非英语专业大学生外语自主学习状况调查及研究

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非英语专业大学生外语自主学习状况调查及研究广西师范大学硕士学位论文非英语专业大学生外语自主学习状况调查与研究姓名：曾静申请学位级别：硕士专业：课程与教学论指导教师：沈斌20070401非英语专业大学生外语自主学习状况调查与研究 年级：2004级专业：课程与教学论研究方向：英语教学论近年来，随着知识更新的飞速发展，人的终生教育问题止得到越来越多的关注，越来越多的外语工作者也意识到了培养学牛自主能力的重要性。教育教学的中心渐渐的转到学生身上来，对于学习策略的培训和学生自主能力的培养也在各级教学人纲和课程要求中得到了不同程度的体现。早有研究表明，学习者自主学习能力的强弱跟其学习的成果是密切相关的。课堂教学活动的时间是极其有限的，耍想在这有限的时间内完成对一门知识，尤其是外语的掌握，这是远远不够的，因此这就需要学习者在课外自己的努力。 教育能带给学习者的不仅仅是知识，还应该包括获取知识的能力。学习者自主这一概念由HenriHolec于1981年正式提出。自从该概念诞生以來，国内外学者围绕其展开了大量研究。但这些研究都局限于对学习者自主概念的探索、学习者自主理论基础的描述和分析以及如何培养学习者白主性的研究，有关自主式语言学习的实证研究为数不多。本研究以问卷调查为主要手段，旨在对广四非英语专业大学牛的自主学习情况作一调查，弄清楚大学生对自主学习这一概念的认识和自主学习的真实情况。在调查问卷中，我们重点考察了学习者在选择自主学习材料，确定学习目标和学习计划，监控学 习过程，选择学习环境和选用学习策略这五方而的表现。更为重要的是，本文以性别和专业为控制变量，分别考察了男女生及文理科学生在这五方而表现的不同，这是前人研究中鲜少涉及的。此外，问卷中还适当加入一些问题，调查学习者的学习动机、对课堂教学内容的满意程度以及对自主学习的态度。通过本次调查，我们发现大部分大学生都有较强的内外部动机来学习英语，学习热情也比较高，对课堂内容也有较高的期待。但是，令他们失望的是，目前课堂上老师一言堂的现象仍比较严重，作为学生他们很少有机会在课堂上得到充分的练习。这种单一的课堂组织形式已经远不能满足他们对知识的需求，从而激发了他们对自主学习需 求。从调查中我们得知，从观念上来说，大部分学生对自主学习还是持积极态度的。但是他们学习过程中的实际行动却不那么令人满意。课外，大部分的学牛既不通过课文同步练习来巩固已学知识，也很少找一些课外阅读材料来扩充知识面，更不积极参加英语角等英语课外活动。虽然大约半数左右的人有明确的学习目标和计划，但是他们对白己的要求跟司机考试大纲对他们的要求往往不能达成一致。同时，他们不能口觉地评价自己的学习过程，及时调整学习计划，找岀自身的弱点及改进措施，而把这一希望寄予老师，被动的等待别人来帮他们发现问题，解决问题。在学习策略的选用上，虽然有了一定的策略意识, 但由于没有受到系统的培训，所以不太能因地制宜，针对不同的学习任务采取不同的学习策略。总体而言，女生的外语自主学习能力比男生强，文科生的外语自主学习能力比理科牛强。根据调查所得，本文提出了对今后培养外语学习能力的几点建议。首先要提高学习者的自主意识，让他们成为学习的主体，积极主动地学习。其次要指导学习者建立一个明确的切实可行的学习目标，努力实现个人目标和课程目标的吻合。再次，为学习者提供系统的学习策略培训，提高他们的策略意识和使用这些策略的能力。最后，鼓励学习者积极监 控和评价自己的学习过程，找出自己的优势和弱点，改进学习方法，提高学习效率。关键词：外语自主学习；学习者自主；大学牛；性别；科目••VIIASurveyonEnglishLearnerAutonomyinNon-EnglishMajorCollegeStudentsM.A.Candidate:ZengJingSupervisor:AssociateProf.ShenBinAbstractWiththerapiddevelopmentofknowledgerenovation,lifelongcducationisnowgaininggradualattention.Moreemdmoreforeignlanguageworkershavebeenawareofthesignificance offosteringlcarncreiutonomy.Educationisgraduallygearingtowardslearner-centerandthe callofstrategytrainingandfosteringlearnerautonomyfindexpressioninalllevelsofEnglishcurriculumstandards.Earlyresearcheshaverevealedaclosecorrelationbetweenlearnerautonomyandthelearningoutcome.Sinceweonlyhave1imitedtimeonclassroomlearning,it'soutofthequestiontogainmasteryoveranysubjectwithinsuchashorttime,foreignlanguageinparticular.Thisrequireslearners，endeavorafterclass.Educationcanbringtolearnernotonlyknowledgebutalsothecompetencetogetaccesstoknowledge.ThenotionoflearnerisformallyputforwardbyHenriHolecin1981,scholarsinthefield hascarriedoutagreatdealofresearchesonitsinceitsbirth,mostofwhichareconstrainedtotheexplorationintothedefinitionoflearnerautonomy,itstheoreticalbackgroundandthewaystofosterlearnerautonomy.Seldomcanwefindthequantitativestudiesinthisfield.Employingquestionnaireasthemajormedium,thisstudyaimstomakeaninvestigationintothelearnerautonomyofnon~Englishmajorcol1egestudentsinGuangxiandgetacleardescriptionoflearnersattitudcandtherealsituationofstudents'autonomousEnglishlearning.Inthequestionnaire,wefocusonlearners'performanceonthefollowingfiveaspectsofmaterialselection,personaland1earneragendamaking, learningprocessmonitoring,learningenvironmentselectionaswellasstrategyemployment.Moreover,welookintothedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalelearners,betweenstudentsofliberalartandstudentsofscience,whichisrarelyfoundinthepreviousresearch.Further,weaddsomeitemsconcerninglearner"smotivation,classroominput,andlearners'attitudetowardsautonomyintothequestionnaire.Throughthissurvey,wefindthatmostcollegestudentsareequippedwithbothintrinsicandextrinsicmotivationsfor1earning.TheyareenthusiasticaboutEnglishlearningandhaveahighexpcctationforclassroominput.However,totheirdisappointment,teachers'instruction