英国文化环境 english literature

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EnglishLiteratureIINTRODUCTIONEnglishLiterature, literature producedinEngland,fromtheintroductionofOldEnglishbytheAnglo-Saxonsinthe5thcenturytothepresent.TheworksofthoseIrishandScottishauthorswhoarecloselyidentifiedwithEnglishlifeandlettersarealsoconsideredpartofEnglishliterature.ForotherIrishandScottishauthors,seeIrishLiterature;ScottishLiterature.ForotherliteraturesinEnglish,seeAmericanLiterature:Drama;AmericanLiterature:Poetry;AmericanLiterature:Prose;AustralianLiterature;CanadianLiterature.IIOLDENGLISH,ORANGLO-SAXON,ERAThis period extends fromabout450to1066,theyearoftheNorman-FrenchconquestofEngland.TheGermanictribesfromEuropewhooverranEnglandinthe5thcentury,aftertheRomanwithdrawal,broughtwiththemtheOldEnglish,orAnglo-Saxon,language,whichisthebasisofModernEnglish(seeEnglishLanguage).Theybroughtalsoaspecificpoetictradition,theformalcharacterofwhichremainedsurprisinglyconstantuntiltheterminationoftheirrulebytheNorman-Frenchinvaderssixcenturieslater.APoetryMuch of Old English poetrywasprobablyintendedtobechanted,withharpaccompaniment,bytheAnglo-Saxonscop,orbard.Oftenboldandstrong,butalsomournfulandelegiacinspirit,thispoetryemphasizesthesorrowandultimatefutilityoflifeandthehelplessnessofhumansbeforethepoweroffate.Almostallthispoetryiscomposedwithoutrhyme,inacharacteristicline,orverse,offourstressedsyllablesalternatingwithanindeterminatenumberofunstressedones(seeVersification).Thislinestrikesstrangelyonearshabituatedtotheusualmodernpattern,inwhichtherhythmicalunit,orfoot,theoreticallyconsistsofaconstantnumber(eitheroneortwo)ofunaccentedsyllablesthatalwaysprecedeorfollowanystressedsyllable.AnotherunfamiliarbutequallystrikingfeatureintheformalcharacterofOldEnglishpoetryisstructuralalliteration,ortheuseofsyllablesbeginningwithsimilarsoundsintwoorthreeofthestressesineachline.All these qualities offormandspiritareexemplifiedintheepicpoemBeowulf,writtensometimebetweenthe8thcenturyandthelate10thcentury.Beginningandendingwiththefuneralofagreatking,andcomposedagainstabackgroundofimpendingdisaster,itdescribestheexploitsofaScandinavianculturalhero,Beowulf,indestroyingthemonsterGrendel,Grendel'smother,andafire-breathingdragon.InthesesequencesBeowulfis shownnotonlyasagloriousherobutasasaviorofthepeople.TheOldGermanicvirtueofmutualloyaltybetweenleaderandfollowersisevokedeffectivelyandtouchinglyintheagedBeowulf'ssacrificeofhislifeandinthereproachesheapedontheretainerswhodeserthiminthisclimacticbattle.Theextraordinaryartistrywithwhichfragmentsofotherheroictalesareincorporatedtoilluminethemainaction,andwithwhichthewholeplotisreducedtosymmetry,hasonlyrecentlybeenfullyrecognized.Another feature of Beowulfistheweakeningofthesenseoftheultimatepowerofarbitraryfate.TheinjectionoftheChristianideaofdependenceonajustGodisevident.ThatfeatureistypicalofotherOldEnglishliterature,foralmostallofwhatsurviveswaspreservedbymonasticcopyists.MostofitwasactuallycomposedbyreligiouswritersaftertheearlyconversionofthepeoplefromtheirfaithintheolderGermanicdivinities.Sacred legend and storywerereducedtoverseinpoemsresemblingBeowulfinform.Atfirstsuchversewasrenderedinthesomewhatsimple,starkstyleofthepoemsofCaedmon,ahumblemanofthelate7thcenturywhowasdescribedbythehistorianandtheologianSaintBedetheVenerableashavingreceivedthegiftofsongfromGod.LaterthesametypeofsubjectmatterwastreatedinthemoreornatelanguageoftheAnglo-SaxonpoetCynewulfandhisschool.Thebestoftheirproductionsisprobablythepassionate“DreamoftheRood.”In addition to these religiouscompositions,OldEnglishpoetsproducedanumberofmoreorlesslyricalpoemsofshorterlength,whichdonotcontainspecificChristiandoctrineandwhichevoketheAnglo-Saxonsenseoftheharshnessofcircumstanceandthesadnessofthehumanlot.“TheWanderer”and“TheSeafarer”areamongthemostbeautifulofthisgroupofOldEnglishpoems.BProseProse in Old English isrepresentedbyalargenumberofreligiousworks.TheimposingscholarshipofmonasteriesinnorthernEnglandinthelate7thcenturyreacheditspeakintheLatinworkHistoriaEcclesiasticaGentisAnglorum(EcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeople,731)byBede.ThegreateducationaleffortofAlfred,kingoftheWestSaxons,inthe9thcenturyproducedanOldEnglishtranslationofthisimportanthistoricalworkandofmanyothers,includingDeConsolationePhilosophiae(TheConsolationofPhilosophy),byBoethius.ThiswasasignificantworkoflargelyPlatonicphilosophyeasilyadaptabletoChristianthought,andithashadgreatinfluenceonEnglishliterature.IIIMIDDLEENGLISHPERIODExtending from 1066 to1485,thisperiodisnotedfortheextensiveinfluenceofFrenchliteratureonnativeEnglishformsandthemes.FromtheNorman-FrenchconquestofEnglandin1066untilthe14thcentury,FrenchlargelyreplacedEnglishinordinaryliterary composition,andLatinmaintaineditsroleasthelanguageoflearnedworks.Bythe14thcentury,whenEnglishagainbecamethechosenlanguageoftherulingclasses,ithadlostmuchoftheOldEnglishinflectionalsystem,hadundergonecertainsoundchanges,andhadacquiredthecharacteristicitstillpossessesoffreelytakingintothenativestocknumbersofforeignwords,inthiscaseFrenchandLatinones.Thus,thevariousdialectsofMiddleEnglishspokeninthe14thcenturyweresimilartoModernEnglishandcanbereadwithoutgreatdifficultytoday.The Middle English literatureofthe14thand15thcenturiesismuchmorediversifiedthanthepreviousOldEnglishliterature.AvarietyofFrenchandevenItalianelementsinfluencedMiddleEnglishliterature,especiallyinsouthernEngland.Inaddition,differentregionalstylesweremaintained,inliteratureandlearninghadnotyetbeencentralized.Forthesereasons,aswellasbecauseofthevigorousandunevengrowthofnationallife,theMiddleEnglishperiodcontainsawealthofliterarymonumentsnoteasilyclassified.AAllegoryIn the north and west,poemscontinuedtobewritteninformsveryliketheOldEnglishalliterative,four-stresslines.Ofthesepoems,TheVisionofWilliamConcerningPiersthePlowman,betterknownasPiersPlowman,isthemostsignificant.NowthoughttobebyWilliamLangland,itisalong,impassionedworkintheformofdreamvisions(afavoriteliterarydeviceoftheday),protestingtheplightofthepoor,theavariceofthepowerful,andthesinfulnessofallpeople.Theemphasis,however,isplacedonaChristianvisionofthelifeofactivity,ofthelifeofunitywithGod,andofthesynthesisofthesetwoundertheruleofapurifiedchurch.Assuch,despitevariousfaults,itbearscomparisonwiththeothergreatChristianvisionarypoem,Ladivinacommedia(TheDivineComedy),byDante.Forboth,thewatchwordsareheavenlyloveandloveoperativeinthisworld.A second and shorter alliterativevisionpoem,ThePearl,writteninnorthwestEnglandinabout1370,issimilarlydoctrinal,butitstoneisecstatic,anditisfarmoredeliberatelyartistic.Apparentlyanelegyforthedeathofasmallgirl(althoughwidelyvaryingreligiousallegoricalinterpretationshavebeensuggestedforit),thepoemdescribestheexaltedstateofchildlikeinnocenceinheavenandtheneedforallsoulstobecomeaschildrentoenterthepearlygatesoftheNewJerusalem.Theworkendswithanimpressivevisionofheaven,fromwhichthedreamerawakes.Ingeneral,poetryandproseexpressingamysticallongingfor,andunionwith,thedeityisacommonfeatureofthelateMiddleAges,particularlyinnorthernEngland.BTalesofChivalryandAdventureA third alliterative