[大英百科全书指南丛书].The.Britannica.Guide.to.the.Ideas.that.Made.the.Modern.World,

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1、EncyclopñdiaBritannica,Inc.,isaleaderinreferenceandeducationpublishingwhoseproductscanbefoundinmanymedia,fromtheInternettomobilephonestobooks.Apioneerinelectronicpublishingsincetheearly1980s,BritannicalaunchedthefirstencyclopediaontheInternetin1994.Italsocontinuestopublishandreviseit

2、sfamedprintset,firstreleasedinEdinburgh,Scotland,in1768.EncyclopñdiaBritannica'scontributorsincludemanyofthegreatestwritersandscholarsintheworld,andmorethan110NobelPrizewinnershavewrittenforBritannica.AprofessionaleditorialstaffensuresthatBritannica'scontentisclear,current,andcorrect

3、.Thisbookisprincipallybasedoncontentfromtheencyclopediaanditscontributors.IntroducerAnthonyGraylingisProfessorofPhilosophyatBirkbeckCollege,UniversityofLondon.HealsooftenwritesfortheObserver,Economist,TimesLiterarySupplement,Indepen-dentonSunday,andNewStatesman,andisafrequentbroad-ca

4、steronBBCRadios4,3,andtheWorldService.HehaswrittenanumberofhighlyacclaimedworksofphilosophyandhistoryincludingTowardstheLight:TheStoryoftheStrug-glesforLibertyandRightsthatmadetheModernWest,abiographyofReneDescartesandTheHeartofThings:Phil-osophyinthe21stcentury.THEGUIDETOTHEIDEASTHA

5、TMADETHEMODERNWORLDThepeople,philosophy,andhistoryoftheEnlightenmentEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.www.britannica.comFirstprinteditionpublishedintheUKbyRobinson,animprintofConstable&RobinsonLtd,2008Text©2008EncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.Introduction©2008A.C.GraylingTherightofEncyclopædiaBri

6、tannica,Inc.andA.C.GraylingtobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthisworkhasbeenassertedbytheminaccordancewiththeCopyright,Designs&PatentsAct,1988.Britannica,EncyclopædiaBritannica,andtheThistlelogoareregisteredtrademarksofEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.ThiseBookeditionpublishedbyEncyclopædiaBrita

7、nnica,Inc.ISBN978-1-59339-227-7Nopartofthisworkmaybeproducedorutilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.CONTENTSListofIllustrationsviiIntroductionix1AHist

8、oryoftheEnli