The future of open innovation

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Thefutureofopeninnovation12OliverGassmann,EllenEnkeland3HenryChesbrough1InstituteofTechnologyManagement,UniversityofSt.Gallen,Dufourstrasse40a,CH-9000St.Gallen,Switzerland.oliver.gassmann@unisg.ch2Dr.ManfredBischoffInstituteofInnovationManagementofEADS,ZeppelinUniversity,AmSeemoserHorn20,D-88045Friedrichshafen,Germany.ellen.enkel@zeppelin-university.de3CenterforOpenInnovation,F402HassSchoolofBusiness,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA94720-1930,USA.chesbrou@haas.berkeley.eduInstitutionalopennessisbecomingincreasinglypopularinpracticeandacademia:openinnovation,openR&Dandopenbusinessmodels.Ourspecialissuebuildsontheconcepts,underlyingassumptionsandimplicationsdiscussedintwopreviousR&DManagementspecialissues(2006,2009).Thisoverviewindicatesnineperspectivesneededtodevelopanopeninnovationtheorymorefully.Italsoassessessomeoftherecentevidencethathascometolightaboutopeninnovation,intheoryandinpractice.1.Perspectivesonopeninnovationinitialworkslookedprimarilyatresearchanddevelopment(R&D)processes,anumberofre-Theopeninnovationphenomenonhasdevel-searchareashavegrownoutofthisperspective.opedfromasmallclubofinnovationpracti-Openinnovationisbasedonthesedifferenttioners,mostlyactiveinhigh-techindustries,toaresearchstreams.Wethinkitusefultoorganizewidelydiscussedandimplementedinnovationthesestreamsintoninedifferentperspectives:practice.Simultaneously,asmallcommunityofmanagementresearchershasrecentlydeveloped(1)Thespatialperspectiveleadstoresearchontheintoanestablishedresearchfield.Thisisreflectedglobalizationofinnovation.Sinceresearch,byseveralspecialissuesonopeninnovation,fortechnologyandproductdevelopmenthaveexample,R&DManagement2006,2009,andthebecomemoreglobalinaflatworld,openInternationalJournalofTechnologyManagementinnovationhasbecomeeasier.Ontheone2010a,b.Consequently,singlelecturesbyearlyhand,beingphysicallyclosetoregionalcen-proponentshavebeensupplementedbylargetersofexcellenceenablesafirmtoincreaseitsmanagementseminarsonopeninnovation,whichabsorptivecapacity,thereforepromotingac-areoftenfullybooked.Onceafieldgrowsrapidly,cesstotheknowledgeandcompetencesofthethereisadangerthatitmaybecomeashort-termbesttalentsworldwidewithouthavingtoem-fashionandhype.Thisspecialissuereportsonploythem(CohenandLevinthal,1990).Ac-recentresearchevidencetofurtherdevelopthecesstoresourcesisoneofthemaindriversofopeninnovationresearchfield.R&D’sinternationalization.Prominentexam-Openinnovationhasbeendefinedas‘...theplesofsuchR&DareNorvatis’sresearchinuseofpurposiveinflowsandoutflowsofknowl-NewJersey,BMW’sdesigncenterinPaloedgetoaccelerateinternalinnovation,andex-AltoandHitachi’sresearchlabinDublinpandthemarketsforexternaluseofinnovation,(vonZedtwitzandGassmann,2002).Newrespectively’(Chesbroughetal.,2006).WhiletheinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesR&DManagement40,3,2010.r2010TheAuthors.Journalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd,2139600GarsingtonRoad,Oxford,OX42DQ,UKand350MainSt,Malden,MA,02148,USA OliverGassmann,EllenEnkelandHenryChesbroughenablevirtualR&Dteamsanddecentralized(7)Thetoolperspective.Openinguptheinnova-innovationprocesses(Boutellieretal.,1998).tionprocessrequiresasetofinstruments.(2)ThestructuralperspectiveshowsthatworkThosetools,forexample,enablecustomersdivisionhasincreasedininnovation.ThereistocreateorconfiguretheirownproductwithastrongtrendtowardmoreR&Doutsour-toolskitsorenablecompaniestointegratecingandalliances(HagedoornandDuysters,externalproblemsolversorideacreatorsvia2002).Industries’valuechainsarebecomingwebsites.Examplesare‘TheSims’withwhichmoredisaggregated.Driversofthistrendareanonlinecommunityofgamersdevelopsadd-costreductionandgreaterspecializationdueonpackages,orSwarosvski,whosecustomerstomorecomplextechnologiesandproductcancreatetheirownfigures.systems.Openinnovationapproachescom-(8)Theinstitutionalperspective.OpeninnovationpensateforcentralR&Dunitsbynotjustcanbeconsideredaprivate-collectiveinnova-focusingonshort-term,customer-orientedtionmodel.Insteadoftheprivateinvestmentbusinessunitresearchactivities.modelofinnovationwithSchumpeter’stem-(3)Theuserperspective.Usersareintegratedintoporarymonopolisticprofits,thefreerevealingtheinnovationprocesstoutilizethefreedomofinventions,findings,discoveriesandknowl-availableinitsearlyphasesinordertounder