poem,supposedlybythesameanonymousauthorwhowroteThePearl,isSirGawainandtheGreenKnight(late1300s),aromance,ortale,ofknightlyadventureandlove,ofthegeneralmedievaltypeintroducedbytheFrench.MostEnglishromances weredrawn,asthisoneapparentlywas,fromFrenchsources.MostofthesesourcesareconcernedwiththeknightsofKingArthur(seeArthurianLegend)andseemtogobackinturntoCeltictalesofgreatantiquity.InSirGawain,againstabackgroundofchivalricgallantry,thetaleistoldoftheknight'sresistancetotheblandishmentsofanotherman'sbeautifulwife.CChaucerTwo other important, nonalliterativeverseromancesformpartoftheworkofGeoffreyChaucer.ThesearethepsychologicallypenetratingTroilusandCriseyde(1385?),ataleofthefatalcourseofanoblelove,laidinHomericTroyandbasedonIlfilostrato,aromancebythe14th-centuryItalianauthorGiovanniBoccaccio;andTheKnight'sTale(1382?;laterincludedinChaucer'sCanterburyTales),alsobasedonBoccaccio.ImmersedincourtlifeandchargedwithvariousgovernmentaldutiesthatcarriedhimasfarasItaly,ChauceryetfoundtimetotranslateFrenchandLatinworks,towriteunderFrenchinfluenceseveralsecularvisionpoemsofasemiallegoricalnature(TheBookoftheDuchess,TheHouseofFame,TheParliamentofFowls)and,aboveall,tocomposeTheCanterburyTales(probablyafter1387).Thislatterworkconsistsof24storiesorpartsofstories(mostlyinverseinalmostallthemedievalgenres)recountedbyChaucerthroughthemouthsandintheseveralmannersofagroupofpilgrimsboundforCanterburyCathedral,whowererepresentativeofmostoftheclassesofmedievalEngland.Characterizedbyanextraordinarysenseoflifeandfertilityofinvention,thesenarrativesrangefromTheKnight'sTaletosometimesindelicatebutremarkabletalesoflowlife,andtheyconcernahostofsubjects:religiousinnocence,marriedchastity,villainoushypocrisy,femalevolubility—allilluminedbygreathumor.Withextraordinaryartistrythestoriesaremadetocharacterizetheirtellers.DArthurianLegendsIn the 15th century anumberofpoetswereobviouslyinfluencedbyChaucerbut,ingeneral,medievalliterarythemesandstyleswereexhaustedduringthisperiod.SirThomasMalorystandsoutforhisgreatwork,Lemorted'Arthur(TheDeathofArthur,1469-1470),whichcarriedonthetraditionofArthurianromance,fromFrenchsources,inEnglishproseofremarkablevividnessandvitality.HelooselytiedtogetherstoriesofvariousknightsoftheRoundTable,butmostmemorablyofArthurhimself,ofGalahad,andoftheguiltyloveofLancelotandArthur'squeen,Guinevere.Despitethegreatvarietyofincidentandthecomplicationsofplotinhiswork,thedominantthemeistheneedtosacrificeindividualdesireforthesakeofnationalunityandreligioussalvation,thelatterofwhichisenvisionedintermsofthedreamlikebutintensemysticalsymbolismoftheHolyGrail. IVTHERENAISSANCEA golden age of Englishliteraturecommencedin1485andlasteduntil1660.Malory'sLemorted'ArthurwasamongthefirstworkstobeprintedbyWilliamCaxton,whointroducedtheprintingpresstoEnglandin1476.Fromthattimeon,readershipwasvastlymultiplied.Thegrowthofthemiddleclass,thecontinuingdevelopmentoftrade,thenewcharacterandthoroughnessofeducationforlaypeopleandnotonlyclergy,thecentralizationofpowerandofmuchintellectuallifeinthecourtoftheTudorandStuartmonarchs,andthewideninghorizonsofexplorationgaveafundamentalnewimpetusanddirectiontoliterature.Thenewliteratureneverthelessdidnotfullyflourishuntilthelast20yearsofthe1500s,duringthereignofQueenElizabethI.Literarydevelopmentintheearlierpartofthe16thcenturywasweakenedbythediversionofintellectualenergiestothepolemicsofthereligiousstrugglebetweentheRomanCatholicChurchandtheChurchofEngland,aproductoftheReformation.The English part in theEuropeanmovementknownashumanismalsobelongstothistime.Humanismencouragedgreatercareinthestudyoftheliteratureofclassicalantiquityandreformededucationinsuchawayastomakeliteraryexpressionofparamountimportancefortheculturedperson.Literarystyle,inpartmodeledonthatoftheancients,soonbecameaself-consciouspreoccupationofEnglishpoetsandprosewriters.Thus,therichnessandmetaphoricalprofusionofstyleattheendofthecenturyindirectlyowedmuchtotheeducationalforceofthismovement.Themostimmediateeffectofhumanismlay,however,inthedisseminationofthecultivated,clear,andsensibleattitudeofitsclassicallyeducatedadherents,whorejectedmedievaltheologicalmisteachingandsuperstition.Ofthesewriters,SirThomasMoreisthemostremarkable.HisLatinprosenarrativeUtopia(1516)satirizestheirrationalityofinheritedassumptionsaboutprivatepropertyandmoneyandfollowsPlatoindeploringthefailureofkingstomakeuseofthewisdomofphilosophers.More'sbookdescribesadistantnationorganizedonpurelyreasonableprinciplesandnamedUtopia(Greekfor“nowhere”).ARenaissancePoetryThe poetry of the earlierpartofthe16thcenturyisgenerallylessimportant,withtheexceptionoftheworkofJohnSkelton,whichexhibitsacuriouscombinationofmedievalandRenaissanceinfluences.Thetwogreatestinnovatorsofthenew,richstyleofRenaissancepoetryinthelastquarterofthe16thcenturywereSirPhilipSidneyandEdmundSpenser,bothhumanisticallyeducatedElizabethancourtiers.Sidney, universally recognizedasthemodelRenaissancenobleman,outwardlypolishedaswellasinwardlyconscientious,inauguratedthevogueofthesonnetcycleinhisAstrophelandStella(written1582?;published1591).Inthiswork,intheelaborateandhighlymetaphoricalstyleoftheearlierItaliansonnet,hecelebratedhisidealizedloveforPenelopeDevereux,thedaughterofWalterDevereux,1stearlofEssex.Theselyrics professtoseeinheranidealofwomanhoodthatinthePlatonicmannerleadstoaperceptionofthegood,thetrue,andthebeautifulandconsequentlyofthedivine.Thisidealizationofthebelovedremainedafavoredmotifinmuchofthepoetryanddramaofthelate16thcentury;ithaditsrootsnotonlyinPlatonismbutalsointhePlatonicspeculationsofhumanismandinthechivalricidealizationofloveinmedievalromance.The greatest monumenttothatidealism,broadenedtoincludeallfeaturesofthemorallife,isSpenser'suncompletedFaerieQueene(BooksI-III,1590;BooksIV-VI,1596),themostfamousworkoftheperiod.Ineachofitscompletedsixbooksitdepictstheactivitiesofaherothatpointtowardtheidealformofaparticularvirtue,andatthesametimeitlooksforwardtothemarriageofArthur,whoisacombinationofallthevirtues,andGloriana,whoistheidealformofwomanhoodandtheembodimentofQueenElizabeth.ItisentirelytypicaloftheimpulseoftheRenaissanceinEnglandthatinthisworkSpensertriedtocreateoutoftheinheritedEnglishelementsofArthurianromanceandanarchaic,partlymedievalstyleanobleepicthatwouldmakethenationalliteraturetheequalofthoseofancientGreeceandRomeandofRenaissanceItaly.HiseffortinthisrespectcorrespondedtothenewdemandsexpressedbySidneyinthecriticalessayTheDefenceofPoesie,originallyApologieforPoetrie(written1583?;posthumouslypublished1595).Spenser'sconceptionofhisrolenodoubtconformedtoSidney'sgeneraldescriptionofthepoetastheinspiredvoiceofGodrevealingexamplesofmorallyperfectactionsinanaestheticallyidealworldsuchasmererealitycanneverprovide,andwithagraphicandconcreteconvictionthatmerephilosophycanneverachieve.ThepoeticandnarrativequalitiesofTheFaerieQueenesuffertoadegreefromthevarioustheoreticalrequirementsthatSpenserforcedtheworktomeet.In a number of other