stillgreatlyoccupiestheclasshours,andasstudentstheyseldomhavetheopportunitytogetadequatepracticeinclass.Thisunitaryclassroomactivityisfarawayfromtheirneedfor•••V111knowledge,thusdrivethemtodeveloplearnerautonomy.Fromthesurvey,weknowthatinmind,learnershoidapositiveattitudetowardslearnerautonomy,butinaction,theiractionwasnotsosatisfactory.Mostlearnetsdon，tdosynchronoustutorialexercisestosolidifytheknowledgelearnedintheclassroom.NordotheyreadsomeextracurricularmaterialstobroadentheireyesightoractivelytakepartinanyEnglishconcerning activitics.Around50%ofthemdohaveadefiniteobjectiveandlearneragenda,whichunfortunatelyaccordsnotsowellwithcurriculumstandards-Meanwhile,theycannotconsciouslyreflectontheirlearningprocessandmodifytheirplanstimelytoidentifytheirdisadvantagesandmeasurestotake.Instead,theylooktotheteachersforhelp,passivelywaitingforothers，tofindtheirexistingproblemandevensolvetheproblemforthem.Asfortheemploymentoflearningstrategics,strategyawarenessdoesexist,duetothelackofasystematictrainingonit,learnercannotchoosefreelyfromvarietyofstratcgioswhonconfrontedwithdifferenttasks.Generally speaking,femaledisplaystrongerlearnerautonomythanmalestudents,whilestudentsofliberalartsdisplaystrongerlearnerautonomythanstudentsofscienee.Basedonthesefindingsinthissurvey,thisthesisbringsupsomesuggestionforfosteringlearnerautonomyinthefuture.Firstly,weshouldraiselearners'awarenessonautonomy,makingthemclearthattheyarethecentreoflearningandthattheyshouldactivelytakepartinit.Secondly,weshouldguidethelearnerstosetadefiniteandattainableobjectivewhichgearstothecurriculumstandard.Thirdly,systematicstrategytrainingisncededtoraiselearnets， strategyawarenessandfreeuseofallkindsofstrategics.Finally,learnersshouldbeencouragedtotakeanactivepartinmonitoringandassessontheirownlearningprocess,identifyingmeritsanddemeritsrespectively,improvingstudymethodandincreasingtheefficiencyoflearning.Keywords:autonomousEnglishlearning;learnerautonomy;collegestudents;sex;majorix论文独创性声明本人郑重声明：所提交的学位论文是本人在导师的指导下进行的研究工作及取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不含其他个人或其他机构已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究作出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文屮以明确方式标明。本人承担本声明的法律责任。 研究生签名口期：论文使用授权声明木人完全了解广西师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定。广西师范大学、中国科学技术信息研究所、清华犬学论文合作部，有权保留本人所送交学位论文的复印件和电子文档，可以采用影印、缩印或其他复制手段保存论文。本人电子文档的内容和纸质论文的内容相一致。除在保密期内的保密论文外，允许论文被查阅和借阅，可以公布（包括刊登）论文的全部或部分内容。论文的公布（包括刊登）授权广西师范大学学位办办理。 研究生签名日期：导师签名日期:ASurveyonEnglishLearnerAutonomyofNon-EnglishMajorCollegeStudentsChapterOneIntroduction1.1ABriefTntroductiontotheOriginofLearnerAutonomyLanguageiseverchangingwiththerapiddcvclopmentofthesocicty.Thegoalsforeducationareultimeitelymuchbroaderthansimplytheimplementationofcertainareaofknowlcdgcandskills.Theobjeetivcofmoderneducationisnowgearingtowardsthe improvementofone"sabilityandqualityinanallroundway.schoolscannotcatchupwiththerenovationofknowledge.Tosetfootonsuchaconstantlychangingsociety,onehastobeequippedwiththecompetenceofself-developmentandthekeytopromoteLimitednormaleducationinself-development.Inordertoactualizesknowledge,peopletheconceptofalife!ong1earningandupdateoneshouldlearnnotonlyinclass,butalsooutofclass.That‘swhymoreandmorelinguistsarcsomuchconcernedwiththesignificanceoffosteringlearnerautonomy.Inthepasttwodecades,asourIanguagcshifttoamoreteachingpracticegradually