someofthestudents’wordscanconfirmthedataanalyses．“IlikeEnglishverymuch．IenjoytheprocessofcommunicatingwithforeignersbecauseIcangetsomeknowledgeonwesterncustoms．’’“IhavetostudyEnglishhardbecauseIcangetmorechanceswhenhuntingjobif1haveagoodcommandofEnglish．’’“1likewatchingEnglishmovies，SO1wanttostudyEnglish．?’“IflcannotpassCET4，Icannotgetdiploma．’’ ChapterThreeDataAnalysis3l3．5UseofLearningStrategies3．5．1UseofcognitivestrategiesThestudents’useofcognitivestrategiesisinvestigatedinitems25，28，29，34，40，44，45，48，50，52and55，whichaimtoexaminestudents’basicskillsinEnglishlearning．Table3．5UseofcognitivestrategiesMeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Item253．473．560．8631．1393．521．0070．606Item283．673．500．9000．9653．580．9330．307Item292．772．590．7800．9762．680．8850．239Itern343．052．421．0291．1512．731．1320．00lltem402．952．860．9190．9752．910．9450．582ltern443．7l3．650．7390．8683．680．8040．667Item453．033．060．8030．9903．050．8980．847Item483．703．500．911O．9813．600．9480．234Item503．173．050．9041．10l3．111．0060．491Item523．984．030．5950．8594．010．7360．724Item551．971．560．8940．8251．770．8810．007Totle3．223．073．150．058Item25：IsayorwritenewEnglishwordsseveraltimes．Item28：IusethetitletOhelppredictthecontentswhilelisteningandreading．Item29：IreviewEnglishlessonsforconsolidation．Item34：WhenIcannotthinkofawordduringaconversationinEnglish，Iusegesturesorfacialexpressions．Item40：IlrytomemorizethenewwordsbyidentifyingsomeotherwordswhoseformorpronunciationissimilarItem44：Tounderstandunfamiliarwords，Imakeguesses．Item45：1thinkofrelationshipsbetweenwhatIalreadyknowandnewthingsIlearninEnglish．Item48：IconnectthesoundofanewEnglishwordandanimageorapictureofthewordtOhelpmeremembertheWOrd． 32AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsItem50：IfirstskimanEnglishpassagethengobackandreadcarefully．Item52：JfIcannotthinkofanEnglishword．IuseawordorphrasewhichmeansthesamethingItem55：1writenotes，messages，lettersordiariesinEnglishThemeanofallthestudentsis3．15(rangingfrom1．77to4．01)，withthatoffemalestudents3．22(rangingfrom1．97to3．98)andmalestudents3．07(rangingfrom1．56to4．03)respectively,andthePvalueisO．058，higherthan0．05．AllthesedatashowUSageneralpictureofstudents’usingcognitivestrategies．Wehavetoadmitthatallthestudentsdonotusecognitivestrategiesinanefficientwaybecausethereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthefemaleandthemaledespitethefactthatthemeanoffemalestudentsisalittlehi曲el"thanthatofthemale．Themeansofitems25，28，44，48and52are3．52，3．58，3．68，3．60and4．01respectively,allhigherthan3．50，whichprovesthatbothfemaleandmalestudentsjustdowellinsomeelementarystrategies，suchasrepeatingthewordstoberemembered，usingvisualimagestounderstandandremembernewinformation，usinggiveninformationtoguessmeaningsofnewlinguisticitems，predictoutcomes，orcompletemissingparts，etc．Themeansofitems29，40and45are2．68，2．91and3．05respectively,twolowerthan3．0andoneslightlyhigherthan3．0，whichrevealsthatstudentslacksummarizingstrategies，suchasclassifyingwordsorconceptsaccordingtotheirsemanticorsyntacticattributes，synthesizingthenewandoldinformationorknowledge，etc．Fromthedataofitem50(3．11)，weknowstudentspreferdiggingthedetailstoskimmingittoobtainthegeneralideafirstwhenreadinganEnglishpassage．Theyhavestillnotrealizedtheimportanceofcomprehensiveunderstandingthoughteacherhashighlighteditmorethanonce．Thedataofitem34(2．73)aresomewhatoutofmyexpectation，maybebecauseweChinesearerelativelyconservative．ButfemalestudentsdomuchbetterthanmaleasthePvalue(0．001)islowerthan0．05．Lastbutnottheleast，studentsscarcelypracticewritinginEnglishactivelysincethemeanofitem55(1．77)isconsiderablylowerthan3．0．Anyway,femalestudentsaremoreactivethanmale．Intheinterview,moststudentstalkedaboutthesamething．“Iknowlittleoflearningstrategies．ThemethodsIoftenuseinmyEnglishlearningprocessareoutofmyownlearningexperiencesandhabits．Ijustemploythemunconsciously．：’3．5．2Useofmetacognitivestrategies ChapterThreeDataAnalysis33Throughinvestigationonlearners’metacognitivestrategies，Wecanfindoutwhethertheycanorganizetheirlearningprocessproperlybymakingplans，monitoringtheimplementationoftheplansandevaluatingthelearningoutcomes．Table3．6Selection，MeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Item263．673．500．8830．9163．580．9000．289Itern392．922．801．1000．8452．860．9790．479Totle3．303．153．220．280Item26：Ichooselearningmethodssuitedtome．Item39：IchoosematerialssuitedtomyindividualneedsformyEnglishlearningbesidesthoseprovidedbymyteacher．Items26and39areaboutselectinglearningmethodsandmaterials，thedataof’whichshowUSthatbothfemaleandmalestudentsmayselectpropermethodstohelpthemimprovetheirlearningproficiencybecausethemeanofitem26is3．58(female3．67，male3．50)，whiletheydonotmakeagoodperformanceintermsofselecting．-learningmaterialsasthemeanofitem39is2．86(female2．92，male2．80)，lowerthan3．0．Thefollowingwordsmaycastalightonthetwodifferentsetsofdata．‘‘IcantryeverymethodIknow,andcanalsoreplaceitwithanotheronethemomentIrealizeitdoesnotsuitme．”‘‘Ithinkteacherisexperiencedandknowmuchaboutthevariouskindsoflearningmaterials，SOIneedn’tbothertochooseothersformyself．’’Table3．7PlanningMcanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Item432．982．860．9200．9752．920．9460．464Jtern533．082．651．0570．9692．861．032O．O】8Totle3．032．762．890．323Item43：IplanmyscheduleSO1willhaveenoughtimetostudyEnglishItem53：Apartformfinishingtheassignmentsgivenbytheteacher,IhavemyowngoalandplanformyEnglishlearning． 34AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsItems43and53areaboutplanningone’Sownlearning．Themeanofallthestudentsis2．89，withthatoffemalestudents3．