-edgeisadefiningcharacteristicoftheopenstandpotentialcustomers’latentrequirementsinnovationmodel(vonHippelandvonandtointegrateusers’hiddenapplicationKrogh,2003,2006).Spilloversofproprietaryknowledge(vonHippel,1986).Thisresearchknowledgeoccurregularlybymeansofcom-fieldoninnovation’sdownstream-sidestartedpensation(e.g.,licensing)orwithoutcompen-withleadusers’involvementintheinnovationsation(e.g.,mostopensourceinitiatives).process(vonHippel,1988),theavailabilityof(9)Theculturalperspective.Openinguptheinno-toolkits(vonHippelandKatz,2002)andvationprocessstartswithamindset.Thetheideaofmasscustomization(Frankeandseminalworkonthenot-invented-heresyn-Piller,2003),whileinvolvingthequasi-politi-dromebyKatzandAllen(1982)wasastartingcalconceptofdemocratizingtheinnovationpointwithinthefield.Creatingaculturethatprocess(vonHippel,2005).Userinnovationisvaluesoutsidecompetenceandknow-howisoneofopeninnovation’sbest-researchedpartcrucialforopeninnovationpractice.Thisfields.cultureisinfluencedbymanyfactors:besides(4)Thesupplierperspective.Thedownstreamsideofbeinginfluencedbythevaluesofthecompany,innovationhasbeenlessintensivelyresearcheditisalsoinfluencedbyconcreteartefactssuchbuthasastrongimpactoninnovation.Suppliers’asincentivesystems,managementinformationearlyintegrationintotheinnovationprocesscansystems,communicationplatforms,projectsignificantlyincreaseinnovationperformanceindecisioncriteria,supplierevaluationlistsandmostindustries(Hagedoorn,1993,2002).itshandlingandsoon.Inordertobetter(5)Theleveragingperspective.Mostresearchandunderstandtheinfluenceofallthoseaspectspracticeareorientedtowardtheexistingmar-ontheopeninnovationculture,researchketandbusiness.Existingresearchcompeten-shoulddrawmorefromthepsychologicalfield.ciesandintellectualproperty’smultiplicationintonewmarketfieldshaveoftenbeenne-Whilewethinkitisusefultoidentifytheseglected,despitetheirpotentialtocreatenewdifferentresearchstreams,wedonotyetknowrevenuestreams.Theinvolvementofbusinesswhetherotherswillariseorwhethertwoormoremodelthinkingseemstobecrucial(Kimandofthesewillconverge.Consequently,thisshouldMauborgne,2004;Chesbrough,2006,2007).betreatedasahighlypreliminarylist.Createdtechnologyandintellectualproperty’sexternalcommercializationisafuturefieldwithhighpotential.2.Futureofopeninnovation(6)Theprocessperspective.Therearethreecoreprocessesinopeninguptheinnovationpro-Theeraofopeninnovationhasjustbegun.Acess:outside-in,inside-outandcoupled(Gass-majorshifthasstartedtowardanewparadigminmannandEnkel,2004).Sometimes,thesethesenseofKuhn(1962).Earlierconceptionsofprocessescomplementoneanother,althoughinnovationgaverisetoanomaliesintheKuhnianthedominanceoftheoutside-inprocessissense,suchastheinabilityofXeroxtoappro-usuallyobserved.priatethevaluegeneratedbyitsPaloAltoRe-214R&DManagement40,3,2010r2010TheAuthorsJournalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd ThefutureofopeninnovationsearchCenter(PARC)inthe1980s,orthein-toreduceovercapacities,cutcosts,growabilityofLucenttoleverageitsconsiderablythroughcomplementaryassetsorreducegreaterresearchcapabilitiesatBellLabsagainstrisks.Morestrategicmodesofopeninnova-Cisco(whichhadnoresearchcapabilityatthetionhavealreadybecomeastandardinthetime)inthe1990s.Indevelopinganalternativepharmaindustry,forexample,Bayerwithitsapproachtoinnovation,openinnovationpro-CreativeCenter,EliLillyanditsInnocentivevidedanovelexplanationfortheseanomalies.Initiative,andPfizerwiththein-licenseddrugFurtherresearchhaslargelyvalidatedthisap-Lipitor.Itsoverwhelmingsuccesshasfurtherproach,andhasextendeditsignificantly.Today,disseminatedtheopeninnovationmodeltoopeninnovationhaschangeditsstatusfromtheotherindustryplayers.Lipitorbecametheresearchinterestofafewtoamainstreamre-firstpharmaceuticalproducttotopUS$10searcharea.Initiatedbyscholarsinthefieldbillioninannualsales(Gassmannetal.,technologyandinnovationmanagement,itis2008).Overall,thetrendtowardopeninnova-currentlyoftenalsocitedinstrategy,generaltionisstillgrowing.Therearemanyreasonsmanagementandorganizationbehaviorjournals.fordrivingopeninnovation(see,e.g.,Ches-Thequestionis:Howfarwillopeninnovationgobrough,2003;Gassmann,2006),butthereisandhowlongwillitlast?Arealparadigmshiftisalsoabandwagoneffect:inourexecutiveirreversibleanddiffersfromfashionandscienceeducationprogrammes,wehaveobservedhypesintermsofitslong-termimpact.thatCTOswithclosedinnovationmodelsSometrendscanbeidentifiedbyanalysingtheandstronginternalR&Dareunderrecentpastanddrawingonpreviousresearchonincreasingpressuretojustifytheirrefusaltoopeninnovation:cooperatewiththeoutsideworldandexploittheopeninnovationwave.