communicativeapproach,ithasalsobecomemorelearnet-centered.Moreandmoreimportaneehasbeenattachedtothestudents,totheirindividualfactorssuchstandards,whichadvocatethattheaslearningstyleandlearningstrategieswhichmightaffecttheirlearningoutcome.TheincreasingofemphasisonlearnerautonomyfindsexpressioninalllevelsofEnglishcurriculumterminalaimofeducationisfarfromimpartinglinguisticknowledgefromonetoanother;itshouldgodeeplyintothecultivationoflearnerautonomy.EnglishCurriculumStandardForSeniorStudentspublishedin2003statesthattheaimofEnglishcurriculumistofosterfavorablelearninghabitsinstudentsanddeveloptheirideationandautonomyv.Accordingtothe newlyrevisedCollegeEnglishCurriculumRequirementsForTrialImplementationin2004,theobjectiveofEnglishcurriculumisto“developstudents，abilitytouseEnglishinanallroundway,especiallyinlisteningandspeaking,sothatintheirfutureworkandsocialinteractionstheywil1beabletoexchangeinformationeffectivelythroughbothspokenandwrittenchannels,andatthesametime,theywillbeabletoenhancetheirabi1itytostudyindependentlyandimprovetheirculturalqualitysoastomeettheneedsofChina'ssocialdcvclopmentandinternationalexchanges"CECR,2004:16. Asfarasteachingmodelisconcerned,RequirementsCollegeEnglishCurriculumadvocatesanewmodelwhichisbuiltinmoderninformationtechnology,particularlynetworktechnology,sothatEnglishlanguageteachingwillbefreefromtheconstraintsoftimeorplaceandgearedtowardsstudents'individualizedandautonomouslearning.Italsoholdsthatanimportantindicatorofthesuccessfulreformoftheteachingmodelisthedevelopmentofindividualizedstudymethodsandtheautonomouslearningabilityonthepartofstudents.Seenfromabove,promptingstudentslearnerautonomyhas becomeaninevitabletrendinmoderneducation.1.2TheoreticalandPracticalJustificationsofLearnerAutonomyFormanyyearsnow,“autonomy"hasbeenapopularfocusfordiscussioninforeignlanguageteachingHolec,1981；Dickinson,1987；Boud,1988;Little,1991;Wenden,1995・Thiscenteredvmethods;andourgoalofpopular!tyisnotsurprising,sincethisconceptaccordswellwithseveralofourcentralpedagogicalprcoccupations,notab1yourviewthatlanguagelearningrequirestheactiveinvolvementoflearners;ourattemptstointroduce“learnerhelpinglearnerstobecomeindependentfromtheirteachersintheirlearninganduseoflanguage. It'salsosupportedfromoutsidelanguageteachingbyageneralcducationalconcerntohelpstudentsbecomemoreindependentinhowtheythink,learnandbehaveCf・Boud,1988・LimitedTimeandResourceEarlyresearcheshaveprovedthatlearnerautonomyiscloselycorrelatedwiththelearningachievement.Sinceweonlyhavelimitedtimeonclassroomlearning,it，soutofthequestiontogainmasteryoveranysubjectwithinsuchashorttime,foreignlanguageinparticular.Whatwehavetodoshouldgofarbeyondtheclassroomactivitiesandgodeeplyintotheessenccofmoderneducation,whichdemandsahighlevelofcompetencetoattainknowledgethroughone，sownendeavor.Moderneducationhasplacedmoreand moreemphasisonthedevelopmentofpeople"sfacultyandtheboostingupofanoverallquality.Asourlanguageteachingpracticeshiftapproach,ithasalsotoamorecommunicativebecomemoreandmorelearner-centered.Forlemguageteachers,1anguage1earnersarebecomingthesourceofinformationforclassroomactivitiesandthefocusofcurriculumdesign.Withmoreunderstandingaboutlanguagelearningprocessandstrategyusefromcontinuingresearch,manylanguageteachersareconvincedoftheimportanceofincorporatingprinciplesoflearnerautonomyintotheir