lyricalandnarrativeworksSidneyandSpenserdisplayedtheornate,somewhatflorid,highlyfiguredstylecharacteristicofagreatdealofElizabethanpoeticexpression;buttwootherpoetictendenciesbecamevisibletowardtheendofthe16thandintheearlypartofthe17thcenturies.ThefirsttendencyisexemplifiedbythepoetryofJohnDonneandtheotherso-calledmetaphysicalpoets,whichcarriedthemetaphoricalstyletoheightsofdaringcomplexityandingenuity.Thisoftenparadoxicalstylewasusedforavarietyofpoeticpurposes,rangingfromcomplexemotionalattitudestothesimpleinducementofadmirationforitsownvirtuosity.AmongthemostimportantofDonne'sfollowers,GeorgeHerbertisdistinguishedforhiscarefullyconstructedreligiouslyrics,whichstrivetoexpresswithpersonalhumilitytheemotionsappropriatetoalltrueChristians.OthermembersofthemetaphysicalschoolareHenryVaughan,afollowerofHerbert,andRichardCrashaw,whowasinfluencedbyContinentalCatholicmysticism.AndrewMarvellwrotemetaphysicalpoetryofgreatpowerandfluency,buthealsorespondedtootherinfluences.Theinvolvedmetaphysicalstyleremainedfashionableuntillateinthe17thcentury.The second late RenaissancepoetictendencywasinreactiontothesometimesflamboyantlushnessoftheSpenseriansandtothesometimestortuousverbalgymnasticsofthemetaphysicalpoets.BestrepresentedbytheaccomplishedpoetryofBenJonsonandhisschool,itrevealsaclassicallypureandrestrainedstylethathadstronginfluenceonlate figuressuchasRobertHerrickandtheotherCavalierpoetsandgavethedirectionforthepoeticdevelopmentofthesucceedingneoclassicalperiod.The last great poet oftheEnglishRenaissancewasthePuritanwriterJohnMilton,who,havingathiscommandathoroughclassicaleducationandthebenefitoftheprecedinghalfcenturyofexperimentationinthevariousschoolsofEnglishpoetry,approachedwithgreatermaturitythanSpenserthetaskofwritingagreatEnglishepic.AlthoughheadheredtoSidney'sandSpenser'snotionsoftheinspiredroleofthepoetastheloftyinstructorofhumanity,herejectedthefantasticandmiscellaneousmachinery,involvingclassicalmythologyandmedievalknighthood,ofTheFaerieQueeneinfavorofthecentralChristianandbiblicaltradition.WithgrandsimplicityandpoeticpowerMiltonnarratedinParadiseLost(1667)themachinationsofSatanleadingtothefallofAdamandEvefromthestateofinnocence;andheperformedthetaskinsuchawayasto“justifythewaysofGodtoman”andtoexpressthecentralChristiantruthsoffreedom,sin,andredemptionasheconceivedthem.Hisotherpoems,suchastheelegyLycidas(1637),ParadiseRegained(1671),andtheclassicallypatternedtragedySamsonAgonistes(1671),similarlyrevealastonishingpoeticpowerandgraceunderthecontrolofaprofoundmind.BRenaissanceDramaandProseThe poetry of the EnglishRenaissancebetween1580and1660wastheresultofaremarkableoutburstofenergy.Itis,however,thedramaofroughlythesameperiodthatstandshighestinpopularestimation.Theworksofitsgreatestrepresentative,WilliamShakespeare,haveachievedworldwiderenown.InthepreviousMiddleEnglishperiodtherehadbeen,withinthechurch,agradualbroadeningofdramaticrepresentationofsuchdoctrinallyimportanteventsastheangel'sannouncementoftheresurrectiontothewomenatthetombofChrist.Ultimately,performancesofreligiousdramahadbecometheprovinceofthecraftguilds,andtheentireChristianstory,fromthecreationoftheworldtothelastjudgment,hadbeenreenactedforsecularaudiences.TheRenaissancedramaproperrosefromthislatemedievalbasebyanumberoftransitionalstagesendingabout1580.Alargenumberofcomedies,tragedies,andexamplesofintermediatetypeswereproducedforLondontheatersbetweenthatyearand1642,whentheLondontheaterswereclosedbyorderofthePuritanParliament.LikesomuchnondramaticliteratureoftheRenaissance,mostoftheseplayswerewritteninanelaborateversestyleandundertheinfluenceofclassicalexamples,butthepopulartaste,towhichdramawasespeciallysusceptible,requiredaflamboyanceandsensationalismlargelyalientothespiritofGreekandRomanliterature.OnlytheRomantragedianLuciusAnnaeusSenecacouldprovideamodelfortheearliestpopulartragedyofbloodandrevenge,TheSpanishTragedy(1589?)ofThomasKyd.Kyd'sskillfullymanaged,complicated,butsensationalplotinfluencedinturnlater,psychologicallymoresophisticatedrevengetragedies,amongthemShakespeare'sHamlet.ChristopherMarlowebeganthetraditionofthechronicleplay,aboutthefataldeedsofkingsandpotentates,afewyearslaterwiththetragediesTamburlainetheGreat,PartI(1587),andEdwardII(1592?).Marlowe'splays,suchasTheTragicalHistoryofDr.Faustus(1588?)andTheJewofMalta(1589?),areremarkable primarilyfortheirdaringdepictionsofworld-shatteringcharacterswhostrivetogobeyondthenormalhumanlimitationsastheChristianmedievalethoshadconceivedthem.TheseworksarewritteninapoeticstyleworthyinmanywaysofcomparisontoShakespeare's.CShakespeareElizabethan tragedy andcomedyalikereachedtheirtruefloweringinShakespeare'sworks.Beyondhisart,hisrichstyle,andhiscomplexplots,allofwhichsurpassbyfartheworkofotherElizabethandramatistsinthesamefield,andbeyondhisunrivaledprojectionofcharacter,Shakespeare'scompassionateunderstandingofthehumanlothasperpetuatedhisgreatnessandmadehimtherepresentativefigureofEnglishliteratureforthewholeworld.Shakespeare's comedies,ofwhichperhapsthebestareAsYouLikeIt(1599?)andTwelfthNight(1600?),depicttheendearingaswellastheridiculoussidesofhumannature.Hisgreattragedies—Hamlet(1601?),Othello(1604?),KingLear(1605?),Macbeth(1606?),andAntonyandCleopatra(1606?)—lookdeeplyintothespringsofactioninthehumansoul.HisearlierdarktragedieswereimitatedinstyleandfeelingbythetragedianJohnWebsterinTheWhiteDevil(1612)andTheDuchessofMalfi(1613-1614).In Shakespeare's lastplays,theso-calleddramaticromances,includingTheTempest(1611?),hesetsamoodofquietacceptanceandultimatereconciliationthatwasafittingcloseforhisliterarycareer.Theseplays,byvirtueoftheirmysterious,exoticatmosphereandtheirquick,surprisingalternationsofbadandgoodfortune,comeclosealsotothetoneofthedramaofthesucceedingage.DLateRenaissanceand17thCenturyThe most influential figureinshapingtheimmediatefuturecourseofEnglishdramawasBenJonson.Hiscarefullyplottedcomedies,satirizingwithinimitableverveandimaginationvariousdeparturesfromthenormofgoodsenseandmoderation,arewritteninamoresoberandcarefulstylethanarethoseofmostElizabethanandearly17th-centurydramatists.Thosequalities,indeed,definethecharacterofmostlaterRestorationcomedy.ThebestofJonson'scomediesareVolpone(1606)andTheAlchemist(1610).Professingthemselveshisdisciples,thedramatistsFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletchercollaboratedonanumberofso-calledtragicomedies(forexample,Philaster,1610?)inwhichmorallydubioussituations,surprisingreversalsoffortune,andsentimentalitycombinewithhollowrhetoric.The outstanding proseworksoftheRenaissancearenotsonumerousasthoseoflaterages,butthegreattranslationoftheBible,calledtheKingJamesBible,orAuthorizedVersion,publishedin1611,issignificantbecauseitwastheculminationoftwocenturiesofefforttoproducethebestEnglishtranslationoftheoriginaltexts,andalsobecauseits vocabulary,imagery,andrhythmshaveinfluencedwritersofEnglishinalllandseversince.SimilarlysonorousandstatelyistheproseofSirThomasBrowne,thephysicianandsemiscientificinvestigator.HisreductionofworldlyphenomenatosymbolsofmysticaltruthisbestseeninReligioMedici(ReligionofaDoctor),probablywrittenin1635.VTHERESTORATIONPERIODANDTHE18THCENTURYThis period extends