03andmalestudents2．76respectively,andthePvalueis0．323，higherthan0．05，whichmakesahintthatbothfemaleandmalestudentscannotarrangetheirEnglishlearningappropriatelyandthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthem．Fromthedataofitem43，wecometoaconclusionthatbothfemaleandmalestudentscannotsetreasonableschedulestokeepagoodbalancebetweenstudyandentertainment，Englishandothersubjects．Simultaneously,malestudentsperformratherpoorlyinsettingEnglishlearninggoalsandplans，comparedwithfemalestudentsalthoughthefemale’Sperformanceisnotsatisfactoryenough，showninitem53．Intheinterview,somestudentssaidasfollows：“Icannottakecontrolofmyleaming．EvenifIsetmyschedule，Icannotcarryitoutverywell．’’“ThegoalIsetisusuallyunreasonableorimpractical，SOIalTlinclinedtogiveuphalfway．’’Table3．8MonitoringMeanStd．DeviationMcanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)FemaleMaleFemaleMaleItem273．303．390．9600．9903．350．9730．593Item313．363．270．9391．03l3．320．9830．597Item363．172．591．0010．9442．881．0120．001Item4l2．9l2．351．0030．9032．630．9920．001Totle3．192．903．050．055Item27：IpayattentionwhensomeoneisspeakingEnglish．Item31：Iadaptmylearningplansandmethodstotheactualsituation．Item36：InoticemyEnglishmistakesandusethatinformationtohelpmedobetter．1tem41：Ipreviewthelessonbeforeclass．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．05(rangingfrom2．63to3．35)，withthatoffemalestudents3．19(rangingfrom2．91to3．36)andmalestudents2．90(rangingfrom2．35to3．39)respectively,andthePvalueis0．055，higherthan0．05．Thesedatareflectafactthatbothfemaleandmalestudentsseldomusemonitoringstrategies．Students ChapterThreeDataAnalysis35maylistenattentivelytootherstoabsorbimportantandusefulinformation；furthermore，theymayadjusttheirlearningmethodstotheactualsituation，asshowninthedataofitems27and31．However,malestudentsdoworsethanfemaleinlearningfrommistakesbecause3．17ismuchhigherthan2．59，significantdifferenceexisting．Itiseasilyseenthattheybothhavenotrealizedtheimportanceofpreviewingaseitheroftheirmeans(female2．91，male2．35)islowerthan3．0，butfemalestudentsarerelativelybetterthanmale(PvalueisO．001，lowerthanO．05)．Thefollowingaresomeofthestudents’ideasintheinterview．“Itisanaturalreactiontoadjustmyleamingmethodstotheactualsituation．’’“Tobeflank，IseldomnoticemyEnglishmistakes，evenifteachermarksandcorrectsthemistakesinmyhomework．’’“IknowIshouldpreview，butIalwaysforget．’’Table．3．9EvaluationMeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Itern303．353．051．0301．0693-201．1080．117Item322．922．740．8471．0422．830．9500．274Item472．882．680．8320．8442．780．84lO．179Item493．392．970．9431．1503．181．0690．022Item5l3．082．520．9660．8992．800．971O．00lTotle3．132．792．960．054Item30：IfindandanalyzecausesforSuccessorfailureafterexams．Item32：Imyselfadministrateself-test．Item47：IevaluatemyprogressinlearningEnglish．Item49：FinishinganEnglishconversation，IthinkaboutifImakesomemistakes．Item51：Icheckmyhomeworkformistakes．Themeanofallthestudentsis2．96(rangingfrom2．78to3．20)，withthatoffemalestudents3．13(rangingfrom2．88to3．39)andmalestudents2．79(rangingfrom2．52to3．05)respectively,andthePvalueis0．054，highel"thanO．05，whichsuggestsbothfemaleandmalestudentsarepoorinevaluationstrategies，andthereisnosignificantdifferenceingeneral．Specifically,studentsmayfindandanalyzecausesforSuccessorfailureafterexams(item30：3．20)，andmayreflectupontheirorallanguage 36AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsoutput(item49：3．18)．Asforself-test，studentsseldomchooseexampaperstotesttheirEnglish(item32：2．83)．Amongthefiveitems，theydoworstinevaluatingtheirownprogress(item47：2．78)．Comparativelyspeaking，femalestudentsdomuchbetterthanmalestudentsintermsofmistake—findingsincethemeansofthefemalearebothhigherthaflthoseofthemaleonitems49and51，andthePvalues(O．022，0．001)arebothlowerthan0．05．Inaddition，thedataofthelasttwoitemsalsoindicateastrangephenomenonthatstudentsaremorewillingtofindtheoralmistakesthanthewrittenones．Thefollowingwordsmayshedalight．“IthinkteachershouldtellUStheprogresswehavemade．’’“IevaluatemylearningaccordingtothemarksIgetintheexam．’’“IdonotknowIshouldcarryoutself-test．Ihadthoughtthemid—termandthefinalexamsareenough．’’“Ifinditverydifficulttocheckmyownworkformistakes，especiallythewrittenwork，asIamnotsurewhetherIcanlocatethemandwhetherIcancorrectthem．”‘'Teacheralwayschecksourwrittenhomeworkverycarefully,SOweneedn’tcheckourselyes．”3．5．3UseofsociaFaffectivestrategiesTheexaminationofsocial／affectivestrategiesinvolvessevenitems，whicharedividedintotwopartstoinvestigatetwoaspects：cooperation，questioningforclarificationandself-talk．Table3．10CooperationandquestioningMeanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Item353．OO2．670．8591．0572．830．974O．051Item383．442．970．8440．9763．200．9390．004Item422．832．820．8150．9272．830．869O．92lltem542．482．200．7660．7892．340．7970．056Totle2．942．672．800．062Item35：1activelyparticipateinthegroupdiscussionsinclass．Item38：Whenhavingquestions，1consulttheteacherorotherstudents．item42：Iperformcooperativelearningwithotherpeopleandsharelearningexperiencewitheach ChapterThreeDataAnalysis37other．Item54：IpracticeEnglishwithotherstudentsafterclass．Themeanofallthestudentsis2．80(rangingfrom2．34to3．20)．withthatoffemalestudents2．94(rangingfrom2．48to3．44)andmalestudents2．67(rangingfrom2．20to2．97)respectively,andthePvalueisO．062，hiellerthan0．05．Wecanconcludefromthedatathatbothfemaleandmalestudentsareunconsciousofthesignificanceofcooperativelearning．Amongthefouritems，onlythemeanofitem38(3．20)ishigherthan3．