practice.circumstanceswherethereisnoeilternative，orwhereanyalternativeinvolvesthelearnerinunacceptablepersonalsacrifice.Thusthelearnermayliveataconsiderabledistancefromanappropriateinstitution;thelearner"sjobmaynotallowherthefreetimetoattendclasses.IndividualDifferencesAmongLearnersAsecondreasonforadvocatinglearnerautonomyisthatit，sawayofcopingwiththevarioussortsofdifferencesamonglearnersThemostobviousjustificationforpromotinglearnerautonomyisthattherearc Dickinson,1987:18•Individualdifferencesmanifestthemselvesindifferentlanguageaptitude,differentcognitivestyleandstrategies.Somepeople,forwhateverreason,learnmorequicklythanothers,andthoughtitmaybepossibletohelpslowlearnersby,forexample,suggestingalternativelearningstrategies.Somedifferenceinlearningratesislikelytoremain.Thedevelopmentofindividualized1earningresuItspartlyfromthewishtoreleaselearnetsfromtheneedforalltoworkatthesamerate.“All1earnersmanifestcertainpreferredlearningstrategies—particularformsobservablebehavior,moreorlessconsciously Learningstrategiesinclude,forexample,stratcgicsforcopingwithtargotlanguagerules,employedbythelearnerStern,1983:409•includingsuchdevicesasgeneralizationandsimplificeition;strategiesforreceivingperformance,andforproducingperformance.Eachofthesedistinctionsincognitivestyle,strategyandlearningtechniquessuggeststhatanygroupoflearnerswillmanifestseveraldifferencesintheandthatlearningispreferredwaysofgoingaboutlearningtasks,unlikelytobemostofficientifthelearnersispreventedfrom1earninginthewaysheprefers.However,itmaybepossible,throughacourseofpreparation,topersuadethelearnertousemoreeffectivestrategies. cf.Dickinson,1987:22RequirementforContinuingEducationThereareeconomic,socialandindividualpressuresontheeducationalsystemofacountryTherateofchangetoprovidecontinuingeducation.onmodernsocietythroughtechnologicaldevelopments,economicandcommercialdevelopmentandpoliticalgroupings,maystraintheabilityofcducationalsystcmtoscope.Thereareneedsforskillstodealwiththeincreasinginternationalizationandmobilityofeconomicandpoliticallife.It，stheindividualwhoisresponsibleandactiveinshapinghisorherownlifeandtherefore thatofothers.Educationhastopreparelearnersforthis,whichinvolvesteachingthemskillsnecessarytotakecontrolovertheprocessandcontentoflearning.Autonomycanserveasagoeilofeducation,andmeanwhile,it，salsoanapproachtoeduca.tion.AfundamentalpurposeofeducationisassumedtobetodevelopinindividualstheabilitytomaketheirowndecisionsaboutwhattheythinkanddoDavidBoud,1988:18.Besides,becauseofthefastdevelopmentofsociety,thebodyofknowledgeisanythingbutstatic,evolvingsofastthatmuchofitisexpectedtobecomeoutdatedeveryfewyears.So grcateremphasisisnowplacedoninsuringthathighereducationprovideslearnerswithknowledgeand^transferableskills”whichtheywi11needthroughouttheirlives.Thereisaneedforlifelonglearningtorefreshtheknowledgeandkeepupwiththetimes.ChapterTwoAtHomeLiteratureReviewAbroadandThelast20yearshavewitnessedanincreasingamountofattcntiontolcarncrseif-directedlearning,self-accesssystemsandindividualized/independentlearninginsecondlemguagclcarningliteraturcIlolcc1981,1985; ThegeneralacceptaneeofthesetermsintheprofessionhaspromptedLittle1991:2todescribeautonomyasthe"buzz-word"inthecontextoflanguagelearning.Wendenalsopointedoutthat"fewteacherswilldisagreewiththeimportaneeofhelpinglanguagelearnetsbecomemoreautonomous^1991:11•Inthischapter,wewilltracetheoriginof“autonomy”anditsdevelopment.2.1RationalesforLearnerAutonomyAlthoughtherearenowalotofpublicationscibout“autonomy”,itisimpossibletotracethisconcepttoanysinglcsourceordateoforigin,sinceithas“complexrelationshipswith