from1660,theyearCharlesIIwasrestoredtothethrone,untilabout1789.TheprevailingcharacteristicoftheliteratureoftheRenaissancehadbeenitsrelianceonpoeticinspirationorwhattodaymightbecalledimagination.TheinspiredconceptionsofMarlowe,Shakespeare,andMilton,thetrueoriginalityofSpenser,andthedaringpoeticstyleofDonneallsupportthisgeneralization.Furthermore,althoughnearlyallthesepoetshadbeenfarmoreboundbyformalandstylisticconventionsthanmodernpoetsare,theyhaddevelopedalargevarietyofformsandofrichorexuberantstylesintowhichindividualpoeticexpressionmightfit.Inthesucceedingperiod,however,writersreactedagainstboththeimaginativeflightsandtheornateorstartlingstylesandformsofthepreviousera.Thequalityofthelaterageissuggestedbyitswriters'admirationforBenJonsonandhisdisciples;thetransparentandapparentlyeffortlesspoeticmediumofthe“schoolofBen,”alongwithitsemphasisongoodtaste,moderation,andtheGreekandLatinclassicsasmodels,appealedprofoundlytothenewgeneration.Thus, the restorationofCharlesIIusheredinaliteraturecharacterizedbyreason,moderation,goodtaste,deftmanagement,andsimplicity.ThehistoricalparallelbetweentheearlyimperialismofRomeandtherestoredEnglishmonarchy,bothofwhichhadreplacedrepublicaninstitutions,wasnotlostontherulingandlearnedclasses.TheirappreciationoftheliteratureofthetimeoftheRomanemperorAugustusledtoawidespreadacceptanceofthenewEnglishliteratureandencouragedagrandeuroftoneinthepoetryoftheperiod,thelaterphaseofwhichisoftenreferredtoasAugustan.Inaddition,theidealsofimpartialinvestigationandscientificexperimentationpromulgatedbythenewlyfoundedRoyalSocietyofLondonforImprovingNaturalKnowledge(establishedin1662)wereinfluentialinthedevelopmentofclearandsimpleproseasaninstrumentofrationalcommunication.Finally, the great philosophicalandpoliticaltreatisesofthetimeemphasizerationalism.Evenintheearlier17thcentury,FrancisBaconhadmovedinthisdirectionbyadvocatingreasoningandscientificinvestigationinAdvancementofLearning(1605)andTheNewAtlantis(1627).EssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1690),byJohnLocke,istheproductofabeliefinexperienceastheexclusivebasisofknowledge,aviewpushedtoitslogicalextremeinAnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1748)byDavidHume.Lockehimselfcontinuedtoprofessfaithindivinerevelation,butthisresidualbeliefwasweakenedamongthesimilarlyrationalistDeists,whotendedtobasereligiononwhatreasoncouldfindintheworldGodhadcreatedaroundhumans. In political thought,thearbitraryacceptanceofthemonarch'sdivinerighttorule(aconceptionpopularintheRenaissance)hadsonearlysuccumbedtoskepticalcriticismthatThomasHobbesinhisLeviathan(1651)founditnecessarytodefendtheideaofpoliticalabsolutismwitharationallyconceivedsanction.Accordingtohim,themonarchshouldrulenotbydivinerightbutbyanoriginalandindissolublesocialcontractinordertosecureuniversalpeaceandmaterialgratification.Similarlyrationalistic,butopposedtothisrigoroussubordinationofallorgansofthestatetocentralcontrol,wereLocke'stwoTreatisesonGovernment(1690),inwhichhestatedthattheauthorityofthegovernorisderivedfromthealwaysrevocableconsentofthegovernedandthatthepeople'swelfareistheonlyproperobjectofthatauthority.Perhaps the greatest historicalworkinEnglishisTheHistoryoftheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire(6volumes,1776-1788),byEdwardGibbon.Notableforitsstately,balancedstyle,itispermeatedwithrationalisticskepticismanddistrustofemotion,particularlyreligiousemotion.The successive stagesofliterarytasteduringtheperiodoftheRestorationandthe18thcenturyareconvenientlyreferredtoastheagesofDryden,Pope,andJohnson,afterthethreegreatliteraryfigureswho,oneafteranother,carriedontheso-calledclassicaltraditioninliterature.TheageasawholeissometimescalledtheAugustanage,ortheclassicalorneoclassicalperiod.AAgeofDrydenThe poetry of John Drydenpossessesagrandeur,force,andfullnessoftonethatwereeagerlyreceivedbyreadersstillhavingsomethingincommonwiththeElizabethans.Atthesametime,however,hispoetrysetthetoneofthenewageinachievinganewclarityandinestablishingaself-limiting,somewhatimpersonalcanonofmoderationandgoodtaste.Hispolishedheroiccouplet(aunitoftworhyminglinesofiambicpentameter,generallyend-stopped),whichheinheritedfromlessaccomplishedpredecessorsandthendeveloped,becamethedominantforminthecompositionoflongerpoems.In a number of criticalworksDrydendefinedthestylisticrestraint,compression,clarity,andcommonsensethatheexemplifiedinhisownpoetryandthatheshowedtobelackinginmuchofthepoetryoftheprecedingage,particularlyintheexuberantandmechanicallycomplexmetaphoricalwitoftheoldermetaphysicalschool.Hisreputationrestsprimarilyonsatire.Thisformbecamethedominantpoeticgenreoftheage,bothbecauseofthereligiousandpoliticalfactionalismofthetimesandbecausemockingdenunciationoftheludicrousnessorrascalityoftheoppositioncomesnaturallytoanagewithsostrongapublicsenseofnormsofbehavior.AbsalomandAchitophel(1681-1682)andMacFlecknoe(1682)arethemostremarkableofDryden'spoliticalsatires.AmonghisotherpoeticworksarenoteworthytranslationsofRomansatiristsandoftheworksofVirgil,andthePindaricode“Alexander'sFeast,”atourdeforceofvariedcadences,whichwaspublishedin1697. The bulk of Dryden's workwasindrama.Bymeansofit,followingthenewmodeoflivingoftheprofessionalliteraryman,hecouldderivehissupportfromalargepublicratherthanfromprivatepatrons.InhisheroictragediesTheConquestofGranada(1670)andAllforLove;or,TheWorldWellLost(1678),arewritingofShakespeare'sAntonyandCleopatrainthenewtaste,DrydenshowedadifferentandnotalwayssatisfyingsideofhistalentandexemplifiedthedominantqualityofallRestorationtragedy.Inordertoachievesplendorandsurpriseonthestage,hesacrificedrealityofcharacterizationandconsistencyinmotivationforsensualdisplayinexoticlocalesandextravaganceinplotandsituation,presentedinastylevergingonthebombastic.TheaffinitiesofthiskindofdramaarewithBeaumontandFletcherratherthanwiththegreatElizabethanage;andtheindirectinfluenceofBenJonsonisapparentalso,forthesetwomenwereJonson'sdisciples.ProbablythebestexampleofthisgenreoftragedywasproducedbyThomasOtway,whoseVenicePreserved(1682)avoidstheworstexcessestowhichthisformisliableandalsopossessesconsiderabletendernessandsensibility.Bythistime,however,thevogueofheroictragedywascomingtoanend;thestylealreadyhadbeensuccessfullyparodiedinTheRehearsal(1671),byGeorgeVilliers,2nddukeofBuckingham,andhiscollaborators.The comedy of the timeismuchmoresuccessfulthanthetragedy.ItisderiveddirectlyfromthecomediesofBenJonsonbuttriesformorerefinementwhiledisplayinglessstrength.Inacool,satiricspirit,itcriticizesmiddle-classambitionandothervariationsfromthecourtlysocialnorm,ofwhichthecanonsarearistocraticgoodtasteandgoodsense,rarelyconventionalmorality.Intheeyesofsucceedinggenerations,thechiefdefectsofRestorationcomedyareitsreductionofsentimentandemotiontosillinessanditsfrequentamorality.Reactionagainstthistypeofcomedy,knownasthecomedyofmanners,alreadyhaddevelopedbythetimethatitsgreatestpractitioner,WilliamCongreve,wasdisplayinghissubtleartistryinLoveForLove(1695)andTheWayoftheWorld(1700).Just as Dryden's