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1、Phonetics1.ThedifferencesbetweenconsonantsandvowelsConsonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheairflowinthecavity.However,avowelisproducedwithoutsuchobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstopp
2、ingoftheaircanbeperceived.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.2.MannersofarticulationItreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartofvocaltracts.Thereareseveral
3、basicwaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.(1).Stop:completeclosureofthearticula
4、torsinvolvedsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.Itisessentialtoseparatethreephrasesintheproductionofastop:(a)theclosingphase,inwhichthearticulatorscometogether;(b)thecompressionphrase,duringwhichairiscompressedbehindtheclosure;(c)thereleasephr
5、ase,duringwhichthearticulatorsformingtheobstructioncomerapidlyapartandtheairissuddenlyreleased.InEnglish,[p,b,t,d,k,g]arestopsand[m,n,ŋ]arenasals.(2)Fricative:closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructedandturbulentairflowi
6、sproduced.InEnglish,[f,v,θ,ð,s,z,ʃ,ʒ,h]arefricatives.(3)Approximant:anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.Thegapbetweenthearticulatorsisthereforelargerthan
7、forafricativeandnoturbulenceisgenerated.InEnglish,thisclassofsoundsincludes[w,r,j].(4)Lateral:obstructionoftheairstreamatapintalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.[l]istheonlylateralinEng
8、lish.(5)Trill:producedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbytheairstream.Amajortrillsoundis[r],asinred.(6)Affricates:involvingmorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatth
