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1、APEuro12-29chaptersummariesCHAPTER12SUMMARYBeginninginItaly,theRenaissance(or“rebirth”)wasanerathatrediscoveredthecultureofancientGreeceandRome.Itwasalsoatimeofrecoveryfromthefourteenthcentury.Incomparisonwithmedievalsociety,theRenaissancehadamoresecularandindividualisticethos,butmightbestb
2、eenseenasevolutionaryinitsurbanandcommercialcontinuityfromtheHighMiddleAges.IntheNorthSea,theHanseaticLeaguecompetedwithmerchantsfromtheMediterranean,wheretheVenetianshadacommercialempire.InFlorence,profitsfromthewoolenindustrywereinvestedinbanking.Thearistocracyremainedtherulingclass,itsid
3、ealsexplicatedinCastiglione’sTheBookoftheCourtier.Peasantswerestillthevastmajority,butserfdomandmanorialismweredyingout.Animportantminorityweretheinhabitantsoftownsandcities,withmerchantsandbankersattheapexandtheunskilledworkersatthebottom.Thefatherorhusbandasadictatordominatedtheextendedfa
4、mily,andmarriageswerearrangedforsocialandeconomicadvantage.Wivesweremuchyoungerthantheirhusbands,withtheirprimaryfunctionbeingtobearchildren;themortalityrateinchildbirthandforinfantsandyoungchildrenremainedhigh.Italywasdominatedbyfivemajorstates:theduchyofMilan,Florence,Venice,thePapalState
5、s,andthekingdomofNaples.Therewerealsoothercity-statesthatwerecentersofcultureandwherewomenplayedvitalroles.Attheendofthefifteenthcentury,SpainandFranceinvadedthedividedpeninsula.TheexemplarofthenewstatecraftwasNiccoloMachiavelli(d.527),whoseThePrincedescribedthemethodsofgainingandholdingpol
6、iticalpower:moralconcernsareirrelevant,fortheendsjustifythemeans.Therewasanincreasedemphasisuponthehuman.AmongtheinfluentialhumanistswasPetrarch(d.1374)inhisadvocacyofclassicalLatinwriters.Civichumanismpositedthattheidealcitizenwasnotonlyanintellectualbutalsoapatriot,activelyservingthestate
7、,andhumanisteducationwastoproduceindividualsofvirtueandwisdom.Theprintingpresswasperfected,multiplyingtheavailabilityofbooks.Inart,theaimwastoimitatenaturebytheuseofrealisticperspective.Masaccio(d.1428),Donatello(d.1466)andMichelangelo(d.1564)madeFlorenc