developmentsinphilosophy,politicalscience,psychologyandsociology,stretchingbackmanycenturiesinsomecases”Gremmo&Riley,1995:152.HumanisticTheoriesonLearnerAutonomyHumanismemergesinthemiddleof1950sand1960sandisbasedonthetwotraditionalschoolsinpsychologybehavioralpsychologyandpsychoanalysis.Ttisaschoolofthoughtthatbelieveshumanbeingsaredifferentfromotherspeciesandpossesscapacitiesthatcannotbefoundinanimals.Humanists,therefore,giveprimacytothestudyofhumanneedsandinterests.Ilumanisticapproachesemphasizetheimportanccoftheinnerworldof thelearnerandplacethe individual5sthoughts,feelingsandemotionsattheforefroutofallhumandevelopment.Humanismfocusesonthepositiveaspectsthepeople,theirirmer-directed,consciousmotivationandself-directedgoals,whichstressesundcrstending，personalassumptionofresponsibilityandself-realization.Tntraditionalteaching,thedevelopmentlearners'languagecompetenceistheultimategoalofteaching.Butinhumanisticview,thebasicconcernishuman'spotentialgrowthandeducationistoenhanceactualizationandgivefreeharnesstopotential.Fromthehumanisticoftheonepointofview,theprimaryfunctionofeducationistohelpstudents todeveloptheindividuality;toassisttheminrealizingthepotentialthathasalreadyexistedwithinthem.Humanismfocusesonthehumanbeingandconsiderslearnerstobethecentreoflearning;ittakesintofullconsidcrationthelearners'affectiveoremotionalfactorssuchasinterestsandmotivation.CarlRogers,anotherproponentofhumanism,contendsthattheeducationalobjectiveisto4develophuman"sadaptabilityandautonomy.Self-initialecllearninginvoIvingfeelingsaswel1ascognitionismostlikelytobelastingandpervasive.Learnerscantakcresponsibiliticsfortheir spontaneousactivities,usetheirexperiencefreelyandcrcativcly,andcooperateeffectivelywithothers.InRogcrs，opinion,learningisexperientiallearningpoweredbyspontaneityandinitiative,i.e.,self-initiatedlearning.Therelationbetweenlearningmaterialandlearners'needsandinterestsshouldreceivecloseattentionRogers,1969.Oneoftheearlierwell-knownHumanistsisAbrahamMaslowwhoseconceptofself-actualizationhasbeenhighlyinfluentialinforcignlemguagcteaching.AbrahamMaslowsuggestedahierarchyofneed.Hementionstwodistinctcategoriesofneed,maintenancedeficicncyneedsatthelowestlevel,beingorgrowthatthehighest.Thefirstfourlayersaredirectlyconcernedwithpsychologicalorbiologicalbalanee. Theyineludethepsychologicalrequirementsaswellastheneedsforsecurity,belongingandesteem.Onlywhenthelowerneedsaremetisitpossibletomoveontothehigherlever.Asaful1ydevelopedperson,oneneedstostriveforthetoplevelofself-actualization,whichisoneofthebasicneedsforhumanbeings.However,individualdifferencesmaygiverisetodifferentwayofself-actualization,whichmakesalightonfocusingonpersonalindividuallearningstylesandsuggeststhatlearnersshouldundertakeresponsibilityandmakedecisionsabouttheirlearning.ConstructivistTheoryofLearning Learnerautonomyiscongruentwiththetheoryofconstructivism.Constructivismisaphilosophyoflearningfoundedonthepremisethatweconstructourownknowledgeorunderstandingoftheworldwe1iveinbasedonourpreviousandcurrentexperiences.Eachofusgeneratesourown"rules"and〃mentaimodels^,whichweusetomeikesenseofourexperiences.Learning,therefore,issimplytheprocessofadjustingourmentalmodelstoaccommodatenewexperiences.Glasersfeld,thegenerallyacknowledged"father"ofconstructivism,definesitasfollows:^Constructivismisatheoryofknowledge