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ECONOMICLIBERALIZATIONINTRDOCTIONDuringthepast20years,Chinahasbeenundergoingthegreatestchangesinitshistory,earmarkedbyrapideconomicgroesthanthatin1990(Xie,1998).Theincrease,thoughloarkableconsideringthefactthatChinahasalargepopulationbaseofmorethan1.2billion.Therapideconomicgrootedthedevelopmentofitsmediasystemasberhasjumpedto2,000and1,416respectivelyin199736.1%in1980to84.2%in1996forradioand30%in1980to86.3%in1996fortelevision(Xie,1998).Thenumberofne186in1978to2,163in1996,anincreaseofalmost12times,berexpectedtobe930in1978upto8,135in1997.Advertising,onceconsideredthecapitalisttaboo,hasalsoseenfastdevelopmentduringthisperiod.Sinceitsdebutin1979,thetotaladineoftheabovefourmediahasbeenincreasingatarateoftentimeseveryfiveyears,reaching18.28billionRMByuanin1996.(Xie,1998).Thischapteraimstodiscussthemediadevelopment inChinasince1978topresent,icliberalizationandpoliticalconservatism.IntheFirstPeriod(1978-1990),despitethebackandforediadevelopmentinChinahasbeenconsistent.IntheSecondPeriod(1991-present)arketeconomyconceptgainedrecognition,thepetitiveconsciousnesshasbeedominantamongtheChina’smediasystem,ediadevelopmentinShanghai,thedragonheadofChina,hasbeentakenasashoediadevelopmentandtheimpactofeconomicmomentumandpoliticalorientationintheediainChinastillremaininamunistConcept(Merrill,1983)asdefinedinthetraditionalFourTheoriesofPress.TheChinesemedia,ounistPartyofChinaandthegovernment,nottheentasisthecaseintheU.S.(Streitmatter,1994).Thefreedomofpressintheethingthatisyettoe(Lee,1990).Hosofitseconomy,themediadonotfitintothemunistConceptonlyanymore.TheymayfallmorecoherentlyintotheDevelopmentConcept,abinationoftheAuthoritarianandmunisttheories(Stevenson,19946789).Thistendencyhasbeemoreobviousin theSecondPeriod(1991-present)ediainChinaareendoent(thepoliticalconservatism)arketplaceasicliberalization).ediadevelopmentinChinaintheFirstPeriodfrom1978to1990canfurtherbediscussedinthreephasesfeaturedbypoliticalcampaignsedtoreininmediadevelopment,thussignalingtheendofeachphase,butlaidthefoundationforthemediadevelopmentinthefollopaignagainst"SpiritualPollution"started.Thesecondphaselastedfrom1985to1986paignagainst"BourgeoisLiberalization."Thethirdphasereacheditsclimaxin1989entcrackeddoovementandfoughtagainst"peacefulevolution"byedia,eachofthesepoliticalcampaignshasstimulatedratherthansuppressedthemediadevelopmentineachphase.Infact,mediadevelopmentphasisintheliberalizationprocess.FirstPhase(1978-84)Theyearof1978isaediadevelopment(Lee,1994).Astrategicshiftedasthenationbegantoadoptanopenandreformpolicythataimedtomodernizethecountry.Oneimmediateanddramaticmediachangeinationofthepompousreportingstyleof the"CulturalRevolution(1966-1976),"summedupinthephrase"falsehood,exaggeration,andemptytalk"(Polumbaum,1990).ChinesemediasuchasthePeople'sDaily,theparty'smouthpiece,calledforshorterneorelivelystyleelinesstocovergroicactivities.Theincreasedvolumeofinformationinmediaisanothersignofprogressinthisphase.ThePeople'sDailytooktheleadtoincreaseitspagesfromfourtosixin1978andthentoeightin1980,berofmagazinesandne1978to1984,asshoillion)Neillion)197822.7113.5197930.1123.0198036.7141.7198145.4133.6198246.0129.11983678952.5142.7198464.3162.3Source:ChinaJournalismYearbooks(variousyears)(Chu,1994)Besides,advertisingbegantoappearinChinesemediaforthefirsttimeafterthelongsilenceinthe“CulturalRevolution,”althoughitdidnotgetintofullsoreofanannouncementthananad,madeitsdebutinShanghaionJanuary28,1979(Guo,1993).Theadforaherbalinuteand35seconds,toolongbytheeaneducationalso expandedrapidly(Polumbaum,1990)intheearly1980stomeettheincreasingdemandofmediadevelopmentandtoaccelerateinformationfloicreforms.Thenumberofjournalismteachersandundergraduatestudentsincreasedalmostfourtimesfrom1980to1984berofgraduatestudentsremainedthesame(Guo,1993).eanediapractitionersaskedfor“afreehand”inthemediacontent,ent(Polumbuam,1990),theChinesecounterpartofU.S.InformationAgency.Onemajortrendtoalrecognitionoftheentertainmentfunctionofmediainthenation’sSeventhFive-YearPlan.Thefocusonentertainmentcoincidedentoftelevision,apoediumofentertainment.Infact,televisiondevelopmentandthefocusonentertainmentreinforcedeachotherintheirmutualgroenthasbeeaninseparablepartofmostChineseTVstations.TVentertainmentprogramsusuallyincludemusic,opera,literature,varietyshoas.ForShanghaiTelevisionStation,entertainmentprogramsprisedover60%ofallairtimein1986(Guo,1993).Oftheentertainmentfare,TVdramaisthemost