(1)Industrypenetration:frompioneerstomain-(2)R&Dintensity:fromhightolowtech.Fromthestream.Theopeningupoftheinnovationabove,itisclearthatopeninnovationmainlyprocesshasbecomeincreasinglypopularinstartedinthehigh-techsector,butthereisaleadingindustries.Theprincipleofopenin-newtrendforthelow-techsectortoexploitthenovationhas,forexample,penetratedpio-potentialsofopeninguptheirinnovationneeringindustriessuchassoftware,process.Openinnovation’smanagementin-electronics,telecom,pharmaandbiotech,novationhasspreadtodifferentsectors,suchwhilethesoftwareandelectronicsindustriesasmachinery,turbines,medicaltools,fastareprogressivelybuildingontheopeninno-movingconsumergoods,food,architecturevationtrend(Chesbrough,2003).Insoftware,andlogistics.User-driveninnovationhasthetheopensourcetrendhasbeensostrongthatlongesttradition;here,well-knownexamplesevenprevious,rathermonolithic,organiza-aretheconstructionandelevatorindustriestionssuchasSAPandMicrosofthavestarted(HerstattandvonHippel,1992;Boutellierettobuilddecentralizedresearchlabsonuni-al.,2008)aswellasthesportsindustry(Hie-versitycampusestoincreasetheirabsorptivenerth,2006).Besidesusers’systematicinvolve-capacityforoutside-ininnovationprocesses.mentintheearlyphaseofinnovation,theseEvenApple,withitsstrongpositionandhighindustrieshavestartedtoopenupinallotheracceptanceamongitsbrandcommunity,haddirectionsaswell.Notonlyhassupplierin-toopenupitsproprietarytechnologytoitstegration’spotentialbeendiscoveredbutalsoaddictedhigh-techusers.ProminentexamplesthemoresystematicuseofuniversitiesandintheelectronicindustryarePhilips’openknowledgebrokers.innovationpark,Xerox’sPaloAltoResearch(3)Size:fromlargefirmstoSMEs.WhilemostofCenter,Siemens’openinnovationprogramthefirmsdescribedinearlyworksonopenandIBM’sopensourceinitiatives.Today,innovationwerelargemultinationalfirms,itmanyelectronicsuppliersdriveopeninnova-hasbecomeapparentthatsmallerandmed-tiononastrategiclevel.BritishTelecom’sium-sizedfirms(SME)arealsoopeningupincubationactivitieshavelongbeenadoptedtheirinnovationprocess.EmpiricalevidencebyDeutscheTelecomandSwisscom.Theregardingso-called‘bornglobals’–rapidlypharmaandbiotechnologysectorstoohavegrowingSMEsalreadyactiveonaglobalscaleabroadspectrumofopeninnovationmodels.earlyintheirexistence–indicatesthattheOpeninnovationstartswithsimpleoutsour-sourceoftheircompetitiveadvantageisthecingdealswithcontractserviceorganizationsprotectionandleveragingoftheirintellectualr2010TheAuthorsR&DManagement40,3,2010215Journalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd OliverGassmann,EllenEnkelandHenryChesbroughproperty.SomeSMEscanovercometheirToshibaandTexasInstrumentsalliancethat‘liabilityofsmallness’byopeninguptheirearnsUS$15persoldiPod.Ahugeallianceinnovationprocess(KeuppandGassmann,workedbehindthecurtaintoproducethe2007;vandeVrandeetal.,2010).ExternalAppleproduct.Therearealsootherpromi-technologycommercializationcanalsobeanentexamplesfromthetelecommunicationcorecompetenceofsuchrapidlygrowingandautomotivesectors.SMEs.Owingtobusinessschools’intensive(6)Universities:fromivorytowerstoknowledgeteachingoftheopeninnovationideainexecu-brokers.Currently,universitiesarestilllargelytiveeducationandingeneralmanagement,financedbypublicmoney,butinmanyre-SMEsseemtobecatchingupwithimplement-gionsoftheworld,thisfinancingwilldecreaseingtheopeninnovationconcept.However,despitesoothingpublicstatements.Largedespitetheirsmallnessandlackofresources,companieslikeABB,Daimler,Siemensandwhichareacknowledgedliabilities,theystillGEhavealreadyreducedtheircorporateimplementopeninnovationfarlessthanmul-researchactivitiesorhaveincreasedthird-tinationalsdo.partyfinancing.Thiswillforceallplayersin(4)Processes:fromstagegatetoprobe-and-learn.theinnovationgametocooperateevenOpeninnovationisalsopromotedbyapar-further.ThenewalliancebetweenIBMandalleltrendininnovationprocesses.WhilethetheETHZurichinSwitzerlandonresearchdominantdesignofthe1980sand1990swasintonanotechnologyseemstobeunique:boththehighlystructuredstage-gateprocessthepartnershavetherightstopublishand(Cooper,1994),thereisanewtrendtowardscommercializethejointlycreatedintellectualmoreiterativeandinteractiveprobe-and-learnproperty.Thiswillacceleratetheracetowardprocesses(Lynnetal.,1996).Insoftwarethecommercializationofresearchresults,development,thistrendisreflectedbylinear,placinguniquepressureonIBM.Suchopentop-downVmodels’replacementwithhighlyresearchalsoacceleratesresearchandener-iterativeprocesses,suchasextremeprogram-gizestheinvolvedresearchteams,asexempli-ming(Beck,2000;Gassmannetal.,2006).fiedbythehumangenomeproject,whichTheseprocessessupportearlyinteractionmadeimpossibleresultspossible.withcustomers,suppliersandR&Dpartners.