poetrydefinedthetoneofhistime,sotoodidhiseasy,informal,clearprosestyle,notablyinhisEssayofDramaticPoesie(1668)andinvariousprefacestohisplaysandtranslations.Noteworthyproseofaratherdifferentnaturewasproducedbytwootherfiguresoftheage,SamuelPepysandJohnBunyan.Theappetiteoftheperiodforlifeatalllevels,butparticularlyforthelifeofthesenses,issuggestedbythesecretdiaryofSamuelPepys,ahighofficialoftheAdmiraltyOffice.Thisextraordinarywork,valuableasitisasadocumentofcontemporarytaste,hasmuchtosayoftheprivate,unheroiclifeandlongingsofpeopleofalltimes.AfigureinstrongercontrasttoPepyscouldhardlybeimaginedthanJohnBunyan,aPuritanpreacher,completelyalientothearistocraticandprofessionalworldofletters.BunyanwroteThePilgrim'sProgressfromThisWorldtoThatWhichIstoCome(1stpartpublishedin1678;2ndpart,1684)andTheLifeandDeathofMr.Badman(1680),tworough-hewn,moving,allegoricalnarrativesofthehumanjourneyatthelevelofthefundamentalveritiesoflife,death,andreligion.Thefirstoftheseisnowaliteraryclassic,butinspiteofthepenetratingcharacterizationandvitalityofbothworks,theyinitiallyattainedpopularityonlyamongartisans,merchants,andthepoor. BAgeofPopeIn the age of AlexanderPope(datedfromaboutthedeathofDrydenin1700toPope'sdeathin1744),theclassicalspiritinEnglishliteraturereacheditshighestpoint,andatthesametimeotherforcesbecamemanifest.Dryden'spoetryhadachievedgrandeur,amplitude,andsublimitywithinaparticulardefinitionofgoodtasteandgoodsenseandunderthetutelageoftheRomanandGreekclassics.TothepoetryofPopethischaracterizationappliesevenmorestringently.MorethananyotherEnglishpoet,hesubmittedhimselftotherequirementthattheexpressiveforceofpoeticgeniusshouldissueforthonlyinaformulationasreasonable,lucid,balanced,compressed,final,andperfectasthepowerofhumanreasoncanmakeit.PopedidnothaveDryden'smajesty.Perhaps,givenhispredilectionforcorrectnessofdetail,hecouldnothavehadit.Also,thereadersofsucceedingtimeshaveconcludedthatthedictatesofreasondonotallconvergeononlyonepoeticformula,justastheheroiccouplet,whichPopebroughttofinalperfection,isnotnecessarilythemostgenerallysuitableofEnglishpoeticforms.Nevertheless,theease,harmony,andgraceofPope'spoeticlinearestillimpressive,andhisqualityofprecisebutneverlaboredexpressionofthoughtremainsunequaled.Pope's reputation restsinlargepartonhissatires,buthisdidacticbentledhimtoformulateinverseAnEssayonCriticism(1711)andAnEssayonMan(1732-1734).Theformerattemptstoshowthatpoetrymustbemodeledonnature;buthisconceptionofnature,atraditionalonesharedbyallhiscontemporaries,differsfromthatofsucceedinggenerations.ForPope,naturemeanttherulesthatrightreasonhasdiscoveredtobeimmanentinallthings,sothatwhattheexperienceofreasonablemindsthroughtheageshasshowntobethegreatestpoetry—namely,thatofclassicalantiquity—providesaperfectmodelformoderntimes.AsimilarconservatismreappearsinAnEssayonMan,whichconcludeswiththemuchdebatedgeneralizationthat“Whateveris,isright.”Pope's brilliant satiricmasterpiece,TheRapeoftheLock(1712;revisededition1714),makesanepicthemeofatriflingdrawing-roomepisode:thecontentionarisingfromayounglord'shavingcovertlysnippedalockofhairfromayounglady'shead.Hismostsustainedsatire,TheDunciad(1728;finalversion1743),followsDryden'sMacFlecknoeinitselegantlypointed,oftenmaliciousbutalwayshigh-spiritedmockeryoftheliterarydullardswhowerePope'senemies.Like Dryden, Pope madetranslationsofclassicalworks,notablyoftheIliad,whichwasagreatpopularandfinancialsuccess.HiseditionofShakespeare'sworksbearswitnesstoarangeoftastenotusuallyascribedtohim.It is only natural thatthe18th-centurypreoccupationwiththepowerofreasonandgoodsenseshouldhaveproducedalargenumberofworksinthemoresobermediumofprose.JonathanSwift,whowas,likePope,aToryconservativeforthelatterhalfofhislifeandasatirist,wroteanumberofmordantlysatiricalprosenarrativesinwhichaprofoundanddespairingperceptionofhumanstupiditiesandevilareincontrastwiththesocialcriticism ofhisgreatcontemporaries.Swift'sTaleofaTub(1704)reducesthequarrelsamongthreeimportantreligiousdivisionsofhisdaytoanallegoryofthreedisreputablebrothers.HisgenerousangeronbehalfofthepoorofIrelandproduced“AModestProposal”(1729),inwhich,withhorrifyingmockseriousness,heproposedthatthechildrenofthepoorshouldberaisedforslaughterasfoodfortherich.Hisbest-knownwork,Gulliver'sTravels(1726),purportstobeashipdoctor'saccountofhisvoyagesintostrangeplaces,butinrealityitisacastigationofthehumanrace.TheaccountsofGulliver'sfirsttwovoyagesareoftenreadasachildren'sbook.Thelastpartabandons,however,delicatefancyandunmaskstheselfishandsickbestialityofhumanityintheguiseoftheso-calledYahoos,whoarethesavageandimprovidentservantsofaraceofapparentlyreasonableandnoblehorses,calledHouyhnhnms.Thiswork,likeallofSwift's,iswritteninaproseofunrivaledlucidity,energy,andpolemicalskill.Similarly noteworthy forthequalityoftheirprosearetheSpectatorpapers(1711-1712;1714),writtenmainlybyJosephAddisonandRichardSteele.Publisheddaily,theseessays,likemanyothers,correspondedtothenewlyfeltneedofthedayforpopularjournalism,buttheirenlightenedcommentandtheircriticismofcontemporarysocietyseparatethemfromthemassofsimilarpublications.ThemainintentofAddisonandSteelemaybedefinedintheirownwords:“Toenlivenmoralitywithwit,andtotemperwitwithmorality.”Inaseriesofinformal,conversationalessaysdescribingtheactivitiesofvariousidealrepresentativesofsocialgroups,suchastheTorycountrysquireSirRogerdeCoverleyandtheWhigmerchantSirAndrewFreeport,AddisonandSteelesalvagedandunitedsomeofthebestsidesofthecontemporaryEnglishcharacter.Thelightlyborne,free-and-easymannersofthecourtandtheolderlandedclassesshould,accordingtothesepapers,existsidebysidewiththeindustry,uprightness,anddeeplyfeltmoralityofthenewlyrichcitymerchants.Theamoralityassociatedwiththeoneandthestubbornnarrownessoftheothershoulddisappear.Theemphasisonpublicdecorumandindividualrectitudeandonsympathywithone'sfellowbeingsintheSpectatorpapersisameasureoftheirdistancefromthecoolindifferenceandfrequentlicentiousnessofmuchRestorationliterature,particularlycomedy,althoughthepurposeofbothwastorepresentreason,moderation,andcommonsense.A quite different kindofjournalismisrepresentedbytheworkofthemiddle-classadventurer,hackwriter,andpoliticalagentDanielDefoe.Separatedfromthelifeoftheupperclassesandtheireruditewriters,asBunyanhadbeenbeforehim,heproduced,amongmanypiecesofcommissionedwriting,aseriesofpurportedlytruebutactuallyfictitiousmemoirsandconfessions.Thefirstofthese,andthegreatest,isRobinsonCrusoe(1719),whichreportsthelifeandadventuresofashipwreckedsailor.CAgeofJohnsonThe age of Samuel Johnson,from1744toabout1784,wasatimeofchangingliteraryideals.ThedevelopedclassicismandliteraryconservatismassociatedwithJohnsonfoughtarearguardactionagainstthecultofsentimentandfeelingassociatedinvariousways withtheharbingersofthecomingageofromanticism.JohnsoncomposedpoetrythatcontinuedthetraditionsandformsofPope,butheisbestknownasaprosewriterandasanextraordinarilygiftedconversationalistandliteraryarbiterinthecultivatedurbanlifeofhistime.Hisconservatismandsturdycommonsensearewhatmightbeexpectedgivenhisintellectualtradition,buthisindividualqualityhaslittletodowithliterarytendencies.Hiscuriouslylovableanduprightpersonality,alongwithhisintellectualpreeminenceandidiosyncrasies,havebeenpreservedinthemostfamousofEnglishbiographies,theLifeofSamuelJohnson(1791),byJamesBoswell,aScottishwriterwithanappetiteforliterarycelebrities.Johnson worked his