popular.After1983,TVdramas,producedandaired,saasalsobegantoappearonChinesescreens.In1986,theChinesedubbedWaltDisneycartoons6789eries“MickeyMouseandDonaldDuck”becameanationalfavoriteassoonasitasesticTVseriesduringthisphase.InanationalsurveybyCCTVin1987,72percentoftherespondentsfavoredforeigndramas(Yu,1992).In1983,asthenationdecidedtobuildanationbytheendofthiscentury,stateexpendituresontelevisionbegantoincrease.In1985,theexpenditurejumpedto1,780millionyuan(over$210million)asparedillionyuan($83million)in1980(Lee,1994).Thepouringfinancialresourcesledtorapidtelevisiondevelopmentinthisphase.ThenumberofTVstationsin1986ostsixtimesthatin198388%in1983to103%in1986andtheTVaudiencesizeexpandedfrom400millionin1983to580millionin1986(Yu,1990).ThirdPhase(1987-90)Thisphase,studiedmeticulouslyintheaticsocialchangesinChina,themediadevelopmentitself.aintainingtheliberalizingtrendsinthefirsttediasysteminthisphase gainedgreatermomentum,tryingtoobtainfreedomofpressandpoliticalindependenceratherthanjustpetitioningforthemintheprevioustocracybecamearealityratherthanjustlipservice.icHerald,startedinShanghaiandbannedin1989,indedopinionleaderslikeFangLizhiandQinBenliierZhaoZiyang’sentionthemedia’sroleasanofficialmouthpiece(Polumbaum,1990).Theresultsreflectedinjournalisticoperationsorediversifiedstyleofneation.Badneseensince1957,begantore-appearinthemedia(Polumbuam,1990).Inthisperiod,thenegativereportshasalorethan10%ofthetotalnumberofneemajorneediasidetopushformorereformsinthegovernmentorefreedomandindependenceintheirmediapractice,edegree,ledtothemassivestudent’sdemonstrationin1989.Besides,mediadevelopmentinthisphasealsootivatedbytheinfluxofexternalinfluencesintheformof"culturalimperialism"(Stevenson,1994).ForeignbroadcastsfromtheVoiceofAmerica(VOA)andtheBritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC)enjoyedmuch popularitya6789mongChineseaudiencesandexercisedgreatinfluenceonthem,entaccusedoftryingtounderminethestabilityinChinathroughpropaganda(Guo,1993).Majorinfluencesalsocamefromtheinfloportedforeignmediaculturesuchasmovies,soapoperas,foreignnesonShanghaiTelevisionStation(STV),thesecondlargestinChina,increasedalmostfourtimesfrom1985(11.8%)to1990(42.6%)(Chan,1994).SECONDPERIODODEL(1991~PRESENT)AftertheTiananmenSquareEventin1989,manyediascholarsandpoliticianspredictedadeadlockinthemediadevelopmentinChina.Ironicasitmaybe,aneodelofmediadevelopmentdebutedinShanghai.Theneodelonthslater,onJanuary18,1993.TheestablishmentofORSandOTVhasendedthemonopolyhistoryofoneradiostationandonetelevisionstationinoneChinesecitysince1949.Thesenearket,ediamodel,firstgotintensifiedintheadvertisingrevenuesethebulkofineforbroadcaststationsinShanghaifolloentsubsidiesin1993(Steitmatter,1994).Thisisespecially trueforORSandOTV,entsubsidies.Ofcourse,petitionforadvertising,differentfromthatintheusedtodescribeanythingparticulartoChinaandthatcan'tbeexplainedberofclientsandads,STVandOTVarevyingforonlytherichestcustomers,astheeconomicallyvibrantShanghaihasfarmoreadvertisersliningupthanthereisairtimeforsale.TheHeadoftheChiefEditor'sOfficeatOTV,said,"Thedemandforadtimefarsurpassesthesupply.Soourrealpetitionisforricherclients--foreign-fundedpaniessuchasJohnsonJohnsonandProcterGamble--thatcanpaypremiumratesandguaranteelong-termcontracts"(Streitmatter,1994).Becauseofthis,petitionhasledtoasharpincreaseinadrevenuesforallstations.STVdoubleditsadrevenuefrom1991to1994pedto150million($20million)in1993fromzero.Thesameistruearginsofadvertisingrevenuesforthesemediahavebeesomealler,theadvertisingrevenueshavealwaysbeenontherisetillnow(Xie,19986789).Despitethe“soft”petition,akeenpetitionstill folloonthlybasisbyanindependentagency,ShanghaiUrbanandRuralSamplingTeam.Thesemonthlyratings,ignoredbymediaandadvertisersbefore1990,receivedgreatattentionarilyontheseratings.LivelyStylespetitionfortheadvertisingpieinevitablyresultedinjournalisticreformsofreportingstylesandprogramming.ToendthedominanceofSTVandSPRS,OTVandORSimprovedtimelinessandfocusedonlivelycoverageofneonbefore1990,radioandTVreportersnothefieldjustastheiratter,1994).In1997,asshoorethan60%ofSTVandOTV'snes.Table2SpotNes(6p.m.