(7)Processes:fromamateurstoprofessionals.However,eveninlinearsoftwaredevelopmentSimilartothefirststructuredinnovationprocesses,adecisionofwhentouseopenprocesses,industryisstartingtoprofessiona-sourceortodevelopproprietarysoftwarelizetheinternalprocessestomanageopenhasbecomestandard.innovationmoreeffectivelyandefficiently.(5)Structure:fromstandalonetoalliances.Mod-Nevertheless,itiscurrentlystillmoretrialerntechnologyisbecomingsocomplexthatanderrorthanaprofessionallymanagedevenlargefirmscannotaffordtodevelopaprocess.Thevariancebetweenabestpracticenewproductalone.Consequently,thereisainopeninnovationandtheaverageishuge.strongtrendtowardR&DpartnershipsandThisdifferencewill,however,decreasebe-alliances(HagedoornandDuyster,2002).causeopeninnovationknowledgewillspreadVerticalalliancesarecomplementedbyhor-throughthevariousindustries.Twoimpor-izontalalliancesandcross-industrypartner-tantsourcesofdiffusionarethemobilityofships.However,earlierresearchonR&Dexecutivesexperiencedinopeninnovationpartnershipsandalliancesfocusedprimarilyfrominitialadopterstonewlyadoptingorga-oncost-savingandtransactioncosteconomiz-nizations,andtheavailabilityofthird-partying(Williamson,1975).Recentresearch,intermediarieslikeInnocentive,NineSigmahowever,focusesonhowtheseinter-organiza-andotherstohelpcompaniesexperimenttionalrelationshipscanenhancevaluecrea-withtheseprocesses(WestandLakhani,tion(Enkel,2010).Arecentexampleisthe2008).Additionally,themeasurementofdevelopmentoftheAppleiPod:theexternalopeninnovationactivities’valueisincreas-entrepreneurTonyFadelldevelopedtheideainglyimportant.Whilethepossibilitiesofandconcept,Applehireda35-personteamopeningtheinnovationprocessaregrowing,andpartnersfromPhilips,Ideo,GeneralMa-metricssystemsarenotyetadaptedtogic,Apple,ConnectixandWebTVtodevelopmonitorandmeasurethevalueofactivities.theiPodsystem.ThetechnicaldesignwasNonetheless,weknowthatonlyadaptedmanagedbyPortalPlayer–aWolfson,measurementsystemsallowforthesuccessful216R&DManagement40,3,2010r2010TheAuthorsJournalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd Thefutureofopeninnovationimplementationofopeninnovationandsup-Takingstockofthesedifferenttrends,itseemsporttherightcapabilities(EnkelandLenz,cleartousthatopeninnovationhasquitealong2009).lifeleftaheadofit,asthereisalongandgrowing(8)Content:fromproductstoservices.Whileto-listofphenomenathatitcanhelpusunderstandday’sresearchmainlyaimsatproductand,andinterpret.However,weshouldnotethatitispartly,processinnovation,thehugepotentialunlikelythat‘thelastword’willeverbespokenonofinnovatingthelargestsectorindevelopedatopicasdynamicasinnovation.Openinnova-countrieshasbeenneglected:theservicesec-tionshouldinsteadperhapsbeviewedas‘thenexttorisstillunderdevelopedintermsoftheword.’innovationprocesses.Apartfromafewex-ceptions,liketheworkbyThomke(2003),therehasnotbeenmuchserviceinnovation.3.PapersinthisissueOpeninguptheservicesectortotheinnova-tionprocessprovidesnewopportunities,forThissecondspecialissueofR&DManagementexample,Amazon’sElasticCloudcomputingcompletestheoverviewofsomeofthemostactiveservice.authorsinthefield,whohavedevelopedafurther(9)Intellectualproperty:fromprotectiontoaunderstandingofopenR&Dandopeninnova-tradablegood.AccordingtoSchumpeter,pa-tioninrecentyears.tentsaretheretocreateincentivesforinven-TheworkofChiaroni,ChiesaandFrattinitorsandentrepreneurstoinvestinfocusesontheorganizationalchangeprocessinnovations.Thisworksbyprotectinginno-throughwhichafirmevolvesfrombeingaclosedvatorsfromimitatorsand,thus,enablestheminnovatortobecominganopenone.Adoptingatogaintemporarymonopolisticprofits.longitudinal,firm-levelperspective,theyinvesti-Althoughthisisvalid,itwillbecomplemen-gatethechangesentailedinthisshiftinafirm’stedbyanattractivesecondarymarketinorganizationalstructuresandmanagementsys-whichnewplayersenter.A2006casemadetems.Thepaperusesestablishedconceptsinadifference:ResearchinMotionhadtopayorganizationalchangeresearchtoexaminetheUS$612.5milliontothesmallfirmNTPforrichempiricalbasisthatdocumentstheadoptionviolatingapatent–anemailpushfunctionofopeninnovationbyfourItalianfirmsoperatingusedfortheBlackberry.Highturnoversat-inmature,asset-intensiveindustries.Theresultstractnewplayers,whichtradeandrealizeshowthatthejourneyfromclosedtoopenin-profitsfromarbitrage.Thissituationissimi-novationinvolvesfourmaindimensionsofthelartothehedgefundsinthe1990swhenfirm’sorganization,i.e.inter-organizationalarbitragemarginsattractedplayerstothenetworks,organizationalstructures,evaluationfinancialindustry.LargeauctionsofIPhaveprocessesandknowledgemanagementsystems,alreadytakenplace,althoughithasjustalongwhichchangecanbemanagedandstimu-started.InEurope,thelargestauctioneerlated.OceanTomostartedoffin2007.ItsturnoverAutomotiveoriginalequipmentmanufacturersfromauctionsisaroundh70million–once(OEM)havehistoricallyinvestedintheirownfirmsrealizethepotentialofandculturallyresearchanddevelopmenttoboosttheirinnova-accepttheauctionmechanism,IPauctions’tiveness.Owingtoincreasinginnovationandcostturnoverwillincreasebymanyfactors.Eur-pressures,theautomotiveindustryneedstolookopecurrentlyalsohaspatentfunds,foroutsideitsownboundariestoescapethisproduc-example,tworunbyDeutscheBankandtivitydilemma.WhilethereisatendencytolookonebyCreditSuisse.Theybuyintellectualoutsideforexternalsourcestoincreaseinnova-property–mostlyfromuniversitiesandhigh-tiveness,thereareasyethardlyanyexternalpathstechventures–andleverageitsvaluethroughtomarketsoutsidethecurrentbusiness.Ili,Albersprofessionalmanagement.ThetradeinIPandMillershowthatopeninnovationisfarbetterhasjustbegun,butinthenearfuture,awholeatachievingbetterR&Dproductivityforcompa-industrywillarisearoundintellectualprop-niesintheautomotiveindustrythanaclosederty’ssecondarymarkets.Newbusinessmod-innovationmodelbyinvestigating42automotiveels,ofIPaggregators,IPinsurersandevencompanies,includingfiveOEMs.intellectualcommonswhereIPispooledandEnkelandGassmannexplorethephenomenonshared,areallspringingupaspartofthisofcross-industryinnovation.Whilemoststudiesevolution.onopeninnovationfocusontraditionalexternalr2010TheAuthorsR&DManagement40,3,2010217Journalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd OliverGassmann,EllenEnkelandHenryChesbroughsourceswithinthesamevaluechain,likecusto-novatingfirm’sradicalinnovationperformance.mers,suppliers,competitorsorcooperationpart-Usinghierarchicalregressionstoanalysesurveyners,theseauthorsstudyinnovationcreatedbydatacollectedfrom184Taiwaneseelectronicusingsourcesoutsidetheownindustry.However,productmanufacturers,theyfindthatopenthereislimitedinsightintohowthecognitivesearchdepthispositivelyrelatedtotheinnovatingdistancebetweenthesourceofknowledgeandfirm’sincrementalinnovationperformanceanditsapplicationisresponsiblefortheinnovationthatopensearchbreadthispositivelyrelatedtoeffort’sexplorativeorexploitativeoutcome.Byradicalinnovationperformance.analysing25cases,theauthorsstudytheinfluenceHaeusslerempiricallyinvestigatesthedetermi-ofahigheroralowercognitivedistanceonthenantsofknowledgeregulation.Theauthorarguesoutcomeofanalogicalthinkingincross-industrythatwhenthelevelofexternalknowledgeinflowinnovation.isconsiderable,firmsregulateknowledgeout-Whilemostopeninnovationliteratureneglectsflowslessstrongly.Firmsthatprofitfromexter-thehumansideofopeninnovationteams,dunalknowledgearelessrestrictiveregardingChatenier,Verstegen,Biemans,Mulderandoutgoingknowledgeinthehopeoffuturebene-Omtaexaminethecompetenciesthatopeninno-fits.Havingtestedthispropositioninalarge-scalevationprofessionalsneedtoworkinsuchteamssurveyoftheGermanbiotechnologyindustry,theandtocopewiththechallengestheyface.Aauthorfindsthatthetypeofcompetitiverelation-qualitativestudywasundertakenthatconsistedship,aswellastheknowledgesourceandthetypeofexplorativeinterviewsandfocusgroupdiscus-ofchannelthroughwhichknowledgeisaccessed,sions.Thisresultedinacompetenceprofileforgovernstheknowledgeregulationdecision.openinnovationprofessionals.TheprofileaddsaSofkaandGrimpealsoinvestigatetherelation-newperspectivetothefieldofopeninnovationshipbetweensearchstrategiesandinnovationmanagementbyfocusingonhowindividualsperformance.Theyarguethatfirmsneedtoinvolvedinopeninnovationteamscanenhancespecializewithregardtotheirsearchstrategyopeninnovationsuccess.Itreveals,amongotherandthatitseffectivenessismoderatedbyR&Dthings,howprofessionalscangeneratenewinvestmentsandpotentialknowledgespilloversknowledge,buildtrustanddealwithlowrecipro-fromfirms’environments.Basedonasampleofcalcommitmentinopeninnovationteams.Themorethan5,000firmsfromfiveEuropeancoun-abilitytobrokersolutionsandbesociallycompe-tries,theresultsshowthat,generally,beingopententseemstobeespeciallyimportantforopentoinnovationpaysoff.However,bothmoderat-innovationprofessionals.ingfactorshaveacrucialroletoplay:ontheoneSieg,WallinandvonKroghstudyaninnovationhand,in-houseR&Dinvestmentsaremosteffec-intermediarytosolveR&Dproblems.Usingantivewhencombinedwithamarket-orientedexploratorycasestudydesign,theyinvestigatethesearchstrategy.Ontheother,atechnologicallymanagerialchallengesinsevenchemicalcompa-advancedenvironmentrequiresfirmstoreachoutniesworkingwiththesameinnovationintermedi-tosourcesofscientificknowledgeinordertoary,InnoCentive.Threerecurringchallengeswereaccesshighlynovelknowledgeandtoenhanceidentifiedinallthecompanies:(1)enlistinginter-innovationperformance.nalscientiststoworkwiththeinnovationinter-HughesandWarehamexaminethestrategyofamediary;(2)selectingtherightproblems;and(3)globalpharmaceuticalcompanythatusesopenformulatingproblemstoenablenovelsolutions.innovationwidely.ThreemainresearchquestionsByreviewingtheknowledgemanagementlitera-areaddressed:(1)Whatopeninnovationconceptsture,theyexplainhowthesechallengesarisefromaresalientregardingthecompany’sinnovationscientists’differingworkpracticesininternalvsportfolio?(2)WHATopeninnovationconceptsexternalR&Dproblemsolving.Theyfurthermoreareusedinthestrategyformulation?and(3)identifyanddiscussanumberofsolutionsforWhatotherconceptsarepresentthataugmentthesechallenges.openinnovation?Interviewswith120topman-ChiangandHungarguethataccessingknowl-agersaswellasarchivaldocumentswereanalysededgeintensivelyfromalimitednumberofexter-bymeansofthematicanalysis.Theauthorsfoundnalchannels(opensearchdepth)canfacilitatethethattwoconcepts–valuecapturemodelsandinnovatingcompany’sincrementalinnovationtechnologyevaluationcriteria–whicharepromi-performance.Theyalsoarguethataccessingnentintheliterature,werenotpresentintheknowledgefromabroadrangeofexternalchan-portfolioofthiscase.Conversely,theyfoundanels(opensearchbreadth)canenhancethein-focusonopeninnovationcapabilitybuilding,218R&DManagement40,3,2010r2010TheAuthorsJournalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd ThefutureofopeninnovationexternalinformationsharinganduncertainSMEsishowtheycanmanageopeninnovationknowledgearbitrageinnetworks.Finally,theydespitetheliabilityduetotheirsmallness.Thisisdiscussthesecapabilitiesinrelationtoabsorptiveespeciallyrelevantwhenafirmisdependentonacapacity,proposingasimple,butimportant,bi-fewstrongcustomers,suchastheautomotivedirectionalperspectivetoembraceopeninnova-sector.Fourthly,theexistingworkdoesnotfocustion.sufficientlyonopeninnovation’sspatialaspect.Openinguptheinnovationprocesscreatesachallengingsituationofmanagingdispersedvir-4.ContributionandfurtherknowledgetualR&Dteams.Theseteamsaremoredifficultgapstoenergize,coordinateandenableintheirknowl-edgecreation.TheoperationalfunctioningofThisspecialissuecontributesfurthertotheopeninnovationdependsonfirms’abilitytoknowledgebodyofopeninnovationasayoungmanagedecentralizedinnovationprocessesandresearchfield.Contributionsaretoooftenstilloftenincludesparticipantswhoarenotevenonfragmentedandrestrictedtoonedimension,forthecompany’spayroll.Atthesametime,largeexample,userinnovationorsupplierintegration.firmsinternationalizetheirownR&DwithtwoThesehighspecializationpartsoftheopenin-dominantmotives:tobeclosertotheirmarketsnovationphenomenonhavealongtraditionandandleadusersandtoaccessthebesttalentsalsopromotedthesedisciplines.Butatthesameworldwidebyincreasingtheirabsorptivecapa-time,thereisaneedforaconsistentopeninnova-city.Agreatdealofmanagementresearchhastotiontheory.Anewperspectivemightbeneededtobecarriedouttomergethesetwoyoungresearchintegratethesedisparatestrandsofevidenceintofields.Last,butnottheleast,thereisasyetnoalargertheory.holisticmodelofopeninnovationthatincludesItmightbehelpfultoaddresssomeofthetheinnovationprocess’sdeterminantsandindus-researchquestions–knowledgegapsinaninter-tryspecifics,aswellasthelimitstoopeningitup.estingfield–todevelopsuchatheory:firstly,weThefieldofopeninnovationisstillatanearlyknowthatintellectualpropertywillplayacorestage;itoffersawidefieldinwhichacademics,roleinopeninnovation,butthedeterminantsofpractitionersandpolicymakerscanbeactive.Wesuccessfultradablepatentsstillneedtobeidenti-invitethemtoaddresstheseknowledgegapsandfied.Patentvaluationremainsquiteproblematic,furtherdeveloptheresearchfield.asmostpatenttransactionsarenotreportedpublicly,andpatentsarehighlyidiosyncraticbytheirveryconstruction.Secondarymarketsre-quirebetterinformationonvaluationiftheyaretoadvancemateriallyinthemediumterm.AReferenceslongitudinalanalysisofanauctioningfirm’spa-tentsorofapatentfundmightbeveryhelpful.Beck,K.