withrootsinphilosophy,psychology,andcybernetics.Itassertstwomainprincipleswhoseapplicationhasfar-reachingconsequencesforthestudyofcognitivedevelopmentandlearningaswellasforthepracticeofteaching,psychotherapy,andintcrpersonalmanagementingeneraLThetwoprinciplesare:aknowledgeisnotpassivelyreceivedbutactivelybuildsupthefunctionofbythecognizingsubject;bcognitionisadaptiveandservestheorganizationoftheexperientialworld,notthediscoveryofontologicalreality.VonGlascrsfcld,1994:162 •1Bruner，sContributiontoConstructivistTheoryofLearningThelearningtheoryofconstructivismisabranchofcognition.AsarepresentofConstructivism,Jerome.S.Bruner'sconstructivisttheoryisageneralframeworkforinstructionbaseduponthestudyofcognition.HeholdsthesameopinionwithPiagetthatlearningisanactiveprocessesinwhichstudentsconstruetnewideasorconceptsbasedontheircurrentorpastknowledge.Bruner"stheoryofcognitivelearningtheoryemphasizestheformationofthecodingsystems. Hebelievesthatthecodingsystemcanbenefitthelearnersin transfcrring,enhanceandincreasethechaneeofproblemsolving.Itwillarousethelcarncrs，learningmotivationthroughtheirinformationcoding.Codingisanimportantprocessinlearning.Brunerinitiatescurriculumchangesbasedonthenotionthatlearningisanactive,socialprocessinwhichlearnersconstructnewideasorconceptsbasedontheirpresentknowledge..2JeanPiaget，sContributiontoConstructivistTheoryofLearningOneofthemostinflucntialandcnduringthcoricsofcognitivcdevelopmentwasproposedbyJeanPiaget,aSwisspsychologist.Piagetemphasizedtheconstructivenatureoftheleaning process.Incontrasttomoretraditionalviewswhichseelearningas theaccumulationoffactsorthedevelopmentofskills,themainunderlyingassumptionofconstructivismisthatindividualsareactivelyinvolvedrightfrombirthinconstructingpersonalmeaningtheirownpersonalunderstendingfromtheirexperience.Thatistosay,everyonemakestheirownsenseoftheworldandtheexperiencesthatsurroundthem.Inthisway,learnersarebroughtintocentralfocusinlearningknowledge.Histheoryis“action-based”moreconcernedwiththeprocessoflearningthatwhatis1earned.ProgressiveEducation,developedbyJeanPiagetandJohnDewey, ledtotheevolutionof constructivism.Piagctbelievedthathumanslearnthroughtheconstructionofonelogicalstructurcafteranother.Theimplicationsofthistheoryandhowheappliedthemhaveshapedthefoundationforconstructivisteducation..3Vygotsky'sContributiontoConstructivistTheoryofLearningLevVygotskyintroducedthesocieilaspectoflearningintoconstructivism.Hedefinedthezoneorproximaldevelopment”accordingtowhichlearnersolveproblemsbeyondtheiractualdevelopmentlevel.Accordingtosomeresearches,whenoneis1earningsomenewknowledge,thememorybanklabeledtheconceptclosedtothenewknowlcdgcsomewhereinhis However,ofallthestuffheorshecanstilllearn,asubsetofitorherbrainthatcontainswhatheorsheknowsaboutthenewknowledge.ThisishisorherPresentKnowledgeonthetopic-Althoughheorshedoesn'tknoweverythingaboutthenewknowledge,therearcstillideasthatheorshecanlearnandaddtohisorhermemorybank.wouldbebetterandeasiertolearnnextandothersubsetswouldbebetterleftaloneuntillater.ThatsubsetthatwouldbebetterandeasiertolearnnextiscontainedintheProximalZone.Aslearningproceeds,aportionoftheProximalZonebecomespartofthePresentKnowledge,andasaconsequence,asmaller