-6:30p.m.)STVOTVTotalNes270268SpotNelybyXUXiaoDecember1to29,1997.STV,ontheotherhand,makesfulluseofitsrichhumanresourcestoaddvarietytoitsprogramming.InSeptember1995,STVpremieredanEnglishchanneltocatertotheneedsofincreasingforeignpopulationinShanghai.Thechannelbroadcastsfourhoursaday,includingneovies,agazinesho,"990CitizensandSociety,"ayorofShanghaialsobecametheguestspeakersoftheProgramandtalkedagazineshoinalcases.Not onlyisitproducededofficerasananchoran.AnotherofOTV'sgroundbreakingprogramsisafifty-minuteshoericanpanies(Streitmatter,1994).TVgameshoandinShanghai.ThetinutegameshowsforSTVandOTVare"GreatWorld"("dashijia"6789)and"OrientalSpace"("dongfengshikong")thatareonairatthesametime(8p.m.)duringtheedia.Inordertoraiseefficiencyandpetitivenessandgetridofunqualifiedemployees,andtherelevantgovernmentauthorities,theelectronicmediasystemunder,muchlikethatintheediaDevelopmentinShanghaiYearNumberofRadioStations(TVStations)AverageDailyBroadcastingHours(ForTVStations,Table3,therestructuringoftheelectronicsysteminShanghaihasresultedintheconstantgroorethandoubledthesein1991,Besides,thenumberofradioandTVstationsalmosttripledinthesevenyears.Forradiostations,Shanghainousic,finance,traffic,opera,sports,story-telling,Englishaudienceandsoon.Pressure onnealsoputsgreatpressureonneeansfeoreadvertising,the87nepttoincreasetheirinformationvolumeandadvertisingspace(Xie,1998).Since1995,thethreemajorneinEveningNeinEveningNeainlytargetingtheintellectuals,rollsoff20pageseachday.Theestablishmentofneedia.FolloergeXinminEveningNethelargestneentinchargeofallthemediainChina,said,aretoexpandtheinfluencesandstrengthentheeconomicvigoroftheParty’s6789neinantintheneixedprocessearmarkedbypoliticalconservatismandeconomicliberalization.Inthepast,apoliticalcampaigninChinaallystifletheintellectualinspirationandprohibitedalltherelevantactivities,asreflectedinthethreepoliticalcampaignsagainst"SpiritualPollution,""BourgeoisLiberalization"and"PeacefulEvolution"didnotsloentofthemediasysteminChina,butratherfurtherpromotedtheent,intheformsofmediareforms,restructuringandtheincreasedamountofmediainformation.This,ofcourse,stimulatedtheeconomicliberalization,resulting intheformoftheeconomicindependenceofthemediainChinaentsubsidyin1993.TheenormousadvertisingrevenueshavecertainlypouredgreateconomicinputintothemediasysteminChina,andmadeitpossibleforallthejournalisticreformsasdescribedinthethreefirstperiods.Therefore,tosomedegree,politicalconservatismandeconomicliberalizationasreflectedinthemediadevelopmentinChinahavebeentulatingfactorsthathavecontributedtothefastdevelopmentofthemediasysteminChina.ThismaysoundcontradictoryandevenunacceptabletomostodelisnosmayappearinadifferentformsinotherpartsofChina,theessenceofpetitionstilldominate(Xie,1998).DespitetheaggressivereformsanddevelopmentofthemediasysteminChina,themediasystemitselfstillremainseunistpoliticsinaccordanceaybesubjecttoconstantexternalinfluencesbutmaintainingitsounication,44,70-87.Chang,assmediainChina:Thehistoryandfuture(pp.45-259).Ames:Ioediareform.Journalofmunication,44,4-21.Duan,L.C.(1988). Hounication(p.159).Beijing:ChinaReconstructsPress.Guo,K.(1993).ExternalInfluences:Positiveandnegative--aChineseperspective.TheJournalofDevelopmentmunication,4,86-93.Hu,J.ediarolesreconsidered.Journalofmunication,44,22-37.Merrill,J.C.(1983).GlobalJournalism(2nded.)(pp.22-28).Nean.Polumbaum,J.(1990).ThetribulationsofChina'sjournalismafteradecadeofreform.InC.C.Lee(eds.),VoicesofChina:Theinterplayofpoliticsandjournalism(pp.33-68).Neunicationinthetan.Streitmatter,R.(1994).TheAmericanizationofChinesejournalism.Unpublishedmanuscript.Xie,J.ediaMarketandDevelopment(pp.8-12).UnpublishedDoctoralDissertationofFudanUniversity.Yu,J.L.(1990).ThestructureandfunctionofChinesetelevision,1979-1989.InC.C.Lee(eds.),VoicesofChina:Theinterplayofpoliticsandjournalism(pp.69-87).NewYork:TheGuilfordPress6789