(2000)ExtremeProgrammingExplained:Secondly,thenextlogicalopeninnovationstepisEmbraceChange.Amsterdam:Addison-Wesleytradingintellectualpropertyand,especially,pa-Longman.tents,whichholdshugepotentialsforbothpatentBoutellier,R.,Gassmann,O.,Macho,H.andRoux,ownersaswellastraders.ButthecrucialquestionM.(1998)ManagementofdispersedR&Dteams.forpolicymakersremainswhetherthisisgoodforR&DManagement,28,1,13–25.theeconomy.ItseemsclearthatsomeminimalBoutellier,R.,Gassmann,O.andvonZedtwitz,M.protectionisessentialtostimulaterisk-taking,(2008)ManagingGlobalInnovation,UncoveringtheanditseemsequallyclearthatextremelystrongSecretsofFutureCompetitiveness,3rdrevisededn.patentsstrangleanyfollow-oninventionsthatBerlin:Springer.buildonthem.Balancingrisk-takingandpromot-Chesbrough,H.W.(2003)OpenInnovation:TheNewImperativeforCreatingandProfitingfromTechnol-ingcumulativeinnovationarechallengingsocialogy.Cambridge,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolquestions.Thirdly,SMEsarethelargestnumberPublishing.ofcompaniesinaneconomy,buttheyareunder-Chesbrough,H.W.(2006)OpenBusinessModels:Howresearchedintheopeninnovationliterature.toThriveintheNewInnovationLandscape.Cam-Therearelargesamplestudiesthatshowthatbridge,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing.openinnovationpoliciesbenefit(LaursenandChesbrough,H.W.(2007)WhycompaniesshouldhaveSalter,2006),butthesesamestudiesalsoshowopenbusinessmodels.MITSloanManagementRe-thatlargersizebenefits.Acrucialquestionforview,48,2,22–28.r2010TheAuthorsR&DManagement40,3,2010219Journalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd OliverGassmann,EllenEnkelandHenryChesbroughChesbrough,H.W.,West,J.andVanhaverbeke,W.basedview.JournalofWorldBusiness,SpecialIssue:(2006)OpenInnovation:ResearchingaNewPara-TheEarlyandRapidInternationalisationoftheFirm,digm.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.42,3,350–366.Cohen,W.M.andLevinthal,D.A.(1990)AbsorptiveKim,W.Ch.andMauborgne,R.(2004)Blueoceancapacity:anewperspectiveonlearningandinnova-strategy.HarvardBusinessReview,82,10,76–84.tion.AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,35,1,128–Kuhn,T.(1962)StructureofScientificRevolutions.152.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Cooper,R.G.(1994)Third-generationnewproductLaursen,K.andSalter,A.(2006)Openforinnovation:processes.JournalofProductInnovationManage-theroleofopennessinexplaininginnovationperfor-ment,11,3–14.manceamongUKmanufacturingfirms.StrategicEnkel,E.(2010)AttributesrequiredforprofitingfromManagementJournal,27,2,131–150.openinnovationinnetworks.InternationalJournalofLynn,G.S.,Morone,J.G.andPaulsen,A.S.(1996)TechnologyManagement(inpress).Marketinganddiscontinuousinnovation:theprobeEnkel,E.andLenz,A.(2009)Openinnovationmetricsandlearnprocess.CaliforniaManagementReview,system.ProceedingsofTheR&DManagementCon-38,3,8–37.ference,Vienna,Austria,June21–24.Thomke,S.(2003)R&Dcomestoservices:BankofFranke,N.andPiller,F.T.(2003)KeyresearchissuesAmerica’spathbreakingexperiments.HarvardBusi-inuserinteractionwithusertoolkitsinamassnessReview,81,4,71–79.customisationsystem.InternationalJournalofTech-vonHippel,E.(1986)Leadusers:asourceofnovelnologyManagement,26,5–6,578–599.productconcepts.ManagementScience,32,7,791–Gassmann,O.(2006)Openinguptheinnovationpro-805.cess:towardsanagenda.R&DManagement,36,3,VonHippel,E.(1988)Thesourcesofinnovation.223–226.ResearchPolicy,18,5,297–297.Gassmann,O.andEnkel,E.(2004)TowardsatheoryvonHippel,E.(2005)DemocratizingInnovation.Cam-ofopeninnovation:threecoreprocessarchetypes.bridge,MA:TheMITPress.ProceedingsofTheR&DManagementConference,vonHippel,E.andKatz,R.(2002)ShiftinginnovationLisbon,Portugal,July6–9.tousersviatoolkits.ManagementScience,48,7,821–Gassmann,O.,Reepmeyer,G.andvonZedtwitz,M.883.