wayupfrompovertybyhonestliterarylabors,amongwhichwashisDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(1755).Agreatsuccess,itwasthefirstsuchworkpreparedaccordingtomodernstandardsoflexicography.LikeAddisonandSteele,Johnsonproducedaseriesofjournalisticessays,TheRambler(1750-1752),butbecauseoftheirsomewhatpedanticstyleandLatinatevocabulary,theylacktheeasyinformalityoftheSpectatorpapersandservetoaccentuatetheoppositionbetweenhisneoclassicalformalityandthesucceedingromanticidealofheart-to-heartcommunication.Johnson'sphilosophicaltaleRasselas(1759),ofwhichthemoralisthat“humanlifeiseverywhereastateinwhichmuchistobeendured,andlittletobeenjoyed,”isreminiscentofSwift(aswellasofhiscontemporarytheFrenchwriterVoltaireinhistaleCandide)initsperceptionofthevanityofhumanwishes.Forallhispessimism,however,theamazingdetail,independence,andintellectualfacilityofJohnson'scriticalbiographiesofEnglishpoetssince1600(LivesofthePoets,1779-1781),writteninhisoldage,showwhatcriticaldiscriminationandintellectualintegritycanaccomplish.Johnson's friend OliverGoldsmithwasacuriousmixtureoftheoldandthenew.HisnovelTheVicarofWakefield(1766)beginswithdryhumorbutpassesquicklyintotearfulcalamity.HispoemTheDesertedVillage(1770)isinformreminiscentofPope,butinthetendernessofitssympathyforthelowerclassesitforeshadowstheromanticage.InsuchplaysasSheStoopstoConquer(1773)Goldsmith,liketheyoungerRichardSheridaninhisSchoolforScandal(1777),demonstratedanoldertraditionofsatiricalqualityandartisticadroitnessthatwastobeanathematoayoungergeneration.The signs of this newerfeeling,whichresultedinromanticism,canbetracedinthepoetryofWilliamCowperandofThomasGray.Thecultivationofapensiveandmelancholysensibilityandtheinterruptionoftheruleoftheheroiccouplet,asinGray's“ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard”(1751),hintattheperiodtocome,asdoesGray'sinterestinmedieval,nonclassicalliterature.Newinterestsareevenmoreobviousinthehighlyoriginalpoetryoftheself-educatedartistandengraverWilliamBlake.Hisworkconsistsinpartofsimple,almostchildlikelyrics(SongsofInnocence,1789),aswellasofpowerfulbutlengthyandobscuredeclarationsofanewmythologicalvisionoflife(TheBookofThel,1789).AllBlake'spoetryexpressesarevoltagainsttheidealofreason(whichheconsidereddestructivetolife)andadvocatesthelifeoffeeling—butinamorevitalandassertivesensethanisthecasewiththeotherpreviouslymentionedpreromantics.SimilarlyrobustandpassionatearethelyricsoftheScottishpoetRobertBurns,whichare characterizedbyhisuseofregionalScottishvernacular.Thesimplicity,forcefulness,andpowerfulemotionoftheancientballadsoftheScottish-Englishborderregion,asrevealedinReliquesofAncientEnglishPoetry(1765),byBishopThomasPercy,werelikewiseinfluentialinthedevelopmentofromanticism.Among writers of the novel—anewlypopularforminthisperiod—anadvocateofsentimentandsimple,innocentfeelingshadalreadyappearedinthepersonofSamuelRichardson.InhissentimentalnovelClarissa(1747-1748),theplightofayoung,innocentgirl,destroyedbythemansheloves,isrepresentedthroughlengthylettersinterchangedamongthecharacters.Thisdevicepermitsanunprecedentedrevelationofmotivesandfeelings.Richardson'scontemporaryHenryFieldingevincedhisconnectionwiththeearliersatiricalspiritinhisnovelJosephAndrews(1742),whichparodiesRichardson'sothernovelofvirtuebesieged,Pamela(1740).Fielding'sgreatestnovel,TomJones(1749),revealsarobustandhealthyspiritofgoodsenseandcomedy,inwhichwell-intentionedvigorwinsoutoverexcessivehypocrisy.Fielding'scontemporary,theScottish-bornTobiasSmollett,wroteanumberofnovelsofpicaresqueadventure,thelastandprobablybestofwhichisHumphryClinker(1771).TheLifeandOpinionsofTristramShandy,Gentleman(1759-1767),themasterpieceofanothergreatBritishnovelistofthecentury,LaurenceSterne,indulgesinthenewcultofsentiment,butbyreasonofitscastofeccentriccharactersandtheskilledweavingofthemostextraordinarybehaviorintothedepictionoftheirpersonalities,thisnovelliesoutsidetheusualhistoricalcategories.VITHEROMANTICAGEExtending from about 1789until1837,theromanticagestressedemotionoverreason.OneobjectiveoftheFrenchRevolution(1789-1799)wastodestroyanoldertraditionthathadcometoseemartificial,andtoasserttheliberty,spirit,andheartfeltunityofthehumanrace.TomanywritersoftheromanticagethisobjectiveseemedequallyappropriateinthefieldofEnglishletters.Inaddition,theromanticageinEnglishliteraturewascharacterizedbythesubordinationofreasontointuitionandpassion,thecultofnaturemuchasthewordisnowunderstoodandnotasPopeunderstoodit,theprimacyoftheindividualwilloversocialnormsofbehavior,thepreferencefortheillusionofimmediateexperienceasopposedtogeneralizedandtypicalexperience,andtheinterestinwhatisdistantintimeandplace.ATheRomanticPoetsThe first important expressionofromanticismwasintheLyricalBallads(1798)ofWilliamWordsworthandSamuelTaylorColeridge,youngmenwhowerearousedtocreativeactivitybytheFrenchRevolution;latertheybecamedisillusionedwithwhatfollowedit.ThepoemsofWordsworthinthisvolumetreatordinarysubjectswithanewfreshnessthatimpartsacertainradiancetothem.Ontheotherhand,Coleridge'smaincontribution,“TheRimeoftheAncientMariner,”masterfullycreatesanillusionofrealityinrelatingstrange, exotic,orobviouslyunrealevents.Thesetwodirectionscharacterizemostofthelaterworksofthetwopoets.For Wordsworth the greatthemeremainedtheworldofsimple,naturalthings,inthecountrysideoramongpeople.Hereproducedthisworldwithsocloseandunderstandinganeyeastoaddahithertounperceivedglorytoit.Hisrepresentationofhumannatureissimilarlysimplebutrevealing.Itisatitsbest,asin“TinternAbbey”or“OdeonIntimationsofImmortality,”whenhespeaksofthemysticalkinshipbetweenquietnatureandthehumansoulandofthespiritualrefreshmentyieldedbyhumanity'ssympatheticcontactwiththerestofGod'screation.NotonlyistheimmediacyofexperienceinthepoetryofWordsworthopposedtoneoclassicalnotions,butalsohispoeticstyleconstitutesarejectionoftheimmediatepoeticpast.Wordsworthcondemnedtheideaofaspecificallypoeticlanguage,suchasthatofneoclassicalpoetry,andhestroveinsteadforwhatheconsideredthemorepowerfuleffectsofordinary,everydaylanguage.Coleridge'snaturalbent,ontheotherhand,wastowardthestrange,theexotic,andthemysterious.UnlikeWordsworth,hewrotefewpoems,andtheseduringaverybriefperiod.Insuchpoemsas“KublaKhan”and“Christabel,”thebeautiesandhorrorsofthefardistantintimeorplaceareevokedinastylethatisneitherneoclassicalnorsimpleinWordsworth'sfashion,butthat,instead,recallsthesplendorandextravaganceoftheElizabethans.AtthesametimeColeridgeachievedanimmediacyofsensationthatsuggeststhenaturalalthoughhiddenaffinitybetweenhimandWordsworth,andtheircommonrejectionofthe18th-centuryspiritinpoetry.Another poet who founddelightinthefardistantintimewasSirWalterScott,who,afterevincinganearlyinterestintheancientballadsofhisnativeScotland,wroteaseriesofnarrativepoemsglorifyingtheactivevirtuesofthesimple,vigorouslifeandcultureofhislandintheMiddleAges,beforeithadbeenaffectedbymoderncivilization.InsuchofthesepoemsasTheLadyoftheLake(1810)heemployedastyleoflittleoriginality.Hiswork,however,wasthemorepopularamonghisimmediatecontemporariesforthatveryreason,longbeforethefullstatureofWordsworth'smoreimpressivepoetrywasrecognized.SomeofScott'sWaverleynovels,aseriesofhistoricalworks,havegivenhimamorepermanentreputationasawriterofprose.A second generation