0，whichsuggeststheymayseekhelpfromteacherorclassmateswhenconfrontedwithdifficulties，additionally,thefemaleemploythisstrategymorefrequentlythanthemalebecausethereissignificantdifferencebetweenthem(thePvalueis0．004，lowerthan0．05)．Incontrast，themeansoftheotherthreeitems(2．83，2．83，2．34)arealllowerthan3．0．StudentsrarelycooperatewithothersinEnglishlearning，andtheyperformevenworseoutofclass，maybe，resultingfromtheabsenceofteacher’Ssupervision．Intheinterview,astudentsaid，‘‘IpreferwholeclassdiscussionguidedbyteachertogroupdiscussionbecauseitisrathertoughorevenimpossibletocarryoutagroupdiscussioninEnglish．Somefactorsmaycontributetosuchasituation．Forinstance，somestudentsmaybetooshytospeakouttheirviews，orsomecannotmakethemselvesunderstoodinEnglish．’’Table3．11Self-talkMcanStd．DeviationFemaleMaleFemaleMaleMeanStd．DeviationSig．(2一tailed)Item332．913．020．8901．0452．960．9680．53lItem373．203．181．0261．1363．191．0780．936Item463．863．920．8750．9973．890．9350．711Totle3．323．373．350．672Item33：IgivemyselfarewardortreatwhenIdowellinEnglish．Item37：Whenfacedwithdifficulties，Iencouragemyselfbysayingthisisalsodifficulttoothers．Item46：iencouragemyselfnottoloseheartwhenIdobadlyinanexam．Themeanofallthestudentsis3．35(rangingfrom2．96to3．89)，withthatoffemalestudents3．32(rangingfrom2．91to3．86)andmalestudents3．37(rangingfrom3．02to3．92)respectively,andthePvalueis0．672，higherthan0．05．Studentsuse affectivestrategiesmostfrequentlyamongallkindsoflearningstrategiesintroducedandanalyzedinpreviouspartsofthischapterbecausethemeanofthissectionisthehighestone．Whileweshouldalsonoticeasharpcontrastthatthemeanofitem46(3．89)ismuchhigherthanthatofitem33(2．96)，whichrevealsthatstudenIstendtoencouragethemselvesinunfavorable'circumstances．Intheinterview,astudent’Swordsmayofferanexplanation．“Idon’tknowitcanbecalledakindoflearningstrategy．IhadthoughtIshouldencouragemyselfwhenIamsadorfrustrated．’’“Ithinkwhenapersonisinanunfavorablesituation，encouragementisindispensable；whileinafavorablesituation，itdepends．，，3．6SummaryoftheResearchFromthedataanalysisabove，thesummaryisgivenasfollows：ThemajorityofthestudentshaveapositiveattitudetowardsleametautonomV．TheyarefullyawareoftheirresponsibilitytOtakechargeoftheirownEnglishlearning，whichistheprerequisiteforautonomouslearning．Teachersarestillhighlyrespectedbystudents，butarenottheunchallengeableauthorityinclassanylongerinstudentS，eyes．TheybelievetheSuccessofEnglishlearningismainlydeterminedbvleamerSthemselvesratherthanteachers．Atthesametime，teachers’guidanceandsupportareindispensable，fortheyarenotconfidentenoughthattheyhavetheabilitytoleamEnglishsuccessfully．ItcanbesaidthatstudentswanttobeautonomousleamerS．buttheycannotgetridoftheirdependenceOilteachers，andlowdegreeofself-esteemisoneoftheelementscausingthesituation．Asformotivation，mostofthestudentsaremotivatedEnglishlearnerstoSOmedegree·However,someofthemespeciallymalestudentslearnEnglishmoreoutofinstrumentalmotivationthanintegrativemotivation．TheyputmoreemphasisonthepracticalanddirectbenefitofagoodmasteryofEnglishthanontheintegrationintothewesternculture．Theirlackoftheconsciousnessofintegrationmaymoreorlessresultfromthelittlechancetostudyorliveabroadtobecomeapartofthesecondlanguagegroupinthefuture．Anyway,theirmotivationtypeneedsadjusting．LearningstrategyplaysanlmportantroleinEnglishlearning，whilestudents：useoflearningstrategyisfarfrombeingsatisfactory．Mostofthestudentsdomaslersomeelementarycognitivestrategies，butalargenumberofusefulonesarestillunknowntothem·Theyareespeciallydeficientinproperwritingstrategies．Furthermore，students havepoorerperformancesintheuseofmetacognitivestrategies．Theyseldommakelearningplans．Evenifsomedomake，theycannotcarrythemoutinmostcases，letalonemonitoringtheimplementationoftheplan．Asregardstheevaluationoflearningoutcome，quiteafewstudentstakeitforgrantedthatteachershouldberesponsibleforit，owingtothetraditionalteachingmethod．Someimplementevaluationmainlvaccordingtotheexamsortestsconductedbycollegeorteacher．Intermsoftheuseofsocial／affectivestrategies，itisinspiringthatstudentsmayconsultteacherorpeerswhenhavingquestions，andencouragethemselveswhenfacedwithdifficultiesorfailures．However,itisapitythatmoststudentsnotrealizedthesignificanceofcooperativelearning．Ingeneral，students’degreeoflearnerautonomyinEnglishleamingisratherlow．Althoughtheyarewillingtotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearning’theresponsibilitytheyactuallytakeinlearningistoolimited．Theyarestillinclinedtodependontheirteachersinsomeaspects．Hence，students’leanerautonomvneedsfostering．Onthebasisofthepreviousdatacomparisonbetweenthefemaleandthemale．itcanbeconcludedthatthedegreeoffemalestudents’leamerautonomyisrelativelvhigherthanthemale’S．FemalestudentsaremoreconfidentabouttheirEnglishlearningandproblem—solvingabilitythanmalestudents．Inaddition，theyaremoreintegrativelymotivated，whilemalestudentsaremoreinstrumentallymotivated．Asaresult，femalestudentstendtoassumemoreresponsibilityfortheirEnglishlearningandadoptmorekindsofstrategiestoimprovetheirstudy．Designingclassroomtasksororganizingleamingactivities，teachersshouldpaymoreattentiontothesedifferencesbetweenstudentsofdifferentgenders． ChapterFourDiscussionsandImplicationsFourDiscussionsandImplicationsBasedontheanalysesinthepreviouschapter,someimplicationscanbeprovided．ItisdiscoveredthatsomespecialdatawhicharebeyondexpectationmayreflectsomeproblemswnhrespecttoEFLlearnerautonomyinChang’anUniversity．SomenormaldatamaymirrorsometendenciesinEnglishteachingandlearning．Throughdiscussion，somesolutionstotheproblemswillcomeup．4．1Teachers’NewRoleFromtable3．2，wecanfindthatmostofthestudentsthinkteacherplaysanimportantandindispensableroleintheirEnglishlearning．