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1、EncyclopñdiaBritannica,Inc.,isaleaderinreferenceandeducationpublishingwhoseproductscanbefoundinmanymedia,fromtheInternettomobilephonestobooks.Apioneerinelectronicpublishingsincetheearly1980s,BritannicalaunchedthefirstencyclopediaontheInternetin1994.Itals
2、ocontinuestopublishandreviseitsfamedprintset,firstreleasedinEdinburgh,Scotland,in1768.EncyclopñdiaBritannica'scontributorsincludemanyofthegreatestwritersandscholarsintheworld,andmorethan110NobelPrizewinnershavewrittenforBritannica.Aprofessionaleditorials
3、taffensuresthatBritannica'scontentisclear,current,andcorrect.Thisbookisprincipallybasedoncontentfromtheencyclopediaanditscontributors.IntroducerAnthonyGraylingisProfessorofPhilosophyatBirkbeckCollege,UniversityofLondon.HealsooftenwritesfortheObserver,Eco
4、nomist,TimesLiterarySupplement,Indepen-dentonSunday,andNewStatesman,andisafrequentbroad-casteronBBCRadios4,3,andtheWorldService.HehaswrittenanumberofhighlyacclaimedworksofphilosophyandhistoryincludingTowardstheLight:TheStoryoftheStrug-glesforLibertyandRi
5、ghtsthatmadetheModernWest,abiographyofReneDescartesandTheHeartofThings:Phil-osophyinthe21stcentury.THEGUIDETOTHEIDEASTHATMADETHEMODERNWORLDThepeople,philosophy,andhistoryoftheEnlightenmentEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.www.britannica.comFirstprinteditionpubl
6、ishedintheUKbyRobinson,animprintofConstable&RobinsonLtd,2008Text©2008EncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.Introduction©2008A.C.GraylingTherightofEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.andA.C.GraylingtobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthisworkhasbeenassertedbytheminaccordancewiththeC
7、opyright,Designs&PatentsAct,1988.Britannica,EncyclopædiaBritannica,andtheThistlelogoareregisteredtrademarksofEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.ThiseBookeditionpublishedbyEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.ISBN978-1-59339-227-7Nopartofthisworkmaybeproducedorutilizedinan
8、yformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.CONTENTSListofIllustrationsviiIntroductionix1AHistoryoftheEnli