ofromanticpoetsremainedrevolutionaryinsomesensethroughouttheirpoeticcareers,unlikeColeridge,Wordsworth,andScott.GeorgeGordon,LordByron,isoneoftheexemplarsofapersonalityintragicrevoltagainstsociety.Asinhisstormypersonallife,soalsoinsuchpoemsasChildeHarold'sPilgrimage(1812)andDonJuan(1819-1824),thisgenerousbutegotisticalaristocratrevealedwithunevenpathosorwithstrikingironyandcynicismthevagrantfeelingsandactionsofgreatsoulscaughtinapettyworld.Byron'ssatiricalspiritandstrongsenseofsocialrealismkepthimapartfromotherEnglishromantics;unliketherest,heproclaimed,forexample,ahighregardforPope,whomhesometimesimitated.The other great poet-revolutionaryofthetime,PercyByssheShelley,seemsmuchclosertothegrandlyseriousspiritoftheotherromantics.Hismostthoughtfulpoetryexpresses histwomainideas,thattheexternaltyrannyofrulers,customs,orsuperstitionsisthemainenemy,andthatinherenthumangoodnesswill,soonerorlater,eliminateevilfromtheworldandusherinaneternalreignoftranscendentlove.Itis,perhaps,inPrometheusUnbound(1820)thattheseideasaremostcompletelyexpressed,althoughShelley'smoreobviouspoeticqualities—thenaturalcorrespondenceofmetricalstructuretomood,thepowerofshapingeffectiveabstractions,andhisetherealidealism—canbestudiedinawholerangeofpoems,from“OdetotheWestWind”and“ToaSkylark”totheelegy“Adonais,”writtenforJohnKeats,theyoungestofthegreatromantics.More than that of anyoftheotherromantics,Keats'spoetryisaresponsetosensuousimpressions.Hefoundneitherthetimenortheinclinationtoelaborateacompletemoralorsocialphilosophyinhispoetry.Insuchpoemsas“TheEveofSt.Agnes,”“OdeonaGrecianUrn,”and“OdetoaNightingale,”allwrittenabout1819,heshowedanunrivaledawarenessofimmediatesensationandanunequaledabilitytoreproduceit.Between1818and1821,duringthelastfewyearsofhisshortlife,thisspirituallyrobust,active,andwonderfullyreceptivewriterproducedallhispoetry.HisworkhadamoreprofoundinfluencethanthatofanyotherromanticinwideningthesensuousrealmofpoetryfortheVictorianslaterinthecentury.BRomanticProseCertain romantic proseparallelsthepoetryoftheperiodinanumberofways.TheevolutionoffundamentallynewcriticalprinciplesinliteratureisthemainachievementofColeridge'sBiographialiteraria(1817),butlikeCharlesLamb(SpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets,1808)andWilliamHazlitt(CharactersofShakespeare'sPlays,1817),Coleridgealsowrotealargeamountofpracticalcriticism,muchofwhichhelpedtoelevatethereputationsofRenaissancedramatistsandpoetsneglectedinthe18thcentury.Lambisfamousalsoforhisoccasionalessays,theEssaysofElia(1823,1833).Aninfluentialromanticexperimentintheachievementofarichpoeticqualityinproseisthephantasmagoric,impassionedautobiographyofThomasDeQuincey,ConfessionsofanEnglishOpium-Eater(1821).VIITHEVICTORIANERAThe Victorian era, fromthecoronationofQueenVictoriain1837untilherdeathin1901,wasaneraofseveralunsettlingsocialdevelopmentsthatforcedwritersmorethaneverbeforetotakepositionsontheimmediateissuesanimatingtherestofsociety.Thus,althoughromanticformsofexpressioninpoetryandprosecontinuedtodominateEnglishliteraturethroughoutmuchofthecentury,theattentionofmanywriterswasdirected,sometimespassionately,tosuchissuesasthegrowthofEnglishdemocracy,theeducationofthemasses,theprogressofindustrialenterpriseandtheconsequentriseofamaterialisticphilosophy,andtheplightofthenewlyindustrializedworker.Inaddition,theunsettlingofreligiousbeliefbynewadvancesinscience,particularlythetheoryof evolutionandthehistoricalstudyoftheBible,drewotherwritersawayfromtheimmemorialsubjectsofliteratureintoconsiderationsofproblemsoffaithandtruth.ANonfictionThe historian Thomas BabingtonMacaulay,inhisHistoryofEngland(5volumes,1848-1861)andevenmoreinhisCriticalandHistoricalEssays(1843),expressedthecomplacencyoftheEnglishmiddleclassesovertheirnewprosperityandgrowingpoliticalpower.TheclarityandbalanceofMacaulay'sstyle,whichreflectshispracticalfamiliaritywithparliamentarydebate,standsincontrasttothesensitivityandbeautyoftheproseofJohnHenryNewman.Newman'smaineffort,unlikeMacaulay's,wastodrawpeopleawayfromthematerialismandskepticismoftheagebacktoapurifiedChristianfaith.Hismostfamouswork,Apologiaprovitasua(ApologyforHisLife,1864),describeswithpsychologicalsubtletyandcharmthebasisofhisreligiousopinionsandthereasonsforhischangefromtheAnglicantotheRomanCatholicchurch.Similarly alienated bythematerialismandcommercialismoftheperiod,ThomasCarlyle,anotherofthegreatVictorians,advancedaheroicphilosophyofwork,courage,andthecultivationofthegodlikeinhumanbeings,bymeansofwhichlifemightrecoveritstrueworthandnobility.Thisview,borrowedinpartfromGermanidealistphilosophy,Carlyleexpressedinavehement,idiosyncraticstyleinsuchworksasSartorResartus(TheTailorRetailored,1833-1834)andOnHeroes,Hero-Worship,andtheHeroicinHistory(1841).Other answers to socialproblemswerepresentedbytwofineVictorianprosewritersofadifferentstamp.ThesocialcriticismoftheartcriticJohnRuskinlookedtothecuringoftheillsofindustrialsocietyandcapitalismastheonlypathtobeautyandvitalityinthenationallife.TheescapefromsocialproblemsintoaesthetichedonismwasthecontributionoftheOxfordscholarWalterPater.BPoetryThe three notable poetsoftheVictorianAgebecamesimilarlyabsorbedinsocialissues.Beginningasapoetofpureromanticescapism,Alfred,LordTennyson,soonmovedontoproblemsofreligiousfaith,socialchange,andpoliticalpower,asin“LocksleyHall,”theelegyInMemoriam(1850),andIdyllsoftheKing(1859-1885).Allthecharacteristicmoodsofhispoetry,frombroodingsplendortolyricalsweetness,areexpressedwithsmoothtechnicalmastery.Hisstyle,aswellashispeculiarlyEnglishconservatism,standsinsomecontrasttotheintellectualityandbracingharshnessofthepoetryofRobertBrowning.Browning'smostimportantshortpoemsarecollectedinDramaticRomancesandLyrics(1841-1846)andMenandWomen(1855).MatthewArnold,thethirdofthesemid-Victorianpoets,standsapartfromthemasamoresubtleandbalancedthinker;hisliterarycriticism(EssaysinCriticism,1865,1888)isthemostremarkablewritteninVictoriantimes.Hispoetrydisplaysasorrowful,disillusionedpessimismoverthehuman plightinrapidlychangingtimes(forexample,“DoverBeach,”1867),apessimismcountered,however,byastrongsenseofduty.Amonganumberoflesserpoets,AlgernonCharlesSwinburneshowedanescapistaestheticism,somewhatsimilartoPater's,insensuousverserichinverbalmusicbutsomewhatdiffuseandpallidinitsexpressionofemotion.ThepoetDanteGabrielRossettiandthepoet,artist,andsocialistreformerWilliamMorriswereassociatedwiththePre-Raphaelitemovement,theadherentsofwhichhopedtoinaugurateanewperiodofhonestcraftandspiritualtruthinpropertyandpainting.Despitetheotherworldlyorarchaiccharacteroftheirromanticpoetry,Morris,atleast,foundasocialpurposeinhisdesignsforhouseholdobjects,whichprofoundlyinfluencedcontemporarytaste.CTheVictorianNovelThe novel gradually