ProximalZoneremains.Hence,overtime,PresentKnowledgegrowsbutthereisalwaysaProximalZonepresent.Thekeypointoftheconceptthe"zoneofproximaldevelopmeisthatatanygiventimeforanyleafnerthereexistsmaterialthatwouldbethenextbestmaterialtolearn.Constructivistslaystressontheinnerpsychologicalprocessofthelearners.Fromthispointofvicw,thelearnetsarenotthepassiveacccptersorcontainersoftheknowledgebuttheactivebuilderoftheirownknowledgestructure.CognitivcTheoriesonLearncrautonomy Apartfromtheinflucneeofhumanismandconstructivism,autonomouslearningisalsojustifiedoncognitivepsychologicalgrounds.Manydevelopmentsincognitivepsychologyhavehadastronginfluenceonideasaboutlanguageteachingandlearning.Learnerautonomygainssupportfromthenotionthatknowingandthinkingdevelopswithexperiences.Eachindividualuseshisexperiencestobuildforhimselfapictureoftheworldandtofindhismodelofcxplaneitionfordiffcrcntheusesschemes,whicharephenomcneuForthispurpose,specificcognitivestrueturesgraduallydevelopedthroughexperiences.Theseexperiencesareincorporateinandhelptobuildhisschemesoftheworld. Theseschemestheninfluencehistargctofattention，choiceofinformationanditsinterpretation,etc.simultaneoussocialgrowthleadingpersonalfigureisDewey,growthwithinacontext.Forhimfortheismasteryofthetoolsfacilitatedbyproblemciticwhomthisprocessiscentralfeatureinoflearning,situationsthatarousemotivation,i.e.learningbydoing.HuttunenholdsthatforDewey,"•••theteacher"staskistoguidethestudentinthisdevelopmentofthelogical,psychologicalHistaskandethicalaspectsofpersonalprogresstowardsautonomy.istofindwaysofenriching,tobalancingandclarifyingthestudent'sexperience, guidehimtoseeknewcxpcricnccstoandstructurecindsimplifyexperienceswhenneeded,tofindofconnectingthestudcnt'sexperienceswiththediverseoflifeinhiscultureincludingitsheritage"1986:19.LinguisticBasisChomskyclaimshumanbeingsarebiologicallyendowedwithaninnatelanguagefaculty.TheinnatelangueigcfacultyincorporatesasetofUG•Itisuniversalgrammaticalprinciplestraditionallysaidthatsentencesareconstructedoutofwordsandphrases,eachofwhichbelongstoaspecificgrammaticalcategoryandseversas aspecificgrammaticalfunctionwithinthesentencecontainingit.Inthiswayifstudentslearnafewwords,theyhaveanabilitytocreativelyusethelanguagetoexpresstheirideas.Heemphasizestheimportanceofinnateknowledgeandthelearner"scontributiontotheprocessoflanguagelearning.Thelearneriscreditedwithamentalgrammarthatcompriseshercompetenceandwhichunderlaysheractuallanguagebehavior.Krashen，saffectivefilterhypothesisdealswithhowaffectivefactorsrelatedtosecondlanguagelearning.Inhisview,thefiltercontrolshowmuchinputthelcarncrcomesintocontractwith,andhowmuchinputisconvcrtedintointake. Itiseffectivebecausethefactors,whichdetermincitsstrength,havetodowiththelearner^smotivation,self-confidence,andwithlowanxietyandlowfilters,andsoobtainandletinplentyofinput.Learnerswithlowmotivation,littleself-confidence,andhighanxietyhavehighfiltersandsoreceivelittleinputandalloweven1essin.ForIanguageteachers,itisimportanttobeawareofthefactthatwhateverlanguageinputisprovidedinclassrooms.Teachersshouldgivestudentseffectiveinputandcreatelivelyatmosphere.Theyshouldgivestudentsmorepracticeandmakethemthehostoftheclass.2.2StudiesAbroadStudiesonLearnerautonomyabroadbeginsatthebeginningof the1980s'andreachesaclibytheendofthiscentury.Attheearlystage,Linguisticsandlanguageresearchersprobeintothetheoreticalbackgroundandthedefinitionofulearnerautonomy",andfurthermore,givingsuggestionasforhowtopromoteautonomyinleeirnersduringdailyclassroomteaching.However,aftersomanydiscussions,wedidn"treachanagreementoneventheappellationofthesubject.Otherthanulearnerautonomy",italsohasmanypopularnamessuchas^autonomouslearning”,"self-directedlearning^,“self-directedlearning"、uself-accesslearning",uandself-instruction",“independentlearning”.Atthesametime,wedidn‘ thaveacleardefinitionfor“autonomy”.Someseeitintermsofab订itycapacity,andsomeintermsofperformanee,awareness,situationoracombinationofal1thesefactors.DefinitionsandCharacteristicofuLearnerAutonomyvDefiningautonomyisnotaneasytask.Eversincetheconcept“LearnerAutonomy”wasraised,therehaveemergedaround10definitionsfromavarietyofangles.Apartfromthat,therehavealsoappearedalotofterms,whichareequaltoorsynonymouswiththecoreideaulearnerautonomy”•Hedgeputsitlikethis:“Sineethelate1980swehciveseenaproliferationoftermsrelatingtotheconceptof self-directedleeirning,autonomouslearning，self-monitoring,self-assessment,learnerstrategies,self-helplearningstrategies,stratcgicinvestment，learnertraining,self-study,andself-accesslearning.Thekeyconceptsthathaveemerged,however,andaroundwhichotherspivot,arethoseoflearnerautonomyasagoalforlearners,andlearnertraining,ortheteacher"scncouragcmentoftheireffortstowardsthatgoal.”2000:77Theseterms,tosomeextend,makethedefinitionofLAmorecomplicatedanddifficuIt.The followingtablecitedinTheTheoryandPracticeofModernForeignLanguageTeachingbyXuJinfcn(2004:182)showsmanydefinitionsofuautonomyGenerallyspeaking,itfallsintofourmajordimensionsrespectively,namely,abilitydimension,situationorstatedimension,behavioralperformancedimensionandcombinationdimension.Table1VariousDefinitionsofLearnerAutonomyDimensionAuthorDefinitionofAutonomy"theabilitytotakechargeofone"sownlearning…ThisIlolccIlcnryabilityisnotinbornbutmustbeacquiredeitherbynatural 1981:3meansorasmosthappensbyaformallearning,insystematic,AbilitydeliberatedwayLittle“acapacityfordetachment,criticalreflection,decision1991:4independentaction.”Cotterail“thelearnetsdemonstratetheabilitytouseamakingandextenttowhich1995b:195oftacticsfortakingcontroloftheir1earning”“asituationinwhichthelearncristotallyresponsiblcforall Leslieofthedecisionsconcernedwithhis/herlearningandtheDickinsonimplcmcntationofthosedecisions.InfullautonomythereisSituation1987:11noinvolvementofa'teacher，oraninstitution.AndtheorStatelearnerisalsoindependentofspeciallypreparedmaterials.”AllWright“…aconstantlychangingbutatanytimeoptimalstateof1990:12equilibriumbetweenimalself-developmentandhumaninterdependence.”“Alearnerisfullyautonomouswhenheisworking individuallyorinagroup,takingresponsibilityfortheBehavioralHuttunenplanning,monitoringandevaluationofhisstudies.ThePerformance1986:95learnercannot,ofcourse,befullyautonomouswithintheframeworkofanationwidecurriculum,butthemoreresponsibilityheisgiveninanyofthethreeareasofplanning,monitoringandevaluation,themoreautonomous. BroadyautonomyinvoIvesthreedimensions:&“theconceptoflearnerKenningthe'responsibility'dimension,the"workingwithouta1996:14tcachcr"dimension,andthe"choice，dimension.”Littlewood“Acapacitytomakeandcarryoutthechoiceswhichgovern1996:428hisorheractions.Thiscapacitydependsontwomaincomponents:abilityandwillingness…”Combiriation“theword'autonomy，hasbeenusedinatleastfivedifferent ofmanyways:factorsLforsituationsinwhichlearnersstudyentirelyontheirown;2.forasetofskillswhichcanbelearnedandappliedinBenson,P.&self-directlearning;P.Voller.3.foraninborncapacitywhichissuppressedbyinstitutional1997:1education;4.fortheexercisesearnersresponsibi1ityfortheirownlearning;5.fortherightof learnerstodeterminethedirectionoftheirownlearning.”SomeCharacteristicsofanAutonomousLearner