Theyrespectteacherbutdonotperceiveteacherasanunchallengeableauthority．Inaddition，theyholdtheviewthatautonomousEnglishlearningandtheroleofteachersdonotcontradictwitheachother．Soitishi曲timeforteacherstoshifttheirtraditionalroleinEnglishteaching．Cohen(2000：97)says，“theshiftoftheroleofteachersisfromthatofbeingexclusivelythemanager,controller,andinstructortothatofbeingafacilitatoroflearning，whoseroleistohelptheirstudentstobecomemoreindependent，moreresponsiblefortheirownlearning'’．IntraditionalEnglishclassrooms，teacherstakeonmuchoftheresponsibilitywhichshouldhavebeenshoulderedbystudents，suchasexplainingnewwords，analyzingtexts，providingexamples，posingquestionsandcorrectingmistakes．Nowteachersshould‘'return’’thesedutiestostudentsandundertakesomenewandmoreimportantrolestomeetthechangingeducationalneeds．Teachersaremoreofconsultantsthanauthorities，moreoforganizersandfacilitatorsthaninstructorsandcontrollers．What’Smore，teachersshouldhaveagoodunderstandingoflearners’individualdifferencesinmotivation，self-esteem，learningstyleandlearningaptitudetohelpthemacquiretheirownlearningstrategiesandenhancetheirautonomy．Anotherimportantaspectworthdiscussingisthechangeofteachers’attitudestowardsEnglishleaming，whichprecedesthechangeofteachers’role．Thatis，thechangeofteachers’rolecanberealizedsmoothlyOnconditionthatteacherschangetheirattitudes．Becauseonlywhentheyagreethatsomeresponsibilityshouldbetransferredtostudentscanitbepossibletoshifttheirrolefromcontrollerstofacilitators．Apparently,fosteringstudents’learnerautonomyisbynomeansaneasyjob．It 42AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajorsdoesnotsimplyinvolveremovingstructuredteaching；itmayrequireagreaterdegreeofstructuredthandidacticteaching，adifferentone．Teacherswillfindtheirrolebecomesstrengthened，theirresponsibilitygetsheavier,andaccordingly,muchgreaterdemandsaremade011theircreativitythanontheirprofessionalknowledgeandteachingtactics．4．2EnhancementoftheDegreeofSelf-esteemFromtable3．3，weknowthatstudentsobtainaratherlowdegreeofself-esteem，especiallymalestudentswhoevendonothaveenoughconfidenceinthemselvestoacquireagoodcommandofEnglish．Intheinterview,mostofthestudentsadmittedthattheyhadlittleknowledgeofself-esteem，nottospeakofitsimportantfunctioninautonomousEnglishlearning．AsintroducedinChapterOne，self-esteemisacrucialfactorthatmayenhanceorinhibitstudents’willingnesstotakechargeoftheirownlearning．Nosuccessfulcognitiveoraffectiveactivitycanbeimplementedwithoutsomedegreeofself-esteem，self-confidence，knowledgeofseleandbeliefinone’sownabilitytoaccomplishthatactivity．Therefore，itisofgreatsignificanceandnecessitytOhelpstudentsimprovetheirdegreeofself-esteem，strengthentheirself-confidence．Inteachingprocess，teachersshouldhelpstudentssetspecificandpracticalgoalswhicharechallenging,whileattainable；assigninterest··arousingandthought··provokingtaskswhicharewithinstudents’capabilities；recommendverticalratherthanhorizontalcomparisonSOthatstudentscanrealizeandenjoytheiraccomplishment；praiseandencouragestudentsasfrequentlyaspossible．Onlyinthiswaycanstudentsengageinthelearningactivitiesactivelyandbecomeindependentofteachers．4．3PromotionofLearners’MotivationBasedonthedataanalysisoftable3．4，wecancometoaconclusionthatstudentsarelackinahighmotivation．Worsestill，mostofthemalestudentsarerelativelymoreinstrumentallymotivatedEnglishlearners，comparedwithfemalestudents．Anywaybothofthemneedpromotingtheirmotivations，especiallyintegrativemotivations．ItisintroducedinChapterOnethatmotivation，theimpetustOanEnglishlearner,functionsthesamewayasanenginetoacar．Withoutmotivation，learnerscannot“move’’atall；withloworintermediatemotivation，learnerscanmerely“move’’alittle；onlywith nighmotivationcan／earners‘'move”autonomously．Thus，teachersshouldtryeverymeanstomotivatestudentsinteachingprocess．Themorehighly．motivatedstudentsbecome，themorewillingtheyaretotakechargeoftheirownstudy；themoreIntegratively‘motivatedstudentsbecome，theclosertheygettolearnerautonomy,themorepossibletheyaretosustainthelG'ngandoftentediousleamingprocess．ItISunanimouslyagreedthatinterestisthebestteacher,whichbelongstointegrativemotivation．Tomotivatestudents，teachersneedtosparenoef五DrttoarousetheirinterestsinEnglishlearningandgetthemactivelyparticipateinvariouskindsofin’classandout—of-classactivities．Mostimportant，whateverf．0咖theactivityisin，thematerialsshouldberealbecauseinthiswaystudentsareprovidedwithanopportunitytoconnectthe“static’’classroomwiththe“dynamic”outsideWOrId．Thevcarleasilyinternalizetheseauthenticmaterialsintotheirownleamingexperiencesandknowledge，appreciatethelanguageinthematerialsandenjoytheircreativeuseofthelanguage．TheymayfindEnglishlearningisnotonlyusefulbutalsointeresting．Littlebylittle，thedirectcontactwiththetargetlanguageviaawiderangeofauthenticmaterialspromotesstudents’interest，strengthenstheirmotivation，inspirestheirintegrativemotivation，andultimatelyenhancestheirlearnerautonomy．4·4ImplementationofStrategyTrainingFromthedataanalysisandtheinterviewinthepreviouschapter,wegetageneralpictureofstudents’usinglearningstrategies．Studentshavenotrealizedtheimportanceoflearningstrategies．Theydonotacquirearelativelyrichrepertoireofstrategies．i．e．theyhavelittleknowledgeaboutlearningstrategies．Theycannotchooseappropriatelearningstrategiesandapplythemtodifferentlearningtasksconsciouslyandefficiently．Eventhoughtheydousesome,itisunconsciousinmostcases．T1leindispensabilityoflearningstrategiesinfosteringstudents’learnerautonomvisself-evident，,SOitisratherurgentforteacherstoraisestudents’awarenessof1eamingstrategyandequipthemwiththeappropriateskillsandstrategies．ThebestWaYistoimplementlearningstrategytraining．Strategytrainingistoteachstudentsexplicitlyhow,whenandwhystrategicscanbeusedtofacilitatetheirlearningandusingaforeignlanguage．ByexplicitlyteachingleamerShowtodeveloptheirownindividualizedstrategysystem，strategytrainingisintendedtohelplearnersexplorewaysthattheycanlearnthetargetlanguagemoreeflectiVely,aswellastoencouragelearnerstOself-evaluateandself-directtheir learning．ByguidingstudentstochoosetheirownstrategiesandtodoSOspontaneously,withoutcontinuedpromptingfromtheteacher,theirlearnerautonomygetspromotedgradually．Specifically,itcannotonlyhelpstudentslearnandmasterallkindsoflearningskillsinlistening，speaking，reading，writingandproblem—solving，etc．buthelpthemleamtosetpracticallearninggoalsandplans，arrangelearningtasks，monitorlearningprocessandevaluatelearningoutcomes．Oxford(1990：201)summarizesthat‘‘thegeneralgoalsofstrategytrainingaretomakelanguagelearningmoremeaningful，toencourageacollaborativespiritbetweenlearnerandteacher,toleamaboutoptionsforlanguagelearning，andtolearnandpracticestrategiesthatfacilitateself-reliance．’’Strategytrainingcanbeanoptionalcourseofferedtointerestedstudents，ormaybeintegratedintoformalclassroomteaching．Nomatterhowthetrainingiscarriedout，directorexplicitteaching，wherethelearners’attentionisdirectedtOthestrategybeingtaught，ispreferredtoindirectorimplicitteachingwherelearnersarenotinformed．O’MalleyandChamotsummarizesomeofthedifferentproceduresforteachingstrategies．Ingeneral，theyinvolveasequenceoffirsthelpingstudentstobecomeawareofstrategiesthattheyarealreadyusing，thenpresentingandexplaininganewstrategy,witharationaleforusingit．Atthisstagetheteachermightmodelthestrategy．Thisisfollowedbypracticingit，atfirstwithsubstantialsupport，butgraduallyreducingthistoencourageautonomoususe．Finally,studentsarehelpedtoevaluatetheirSuccess．Onthebasisofthesummaries，theydevisedtheirownstrategytrainingprocedure，listedasfollows：1．Preparation：developstudentawarenessofdifferentstrategiesthrough：。smallgroupretrospectiveinterviewsaboutschooltasks。modelingthink·aloud，thenhavingstudentsthinkaloudinsmallgroups·discussionofinterviewandthink．alouds2．Presentation：developstudentknowledgeaboutstrategiesby：。providingrationaleforstrategyuse’describingandnamingstrategy‘modelingstrategy3·Practice：developstudentskillsinusingstrategiesforacademiclearningthrough：。CO-operativeleamingtasks’think—aloudswhileproblemsolving。peertutoringinacademictasks·groupdiscussion 4．Evaluation：developstudentabilitytoevaluatestrategyUSethrough：·writingstrategiesusedimmediatelyaftertask·discussingstrategyuseinclass·keepingdialoguejournals(withteacher)onstrategyuse5．Expansion：developtransferofstrategiestonewtasksby：’·discussionsonmetacognitiveandmotivationalaspectsofstrategyuse·additionalpracticeonsimilaracademictasks·assignmentstouselearningstrategiesontasksrelatedtoculturalbackgroundsofstudentsImplementingstrategytraininginteachingprocess，teachersshouldtakesomefactorsintoaccount，suchastimedurationofthetraining，learners’individualdifferences，andlearningproficiency．Itistruethatconductingstrategytrainingiscomplicatedandtime-consuming，butitisworththeeffortandthetimeinthelongrun．4．5EncouragementofCooperativeLearningSkimminglastchapter,itcanbeeffortlesslyseenthatstudentsgetthelowestmean(2．80)inthepartofcooperationandquestioning，whichindicatesthatstudentsseldomcooperatewithothersinEnglishlearning．Duringtheinterview,mostofthemsaidtheyhadthoughtautonomousEnglishlearningmeantlearningEnglishalone，andtheywerenotaccustomedtocooperativelearning，preferredtostudyalone．Itiskindofdiscouragingthatstudents’behaviorandviewpointalejustcontrarytotheessenceoflearnerautonomy．Learnerautonomydoesnotmeanthatlearnersstudyinisolation，whileitpresupposesinterdependence．Hence，toclarifytheimportanceofcooperativelearningandencouragestudentstostudyincooperativegroupsisteachers’urgenttask．CooperativelearningcameintobeingintheUnitedStatesinthe1970s，andgotsubstantialdevelopmentfrommid1970stomid1980s．Itischaracterizedbyinterpersonalcooperationandinteractioninteachingprocess，transformsindividualcompetitionintogroupcompetition，inspiresstudents’consciousnessofparticipation，andthusrealizesEnglishteachingsocialization．Referredtoasoneofthemostimportantandsuccessfulteachingreforms，cooperativelearningisindeedakindofcreativeandeffectiveteachingtheoryandstrategy．Nowadays，cooperativelearninghasbeenmoreandmorewidelyappliedtOstudent．centeredteachingpractice，becomingabreakthroughandcomplementtotraditionalteachingstyle．Comparedwiththetraditionalone，cooperativelearning attachesmostimportancetOstudent—studentinteractionfirst，whichhasbeenneglectedtoagreatdegreeinthepast．Inclass，theinteractionisnolongerlimitedtoteacher-student，butisextendedtostudent—student．Inacooperativelearninggroup，studentslinteracttogethertoaccomplishaspecificgoal．Theyorganizeandcommunicatetheirideaseffectivelyandclearly,providesupportandchallengefellowteammembers，whichhelpthemdevelopinterpersonalskills．Second，studentsofdifferentgenders，differentcharacters，differentinterests，differentlearningstyles，differentlearningaptitude，anddifferentleaningachievementsareorganizedtoformacooperativegroup．Whileconductingcooperativelearning，studentstendtoexperiencebrainstorming，enlighteneachother,learnfromeachother,overcometheirweakpointsandreinforcetheirstrongpoints．Third，cooperativeactivitiesofferafriendlyandharmoniousatmospherecharacterizedby“lowthreat，unconditionalpositivereward，honestandopenfeedback，respectfortheidesandopinionsofothers，approvalofself-improvementasagoal，collaborationratherthancompetition”(Candy,1991：337)．