public policies, pressure groups, and dead weight costs

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1、JournalofPublicEconomics28(1985)329-347.North-HollandPUBLICPOLICIES,PRESSUREGROUPS,ANDDEADWEIGHTCOSTSGaryS.BECKER*UniuersifyofChicago,Chicago,IL60637,USAThispaperpresentsamodelofcompetitionamongspecialinterestgroupsforpoliticalinfluence.Eachactivegroupexertspressuretoaffectitstaxesandsubsidies,whe

2、reactivitiesofdifferentgroupsarerelatedbytheequalitybetweentotaltaxcollectionsandtotaltaxsubsidies.Thedeadweightcostsandbenefitsoftaxesandsubsidiesplayamajorroleinourmodel.Anincreaseinthedeadweightcostoftaxationencouragespressurebytaxpayers,whileanincreaseinthedeadweightcostsofsubsidiesdiscourages

3、pressurebyrecipients.Variousapplicationsoftheanalysisarediscussed.1.IntroductionTheactivitiesofgovernmentshavegrownremarkablyrapidlyinallWesterncountriesduringthetwentiethcentury,especiallyduringthelastfiftyyears.Thisgrowthcannotbeentirelyexplainedbybenevolentgovern-mentsthatmaximizesocialwelfareb

4、ecausesubsidiestoagriculture,restric-tionsonentryintotheairline,truckingandotherindustries,dutiesonJapaneseimports,andmanyotherregulationsandpublicactivitiesarenotconsistentwithanytraditionalsocialwelfarefunction.Thisfailureoftheoriesofbenevolentgovernmentinducedeconomiststojoinpoliticalscientists

5、insearchingforalternativewaystoanalyzeactualgovernmentbehavior.Theusualalternativeisamodelofmajorityrulevoting,eitheramongtheelectorateorthelegislature,asbestillustratedbymedianvotertheory.Anotherapproachassumesthatbureaucratshavethepowertodeterminetheenactmentandimplementationofmanyregulationsand

6、otherlegislation.Athirdapproachstressesthecapacityofpressuregroupstoinfluencepoliticaloutcomesastheyjockeyforpoliticalpower.ThisapproachreceivedanearlyandvigorousformulationbyBentley(1908)thatgreatlyaffectedthe*PreparedfortheNobelSymposiumontheGrowthofGovernment,15-17August,1984.Letmeexpressapprec

7、iationtothecommentators,JamesMirrleesandIngemarStahlforexcellentcomments,andtootherparticipantsattheSymposiumforalivelydiscussion.IhadvaluableassistancefromGaleMosteller,andusefulcommentsfromRobertBarro,MichaelMu