(2008)LeadingPharmaceuticalInnovation,2ndedn.vonHippel,E.andvonKrogh,G.(2003)OpensourceBerlin:Springer.softwaredevelopmentandtheprivate-collectivein-Gassmann,O.,Sandmeier,P.andWecht,C.H.(2006)novationmodel:issuesfororganizationscience.Extremecustomerinnovationinthefront-end:learn-OrganizationScience,14,2,208–223.ingfromanewsoftwareparadigm.InternationalvonHippel,E.andvonKrogh,G.(2006)Freereveal-JournalofTechnologyManagement,33,1,46–66.ingandtheprivate-collectivemodelforinnovationHagedoorn,J.(1993)Understandingtherationaleofincentives.R&DManagement,36,3,295–306.strategictechnologypartnering:inter-organizationalvonZedtwitz,M.andGassmann,O.(2002)Marketmodesofcooperationandsectoraldifferences.Stra-versustechnologydriveinR&Dinternationalization:tegicManagementJournal,14,5,371–385.fourdifferentpatternsofmanagingresearchandHagedoorn,J.(2002)Inter-firmR&Dpartnerships:andevelopment.ResearchPolicy,31,4,569–588.overviewofmajortrendsandpatternssince1960.West,J.andLakhani,K.(2008)GettingclearabouttheResearchPolicy,31,4,477–492.roleofcommunitiesinopeninnovation.IndustryandHagedoorn,J.andDuysters,G.(2002)ExternalInnovation,15,3.sourcesofinnovativecapabilities:thepreferencesWilliamson,O.E.(1975)MarketsandHierarchies:forstrategicalliancesormergersandacquisitions.AnalysisandAntitrustImplications.NewYork:JournalofManagementStudies,39,2,167–188.FreePress.Herstatt,C.andvonHippel,E.(1992)Fromexperi-ence:developingnewproductconceptsviatheleadusermethod:acasestudyina‘lowtech’field.JournalOliverGassmannisProfessorofTechnologyandofProductInnovationManagement,9,213–221.InnovationManagementattheUniversityofSt.Hienerth,C.(2006)ThecommercializationofuserGallen,Switzerland,andDirectoroftheInstituteinnovations:thedevelopmentoftherodeokayakofTechnologyManagement.Aftercompletinghisindustry.R&DManagement,36,3,273–294.PhD,hewasleadingcorporateresearchofKatz,R.andAllen,T.J.(1982)InvestigatingthenotSchindlerCorporationworldwide.Gassmanninventedhere(NIH)syndrome:alookattheperfor-publishedinleadingjournalssuchasResearchmance,tenure,andcommunicationpatternsof50R&Dprojectgroups.R&DManagement,12,1,7–19.Policy,R&DManagement,JournalofManage-Keupp,M.M.andGassmann,O.(2007)Thecompeti-ment,JournalofWorldBusiness,InternationaltiveadvantageofearlyandrapidlyinternationalisingJournalofTechnologyManagement,IEEETrans-SMEsinthebiotechnologyindustry:aknowledgeactionsonEngineeringManagementandHarvard220R&DManagement40,3,2010r2010TheAuthorsJournalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd ThefutureofopeninnovationBusinessManager.AtthecoreofhisresearchisHenryChesbroughisExecutiveDirectorofthethepervadingquestionofhowcompaniesinno-CenterforOpenInnovationattheHaasSchoolofvateandprofitfrominnovation.HehasbeenBusinessatUCBerkeley.HisresearchfocusesonconsultingmanyFortune500firmsininnovationmanagingtechnologyandinnovation.Hisbook,strategy.OpenInnovation(HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,2003),articulatesanewparadigmfororganizingEllenEnkelisProfessorofInnovationManage-andmanagingR&D.AmoreacademicversionofmentandDirectoroftheDr.ManfredBischoffopeninnovation,OpenInnovation:ResearchingaInstituteofInnovationManagementofEADSatNewParadigm,withWimVanhaverbekeandJoeltheZeppelinUniversityinFriedrichshafen,Ger-West,waspublishedin2006byOxfordUniversitymany.Before,shewasheadingthecompetencePress.Hismostrecentbook,OpenBusinessMod-centerOpenInnovationattheInstituteofTech-els(HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,2006),extendsnologyManagementattheUniversityofSt.hisanalysisofinnovationtobusinessmodels,Gallen(Switzerland).Herresearchinterestsfocusintellectualpropertymanagementandmarketsoncooperativeinnovationprocesseslikeopenforinnovation.Hisacademicworkhasbeenandcross-industryinnovation,innovationnet-publishedinHarvardBusinessReview,CaliforniaworkswithinandacrosscompaniesaswellasManagementReview,SloanManagementReview,innovationmetricssystems.Shehasbroadindus-ResearchPolicy,IndustrialandCorporateChange,tryexperienceworkingwithcompanieslikeResearch-TechnologyManagement,BusinessHis-Daimler,Unilever,IBM,BASF,AlcanandHen-toryReviewandtheJournalofEvolutionaryEco-kel,andhaspublishedfourbooksandseveralnomics.HeisamemberoftheEditorialBoardofacademicarticlesintheareaofinnovationandResearchPolicyandtheCaliforniaManagementtechnologymanagement.Review.r2010TheAuthorsR&DManagement40,3,2010221Journalcompilationr2010BlackwellPublishingLtd