Relaxed，studentsareeasilymobilizedtoparticipateincommunication，andaremorelikelvtoremovetheiranxietyorshynesstObuildahigherdegreeofself-esteemdeepintotheirmind．Cooperativeleaminghasbeendemonstratedtobeconnectedwithimprovedleamingasitencompassescountlessattributesassociatedwitheffectiveleaming，suchasteamproblemsolvingandactive，cooperativelearningstrategies．ManyresearcheshaVeshownthatbothhighandlowachieversincooperativelearninggroupsoutperformtheircounterpartsinindividuallearningenvironments．Thesocialnature，theinv01venlentandcommunication，therelaxedandfriendlylearningenvironmentallhavepositiveeffectsonattitudes，motivation，socialskillsandself-esteem．Theimprovementsintheseaspectscansurelyenhancestudents’learnerautonomyfurther．Theadvantagesandbenefitsofcooperativelearningarewell—documentedintheliteranlre，butitdoesnotmeanitisaflawlessteachingtheoryandstrategy．Somepotentialnegativeoutcomesmayhidebehind．Forexample，tostudentsusedtoteacher-directedclasses，cooperativelearningactivitiesmaybemisunderstoodasachancetoengageinmeaninglesschatorplay,andinterpersonalinteractionmaYdevelopintocompletechaos．Therefore，toimplementcooperativelearninginteachingprocesswillundoubtedlyinvolveconsiderableeffortsandinevitablyputhighreauirementsonteachers．Givenitsnumerouspositiveeffects，itisworthwhile，anyway- 4．6PerformanceofSelf-assessmentItismirroredinthedataanalysisinChapterThreethatstudentsareweakinself-assessmentinbothawarenessandpractice．Theybelieveithelpfulandusefulthatteachersfindout．correcttheirmistakesinhomeworkandevaluatetheirlearningperformance．Someofthemeventhinkitisteachers’responsibilitytoconductallthesetasks．Infact，self-assessmentisanintegralpartofautonomouslearning．Itisessentialtostudentsasawayofevaluatingtheeffectivenessofself-accesslearningasapersonalt001．Therefore，teachersshouldguidestudentstoperformself-assessment．Self-assessmentisaprocessinwhichlearnerscreateandundergotheevaluationprocedure，judgingtheirachievementinaccordancewiththeirownlearningobjectivesandexpectations．Itisregardedasoneofthepillarsoflearnerautonomy．Ithasaretrospectiveandprospectivefunction，inwhichleamersassesstheirpastlearningaccordingtotheirgoalsandrevisetheirlearningstrategiesaccordinglySOastoimprovetheirleamingproficiency．Inaddition，theycanlocatetheirownstrengthsandweaknessesinErIglishleaming．Becauseself-assessmentisongoingandinfluencesplanning，thedistinctionbetweenself-assessmentoflearningoutcornesandself-monitoringthelearningprocessisoftenblurred．Inthissense，self-assessmentcomprisesreflectionongoals，learningactivitiesandappropriateassessmentcriteria．Self-assessmenttransformslearnersfrompassivereceiversofevaluationintoactiveparticipatorsofevaluation．Throughself-assessment，learners’awarenessoflearningprocessgetsraised；theircriticalmindgetsstimulated；theirknowledgeofthevarietyofpossiblegoalsinlanguagelearninggetsenhanced，whichleavesstudentsinabetterpositiontoexercisecontrolOVertheirownlearningandtoinfluencethedirectionofclassroomactivities；theirrangeofassessmentcriteriagetsexpanded，forinstance，theevaluationoftheirneedsandaffectivedimensionsofthelearningprocessiscovered．Theybecomemoreactiveinlanguagelearningastheyrealizetheyhavetheultimateresponsibilityfortheirlearning． ChapterFiveConclusionThischapterfirstpresentsasummaryofthestudy,includingitsmainfindingsandimplications．Thenthelimitationsofthestudyandrecommendationsforfurtherstudyarediscussed．5．1MainAehievements111isthesiscentersOffonebuzzwordinforeignlanguageteachingandlearning：leamerautonomy．ItaimstoinvestigateEFLlearnerautonomyofnon—EnglishmajorsinChinesecontextthroughaquestionnaireandasemi—directedinterview．Viaquantitativeandqualitativeanalysesofthecollecteddata，itisclearlyreflectedthattheoveralldegreeoflearnerautonomyisratherlow．Specifically,mostofthestudentsarewillingtotakeresponsibilityfortheirEnglishlearning，buttheresponsibilitytheyactuallytakeistoolimited．Theyarestillincfinedtodependontheirteachersinsomeaspects．Theformationofsuchasituationiscomplicated，butthefollowingthreepointsmaymoreorlessshedsomelightonit．First．instudents’eyes，teachersarestillrespectablepeople，butarenottheunchallengeableauthorityinclassanylonger．Theyaremoreofconsultantsthanauthorjties．moreoffacilitatorsthancontrollers。Hence，itishi曲timeforteacherstoshifttheirtraditionalroleandtransfersomeresponsibilitytostudents．Second，students’degreeofself-esteemisnothigh．TheyarenotconfidentabouttheirownEnglishlearningabilityandproblem—solvingability．Inaddition，mostofthestudentsarelackinhighmotivation，worsestill，quiteafewstudentslearnEnglishmoreoutofinstrumentalmotivationthanintegrativemotivation．Teachersareexpectedtohelpstudentsraisetheirdegreeofself-esteem，promotetheirmotivation，especiallyacquirepropermotivation．Third，students’useoflearningstrategiesinactuallearningprocessisfarfromenough，letaloneapplyingappropriatestrategiestodifferentlearningtasksconsciouslyandefficiently．Toincorporatelearningstrategytraining，especiallymetacognitivestrategytrainingintoclassroomteachingisanecessity,whichisvitaltofosteringstudents’EFLlearnerautonomy．0nthebasisofdatacomparisonbetweenthefemaleandthemale，aconclusionlsdrawnthatthedegreeoffemalestudents’learnerautonomyisrelativelyhigherthanthemale’S．Femalestudentsaremoreconfidentability．Besides，theyaremoreintegrativelyabouttheirlearningandproblem—solvingmotivated，whilemalestudentsaremore 50AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorsinstrumentallymotivated．Thus，femalestudentstendtoassumemoreresponsibilityfortheirEnglishlearningandadoptmorekindsofstrategiestOimprovetheirstudy．Teachershouldpaymoreattentiontothesedifferencesduringteachingprocess．5．2LimitatioIisandRecommendationsThisstudyaimstoinvestigatestudents’currentautonomousEnglishlearningsituation，diagnosetheproblemsandfindoutpracticalwaystoenhancetheirIearnerautonomy．Despitethefindings，therestillexistsomelimitations，whicharesummarizedforfurtherstudy．First，thescaleofthestudyistoosmall，andallthesubjectsarenon-EnglishmajorsfromChang’anUniversity,whichhasanegativeinfluenceonthestabilityandthegeneralityoftheresults．Therefore，itisquitenecessarytomakefurtherstudyonalargerscaletoexaminecasesofvariouseducationallevelsandindividualbackgroundsSecond，itisintroducedthatfactorsaffectingthedevelopmentoflearnerautonomyaredividedintoinnerfactorsandexternalfactors．Inthisstudy,justinnerfactorsarecovered，whileexlernalfactorsarenotinvolved．InfurtherstudytheexternalfactorsshouldbeincludedastheyalsohaveagreatinfluenceonIearnerautonomy．Third，theimplicationsonimprovinglearnerautonomyarefarfromcomprehensive，furthereffortsareneededtofindmorepracticalandeffectiveapproachestoenhanceleamerautonomy．Thisthesisisbynomeansperfect．Theremaybesomeerroneousstatementsorimproperexpressionswithoutbeingrecognized，SOforgivenessandsuggestionsarerequested． AcknowledgementsWhileworkingonthisthesis，Igotinvaluablehelpfrommanypeople．Withouttheirsupportandhelp，Icouldn’tfulfillmyresearchsuccessfully．Therefore．1wouldliketotakethisopportunitytoexpressmysinceregratitudeandinwardappreciationtoallofthem．Iowemydeepestgratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorYangYue，whogavemestrictinstruction，continuousencouragementandgeneroussupport．Withouthisvaluablesuggestionsandinsightfulcomments，thisthesiswouldneverhavebeenpossible．Besides，hisdiligenceandunswervingpursuitinhisspecializedacademicfieldhasalsodeeplyaffectedmeandbenefitedmealot．Iamreallyluckytohavehimasmysupervisor．IalsowanttoextendmysincerethankstoalltheotherprofessorsandteacherSintheEnglishDepartmentofSchoolofHumanitiesandArtsofXidianUniversity’whohaveeverinstructedmeacademiccoursesandofferedmeselflesshelpduringthethreeyears’study．Theimportanceoftheirkindassistancecannotbeoverstressed．Mywhole—heartedgratitudealsogoestOmyfamilyandgoodfriendsfortheirconstantencoi．．1ragementandconcernthroughtheacademicyearsduringmystudyinginXidianUniversity． 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AppendixA57性别：A大学生英语自主学习状况调查问卷年龄：专业：您好!为了提高学生的英语水平，改进英语教学，该问卷试图了解您在英语白主学习方面的一些情况。本调查仅用于教学研究，绝对不会对您有任何影响，因此无须有任何顾虑，请如实吲答。问卷中的被选答案无所谓对错，我们只想知道您的真实情况和想法，所以请您根据自己的实际情况匣I答问题，不要受他人影响。谢谢您的合作和支持!本问卷答案分五个选项，从1～5分别代表不同的意思，请选Ⅱ：最能代表您观点的数字。1=根本不同意这种看法2=不同意这种看法3=不能确定4=同意这种看法5=完全同意这种看法序蛩调查项目评价等级l我认为大学阶段英语应以学生自学为主。123452通过老师的讲解并非是学习英语的最好方法。123453我喜欢这样的课堂教学：老师鼓励我们自己决定学习什么和怎样学。l23454我相信自己能在下～次英语考试中考：}；自己所盼望的分数。l2345自我制定学习计划和目标是很晕要的。l23456如果老师×i讲课文，而开展je它讨论和活动的话，我就学1：到什么。l23457我愿意对白_己的英语学习负责。l23458红英语课掌教学中，我常常把老帅当作权威。l23459我认为学习英语非常重要I“目．自．用。l234510评价自己的进步对英语学习很重要。l2345ll老师订正并分析出我的错误对我的英语学习很有帮助。1234512老师只足一个辅助者，学好英语主要靠自己。l234513我学英语是为了能和外国人交流。l234514我认为让别人评价我的作业是很可怕的。I234515知识应当由老师来传授，而不是由学生去发现．1234516我学英语是为了将来能找到一份好工作。l234517我知道在英语学习中我应该在哪些方面训练．1234518我对英语很感兴趣。l234519我认为自主学习不等于否定教师的作用。1234520我学英语足为了通过学校的再级考试，最终拿到毕业面F。l23452l如果柏i英语学习中遇到问题，我有信心解决它。l234522我学英语足为J，能iIic利地讲英语。l234523我相信自己自|能JJ学好英语。1234524我学英语足为丫能看懂英义杂，基，小说和IU蟛。12345 58AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajors25我记新的英语单洲时，LJ头念几遍，笔头写几遍。l234526我会选择适合自己的学习方法，使自己成为更好的英语学习者。1234527当别人确：说英语的时候，我会很注意。l234528在做听力和阅读练习时，我利用标题去猜测文章的内容。1234529我对所学的内容主动复习并加以整理和归纳，以便巩同。l234530每次考试后都要自觉地找一下差距，分析原因。l23453l我会按照实际情况不断调整学习计划和方法。1234532我自己选择测试题进行自测。l234533在英语学习．卜取得工!}步时我会给自己一个奖励。l234534伍英语会话中，碰到想小起米的单词，我就用一些身体语言，比如：手势，12345表情米表达。35我框课堂．【：积极参加小组讨论。1234536我会注意我所犯的错误，并利用它米帮助我把英语学的业好。1234537遇到困难时，自己安慰自己：别人【!三会感到困难。l234538我遇到卅i懂的问题会向老师或同学请教。1234539除J，老师指定的课奉和资料外，我还会选择适合自己英语水’l，．的材料)k学12345习。40我努力找⋯外形或发啬。-Jig个甲．词相近的另外一些单刊，来帮助我对这个单12345词的记忆．4l我课前进行顶习。1234542我会和Je他人合作学习，并交流学习经验。1234543我仔细安排我的时间表，这样我可以有足够的时问学习英语。l234544碰到不认识的单词，我就根据上下文猜．1234545我会把已学内容和新学内容联系起来。l234546当考试成绩不理想时，我会鼓励自己不要泄气．1234547我经常评估自己在英语学习方面是否取得了一些进步。l234548我把单侧的发告和这个例的外形联系起来，以帮助我记忆。l234549当我用英语和j；0人会话后，我会反思自己使用的英语足否有错误。1234550我丸快速略读英语义章，然后‘0il。l头仃细阅读。123455l。与完作业J一我会榆△，并找⋯je中的错跌。1234552如果想1i起某个甲i．J．我会用1C它含义柙近的甲词水进行表达。l2345．53除J’七Arli布苜的作业外．我仃自己的英语学习计划和日标。l23d554我课厄和jC他¨学一起练习英语。12345．55我绛常用英语记笔记，写信或肯。与|I记。l2345 AppendixB——59BReliabilityoftheQuestionnaireItern．TotaIStatisticsScaleMeanifVarianceifCorrectedSquaredCronbach’SIternlternltern．TotaIMultipleAlphaifItemDeletedCorrelationDeletediteml176．27335．101．094．870item2176．36338．582．006．870itern3176．18333．738．135．869item4176．44326．065．495．866itern5175．31329．513．417．867itern6175．99332．679．146．870itern7175．55330．677．303．868item8176．36336．157．069．870itern9175．73325．009．457．866itemlO175．77330．238．306．868itemll177．89346．096．138．870iteml2175．68335．287．135．870iteml3176．45324．067．396．866iteml4176．45334．662．134．870iternl5175．84334．257．144．870iteml6176．40350．028．333．869iternl7176．13322．418．547．864iternl8176．50317．641．557．863iternl9175．32334．722．180．869item20176．86362．994．126．870itern21176．45326．493．411．866item22176．36322．661．428．866item23176．64325．638．413．866item24176．42323．284．412．866item25176．23327．158．327．868itern26176．17321．316．557．864jtern27176．40325．204．397．866 60AStudyofEFLLearnerAutonomyofNon—EnglishMajorsitem28176．17335．071．121．870item29177．07324．308．470．865item30176．55314．967．607．862item31176．43318．934．575．863itern32176．92326．642．365．867item33176．79327．573．330．867item34177．02323．465．377．867itern35176．92322．733．469．865item36176．87319．014．555．864item37176．56331．912．178．870item38176．55324．219．443．866item39176．89325．491．386．867item40176．84331．204．232．869item41177．12326．810．343．867item42176．92321．032．587．864item43176．83324．588．428．866jtem44176．07335．591．131．870jtern45176．70324．530．456．866itern46175．86327．941．333．867itern47176．97328．442．359．867itern48176．15329．397．284．868itern49176．57321．667．451．865itern50176．64328．063．302．868itern51176．95321．525．506．865itern52175．74332．666．256．869itern53176．89321．842．464．865itern54177．36326．187．460．866itern55177．98326．458．403．866 U×可C∞厶包《00。。o寸目一～∞^hInv、∞C”一o一fqN●2竺△言耄墨3笔三至，8茎星n口o口一nooc,OI，、no、oo摹鲁石乜J∞口∞均nNn=≥●ao-J。or，、n，、一ha口Do。00n一．_∞一●●量；弓尝叠∽凸云。。。∞n。。oInlno∞00on一卜JnN“—一o●芝乏LC≥=c：三山，-r旦_旦ho。。o一、oC土百hr、N一N口。一寸r、●口f、-、-一鼬∽o目C日or、C夸n00non00nh一．^—o一目—寸一≈k≈口C．noCNnN—一口hr、n—、。。∞oInV’口r、ho口nV、．nInU1∞¨N●I●nh∞n口InoI，、F、盘．口oN一eD●至喜l∽董言墨on口hIno口∞一oInNo正●一fq∞芑-_喜o8e-要哥要习iE3：C呈言i占耄占善．薹§l忍器8l芒譬吾||甚·墨·罢璺哥罗哥墨哥．星言||哥育占§言||焉占鹭．-罗髻霉弓言||j§占l一f、-n寸In￡C=￡o．=_田。卜∞o—QE吧∞_co刁cmQ∞Dc一_∞Q_J—o—cI_皇∞∽_II∞它皇Qclo它II一-o∞==∞∞篮oII—U鹾“弓置。盘盘《 f、I、oI^u、-nln卜l一ao卜、r、ov、nhr'-f、●。on口一No产INr●N寸卜r、Nc、lCoh●，●nr、Inv、一hooo∞一o。∞—一h卜、n一n、t’寸oInnt"qn一—、n寸、rI^v、ol●oDo∞00寸日C、ono，、no口寸o寸。。“一●一oCtnv、口nInh。o。。00NoC口。口寸Nc、II^In寸’r一oCo寸o卜If、●Nn●-●、o心o卜INon-nInI九t^I^n寸Co一—心oInnInh．nv1InnC。。00oho●一Cu、'tCnC一Cn一CnCnr●nDnCn一n一，、一n—n一D—C—I^一o—一—卜、寸o心oooh口h一卜●N一N一—一—一口o口oN口o∞口—1n。onh一n—、口n口∞oN卜hn—、—一卜、h口DI●N●N一●lno口NoN口∞no口no。no寸卜V、●一onoIn口h一nCn∞—、o∞-noh∞ho—、寸●N寸一熏芍∞喜o要l8o嚣言i§芒·星‘§蔼。；鼍晏哥雪弓i三iE3U；言||言i占鹭占善C鼍署弓’§焉iEo呈言||占l3言i8C器8黑§毛；E器o器i占毳言iU甚．1C占i3cd莹弓呈哥要鼍焉Ei三iE吾||言i言l言iC一Nn、ohZ夸一=：=C二严二=oUo乞，o●一一．=●一∞．10一≈至焉IIx巴日．舌乙JIDxLLlo舌】n《矗￡爵3一山叫J0x勺ru∽《 寸目oV1lnh口D口∞口o口全口h口、寸口Nc、I口o口、o一o’nIn口c、JNn产●c、J●，口n一～In‘n∞0'3口o口ov1nNn、o叼口ov1n、o口oNoNfq●o口n口D昏o∞00h卜、一ntn口o目口口0ooNc、●∞●n一●口DNn一l^”p-．r、onh∞口、or、hD口一奇Don一n卜lNV1Ino、o口o●口o一口、。o、oo一口一口o。o—oCoN卜|C_CoC口DoCoC●一C一C一C一otno∞Co∞nfqn口nhn∞nInn一n目一n一口一N一o—口一v、—∞一卜、D々0h口∞onNH一f、●N—一—D口o口oO∞ho—一or、h一∞nr、∞N“on一∞Nhr、o●f,lN一N一n●苫口．noholn．nh—onhno峥Inln一h一●o口h卜a0一h一No。口Nn口昏o●N一f’q一芍e--誊oCe-呈l8o8骛器§U．墨雪哥雪飞罗絮U占i吾i占誊吾ie-矗时l8l。；习要召雪焉雪哥里弓芒言||哥言i墨||言i言||’§-g,-罢要哥2寻l弓言l占％：l8苫§‘；习·星‘§髻雪毛iE墨l葛三言i3占誊InCh∞口o一—一—一f、Jrq￡C=C二∞UotJt)oU．=．=：．=．1=n口U×一口cocI(I、， ∞00一P、hnIn．^00o口D口心Nc、●ln．，、口寸co。o^ho。oa口、of、Jf、l一N卜●口目口寸●一o℃口o口Chr、v、V、n。。口o。nhNHu、．nNoNc、J一寸口寸一●-●-●一c、1f、l寸目口心horIN寸．nInh．nh口InI^一●口一。。o。一卜、h一h卜f、Jn、o．^V、Do、CoD口寸v、¨卜lNo一o一●lh卜、on口nhr、o—一CoC、oCDon口oCo一口of、JN．，、InnN●Cf、I●|C卜Cf、JC。cC心Cn。cnCn口mr、nfqnhn。c—C一、o一ln—一00—a0—n—口n寸o一D口DnN—一、寸寸N“Nh寸口．nIno口N口o一—口onN寸口叼口-nI^onl^o一●N—1n一●一-●No。一口InN产qhn一ohoInoV、寸o●oCNI^ho一h寸N口．n口on口n．^no口n●V1寸口—、一o8U要弓芑o芑一芑o呈言l言i呈；Dol器2C’；召·墨孓弓要哥呈习言||i三；三言||3jU．董；o器言i占鹭占l黑o竺·罢．罟；焉莹召≥哥要哥雪弓雪哥iEiEiE3蓦言i导l子||言l言i占鹭3占鹭o8．星笋焉雪弓言||j；占§Nn目InCho卜INf、●f、Jf、1f、●NC=二C=CoUoU．=．：=．=，=11-一●一-一sJoi苫二∞IIH口∞-uoZoox=IoE01n《8IL≈QJJ山∞-o}勺三∽《 n昏口oD00oOh一CO∞oo≈寸oNo口一。。。o口、Df、I一u’N一ao、oCoa●’口pov、I^卜|一∞卜、r—1’寸寸≈口寸o寸口v、o寸～一寸'中N一oN—1●-Nf、I●nIno口o00∞D。ooo口D卜、卜喀、o。o口∞、。、oo。o∞一●『●一N、o一口o_^lnoD∞oNh一—o一、ooInV、o●^卜卜、卜口一口一o全ho-n．nomInf、Jf、ItnInoCoCo奇●oCf、JC口C∞C卜、hC∞．n∞—口—。。—h一h一寸—h—In一、ChOC口C∞口∞Nc-INrq—ooo∞oOo。00。o口ooO∞o一N∞口∞a口oO。。V、lnV、一心o一C．I口夸o●一—●一●一、o一口一N口o。'tN∞V、o一o∞ln●．^Ir'寸一'to。o00'十o'中ho寸’tr、oN口oN●寸N寸甘o芑{芑Cl磬暑’§弓‘C雪蔼o要器e-；{8言l鼍寻l占§；Ue-。§蔼‘C要弓o墨||鼋言i言l§UC。§弓雾哥C詈||言i詈i8§U§，J占善U．星CL雪召里哥雾鼍董{8言||弓吾l占毳吾lU§弓譬絮墨||詈lo一寸InCr、—、二C二#：=C面U五UoUo．：．=．：．=．‘=●一”口U戈一勺=u(IcI《 、r口r、h卜、ho∞In∞o。o0'3∞一∞—一on。。∞t'-hf、I卜l寸。。∞nNnNC,I●口v、口aV、lnN卜●V、U1∞cor、r"-一．nnV、Inn—、n。。co寸口一寸一口寸N卜JN寸Nf’qn●-oD一In．n口CrIN．nI^oh．^In^h口。CIn口寸”一●oC一In-n一ohHNo口心口—N口on寸一o．n．^o一CoCo●口寸口DN一葛3hr、h崞口、t口oO∞oCh∞oooC严JN寸节℃●●oC寸|nI，、Co宁口●e．nCV1CnCNC^Cr、n产●nNn口r，、hn一nCn∞n00一n—口—l^一I^—口—I^一h—、or、●o∞hDC寸“NHc-吨“fqN一—一—一。o∞o一寸口oInnNnV、n一nV、hon—、口ao口卜‘nV、n一h寸一N●n—、●o∞oO寸N一∞n∞n口∞●n卜h∞寸o口hN一o●一r、NInV、N—、、o∞ohN“n-n寸onN∞o●寸一n芍∞o要0芑—_c0呈o．薹o箍8；8器§器苎重苎·詈写弓；三·星言；占耄3雪弓呈弓i三iEU言i习言i占鹭C雪哥雪絮要哥要召呈鼍C言||言i言l器；．||U孽．1呈哥雪弓i三黑言i莹弓iEi三言i言||口C口CNn寸I^n^口寸目寸口C￡=二：C：oUo．：=．=．_=●一．=．1=●一∞-lo育芝焉吾Ll呻coZJo≥舌co】n《矗E日3■皿∞Jox勺ru∽《oo 卜、口U×勺C∞△《Pjn口Cno、o∞N昏n、。o∞Nf、J。。oo、o口∞00or、_t--If、I目寸Inhr、≈口∞N●’中口PUrI口卜Jf、J、ooaDov、．n∞口aNf、l口NC,In—1ohr、no一oNno●—1n口-nIn‘nnc-iC-i昏D℃咕口C目口h口of、lNhP、一●一ph口寸一nIn、寸、十口喀oDo口NC,IN口、r寸卜lrqo一tt寸一l^Ino'中寸●一o口寸口rUN一寸口。。∞一hr、nN口昏oc、IN一h^一Nf、ICtr≈ohC●oC寸C一Cv、CI^C一CoC一n日non∞nV、nhnN—o'0一D一n—一—N一n—o一ChD口Inn口InDC,IplN卜lN一N—～—一o口。∞一ntr寸弋，xrh^●nV、口一口心v、In．，、．^orr、n一n口寸甘n、t’t●一Nn●PqN、oln寸目一In口nNoV、h一寸一寸oInN一卜o卜●o寸口∞寸o一·寸In一Dn。rr、口N寸—、00一●一寸o苓一苦oCe-C器o§o8器U芒C一·罢雪留里习署弓iEU言l占鹭言iC要习零哥D{8碧C呈O言l言i言lC§董8o言||蔼芒U．星≥絮·罢雪弓要召零弓号弓言liE言||吾||3U言i占誊占le-一雪哥雪鼍吾||；三3占耄、oh0C口C一Nn寸口寸lnIn-nln=：=：￡二CoU∞．==．=．1=●一 卜、^Intr寸oC口h^●n一●u、InonI^In一●口o口D^n。on—、寸●口hv、noCoCo●，●Cn∞nr'-一∞—一oDN—一口NDnr、hNfqNn∞口ho●一NDo●_苓e-0c詈l哥器oU芒·星’匕孓召零弓雪弓吾iiE言||3占鹭寸ln．^I^C=UtJ●一-一∞．Io育苫【I∞II∞口叫．uoZ-o≥LIo=o—j《JaIu对D，I■山叫ko^日皇∞《∞o 俺orN∞(DoNoN一>o。orPN寸T'-N∞兰童n)寸‘of,Do)①o寸∞rpocD卜’I'--t-f-QNohb-r一3●N●耋薹寸(ooN寸cooT-nT-N薹兰L-卜ho)oo)西u)卜co∞Nn)④o)oT--∞价o)①N∞；n∞a)∞o)o∞摹oo卜卜’b,-卜rt_o旧∞．v-r●r一●∞-J-●-●a)l墨t．∞n∞卜∞T,-一rt-or'V--oN寸‘D‘oo∞nT--T'--山2o∞‘o寸卜-h卜h叠墨∞D寸∞呐N●∞(，)oC∞n)N∞‘oCo∞Coco刊N乏n)寸o∞n∞幻koN∞(D(o寸Co-e'-,v-oC∞nu)nn)寸o∞hb-∞T-一o'o)co‘ocoja)●-●=匕rf’T-t_●Ic口3Q叮山亡仍童。一至∞呐∞mn∞‘oT'--r卜koP'V--o2no●o●J口na)寸=一f-∞●N’一D)c，)o晌o∞onoT．ob"-o∞n一n'寸n寸nonh'V--hr寸t．o)T--NPoT_Co～o)∞o)DN“NPf_PrPno寸,q-b,-卜～∞们Nh-卜‘o。oo)o’旧o寸∞寸hb,-∞寸●PNft-NI●NoCo卜、∞n卜∞o∞巳o々Nr寸Pnb,-●I吾--要量C，)盖芎枣o寸∞o)ro)寸o∞N卜∞寸o)寸0)o至占多I．L●∞rf．t-f--J∞C疗∞‘疗∞oDo∞oU．鲍U．鼹o·鳇o-斡o．瞻o．瞻e-．Ce-田∞叮C口。妻哥詈善萼兰弱言墨蠡吾墨差要吾茎蠡言墨喜萎善善口oIJ．I仍t1．I∞1．1．1coI．t．1co山t'-t．1J∞t．Ur'-Nn寸∞丘ru．LLu-寸LLu-也_协o．L们m—cIEm∽_co刁coclo刁c一昏口U)(一口co(IQ《
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