becamethedominantforminliteratureduringtheVictorianAge.Afairlyconstantaccompanimentofthisdevelopmentwastheyieldingofromanticismtoliteraryrealism,theaccurateobservationofindividualproblemsandsocialrelationships.ThecloseobservationofarestrictedsocialmilieuinthenovelsofJaneAustenearlyinthecentury(PrideandPrejudice,1813;Emma,1816)hadbeenaharbingerofwhatwastocome.TheromantichistoricalnovelsofSirWalterScott,aboutthesametime(Ivanhoe,1819),typified,however,thespiritagainstwhichtherealistslaterweretoreact.ItwasonlyintheVictoriannovelistsCharlesDickensandWilliamMakepeaceThackeraythatthenewspiritofrealismcametothefore.Dickens'snovelsofcontemporarylife(OliverTwist,1838;DavidCopperfield,1849-1850;GreatExpectations,1861;OurMutualFriend,1865)exhibitanastonishingabilitytocreatelivingcharacters;hisgraphicexposuresofsocialevilsandhispowersofcaricatureandhumorhavewonhimavastreadership.Thackeray,ontheotherhand,indulgedlessinthesentimentalitysometimesfoundinDickens'sworks.Hewasalsocapableofgreatersubtletyofcharacterization,ashisVanityFair(1847-1848)shows.Nevertheless,therestrictionofconcerninThackeray'snovelstomiddle-andupper-classlife,andhislessercreativepower,renderhimsecondtoDickensinmanyreaders'minds.Other important figuresinthemainstreamoftheVictoriannovelwerenotableforavarietyofreasons.AnthonyTrollopewasdistinguishedforhisgentlyironicsurveysofEnglishecclesiasticalandpoliticalcircles;EmilyBrontë,forherpenetratingstudyofpassionatecharacter;GeorgeEliot,forherresponsibleidealism;GeorgeMeredith,forasophisticated,detached,andironicalviewofhumannature;andThomasHardy,foraprofoundlypessimisticsenseofhumansubjectiontofateandcircumstance.A second and younger groupofnovelists,manyofwhomcontinuedtheirimportantworkintothe20thcentury,displayedtwonewtendencies.RobertLouisStevenson,RudyardKipling,andJosephConradtriedinvariouswaystorestorethespiritofromancetothenovel,inpartbyachoiceofexoticlocale,inpartbyarticulatingtheirthemesthroughplotsofadventureandaction.Kiplingattainedfamealsoforhisverseandforhismasteryofthesingle,concentratedeffectintheshortstory.Anothertendency,inasensean intensificationofrealism,wascommontoArnoldBennett,JohnGalsworthy,andH.G.Wells.Thesenovelistsattemptedtorepresentthelifeoftheirtimewithgreataccuracyandinacritical,partlypropagandisticspirit.Wells'snovels,forexample,oftenseemtobesociologicalinvestigationsoftheillsofmoderncivilizationratherthanself-containedstories.D19th-CenturyDramaThe same spirit of socialcriticisminspiredtheplaysoftheIrish-bornGeorgeBernardShaw,whodidmorethananyoneelsetoawakenthedramafromits19th-centurysomnolence.Inaseriesofpowerfulplaysthatmadeuseofthelatesteconomicandsociologicaltheories,heexposedwithenormoussatiricalskillthesicknessandfatuitiesofindividualsandsocietiesinEnglandandtherestofthemodernworld.ManandSuperman(1903),AndroclesandtheLion(1913),HeartbreakHouse(1919),andBacktoMethuselah(1921)arenotableamonghisworks.Hisfinalprescriptionforacure,aphilosophyofcreativeevolutionbywhichhumanbeingsshouldintimesurpassthebiologicallimitofspecies,showedhimgoingbeyondthelimitsofsociologicalrealismintovisionarywriting.VIIILITERATUREOFTHE20TH-CENTURYTOTHEPRESENTTwo world wars, an interveningeconomicdepressionofgreatseverity,andtheausterityoflifeinBritainfollowingthesecondofthesewarshelptoexplainthequalityanddirectionofEnglishliteratureinthe20thcentury.ThetraditionalvaluesofWesterncivilization,whichtheVictorianshadonlybeguntoquestion,cametobequestionedseriouslybyanumberofnewwriters,whosawsocietybreakingdownaroundthem.Traditionalliteraryformswereoftendiscarded,andnewonessucceededoneanotherwithbewilderingrapidity,aswriterssoughtfresherwaysofexpressingwhattheytooktobenewkindsofexperience,orexperienceseeninnewways.APost-WorldWarIFictionAmong novelists and short-storywriters,AldousHuxleybestexpressedthesenseofdisillusionmentandhopelessnessintheperiodafterWorldWarI(1914-1918)inhisPointCounterPoint(1928).Thisnoveliscomposedinsuchawaythattheeventsoftheplotformacontrapuntalpatternthatisadeparturefromthestraightforwardstorytellingtechniqueoftherealisticnovel.Before Huxley, and indeedbeforethewar,thesensitivelywrittennovelsofE.M.Forster(ARoomwithaView,1908;HowardsEnd,1910)hadexposedthehollownessanddeadnessofbothabstractintellectualityandupper-classsociallife.Forsterhadcalledforareturntoasimple,intuitiverelianceonthesensesandforasatisfactionoftheneedsofone'sphysicalbeing.Hismostfamousnovel,APassagetoIndia(1924),combinesthesethemes withanexaminationofthesocialdistanceseparatingtheEnglishrulingclassesfromthenativeinhabitantsofIndiaandshowstheimpossibilityofcontinuedBritishrulethere.D. H. Lawrence similarlyrelatedhissenseoftheneedforareturnfromthecomplexities,overintellectualism,andcoldmaterialismofmodernlifetotheprimitive,unconsciousspringsofvitalityoftherace.Hisnumerousnovelsandshortstories,amongwhichsomeofthebestknownareSonsandLovers(1913),WomeninLove(1921),ThePlumedSerpent(1926),andLadyChatterley'sLover(1928),areforthemostpartmoreclearlyexperimentalthanForster's.TheobvioussymbolismofLawrence'splotsandtheforceful,straightforwardpreachingofhismessagebrokethebondsofrealismandreplacedthemwiththedirectprojectionoftheauthor'sowndynamicallycreativespirit.Hisdistinguishedbutunevenpoetrysimilarlydesertedthefixedformsofthepasttoachieveafreer,morenatural,andmoredirectexpressionoftheperceptionsofthewriter.Even more experimentalandunorthodoxthanLawrence'snovelswerethoseoftheIrishwriterJamesJoyce.InhisnovelUlysses(1922)hefocusedontheeventsofasingledayandrelatedthemtooneanotherinthematicpatternsbasedonGreekmythology.InFinnegansWake(1939)Joycewentbeyondthistocreateawholenewvocabularyofpunsandportmanteau(merged)wordsfromtheelementsofmanylanguagesandtodeviseasimpledomesticnarrativefromtheinterwovenpartsofmanymythsandtraditions.InsomeoftheseexperimentshisnovelswereparalleledbythoseofVirginiaWoolf,whoseMrs.Dalloway(1925)andTotheLighthouse(1927)skillfullyimitated,bytheso-calledstream-of-consciousnesstechnique,thecomplexityofimmediate,evanescentlifeexperiencedfrommomenttomoment.DameIvyCompton-Burnettappealstoasmallbutdiscerningreadershipwithheridiosyncraticdissectionsoffamilyrelationships,toldalmostentirelyinsparsedialogue;hernovelsincludeBrothersandSisters(1929),MenandWives(1931),andTwoWorldsandTheirWays(1949).Among young novelists,EvelynWaugh,likeAldousHuxley,satirizedthefoiblesofsocietyinthe1920sinDeclineandFall(1928).Hislaternovels,similarlysatiricalandextravagant,showedadeepeningmoraltone,asinTheLovedOne(1948)andBridesheadRevisited(1945).GrahamGreene,likeWaughaconverttoRomanCatholicism,investigatedinhismoreseriousnovelstheproblemofevilinhumanlife(TheHeartoftheMatter,1948;ABurnt-OutCase,1961;TheComedians,1966).MuchofthereputationofGeorgeOrwellrestsontwoworksoffiction,oneanallegory(AnimalFarm,1945),theotheramordantsatire(NineteenEighty-Four,1949)—bothdirectedagainstthedangersoftotalitarianism.Thesameanguishedconcernaboutthefateofsocietyisattheheartofhisnonfiction,especiallyinsuchvividreportingasTheRoadtoWiganPier(1937),anaccountoflifeinthecoal-miningregionsofnorthernEnglandduringtheGreatDepression,andHomagetoCatalonia(1938),abouttheSpanishCivilWar.BFictionafterWorldWarII No clearly definable trendshaveappearedinEnglishfictionsincethetimeofthepost-WorldWarIIschoolofwriters,theso-calledangryyoungmenofthe1950sand1960s.Thisgroup,whichincludedthenovelistsKingsleyAmis,JohnWain,andJohnBraine,attackedoutmodedsocialvaluesleftoverfromtheprewarworld.AlthoughAmiscontinuedtowriteintothe1990s,hissatiricalnovelLuckyJim(1954)remainshismostpopularwork.Theworking-classorlower-middleclassrealismintheworkoftheangryyoungmengavewayinthe1960sand1970stoalessprovincialemphasisinEnglishfiction.Anthony Powell, a friendandOxfordclassmateofEvelynWaugh,alsowrotewittilyaboutthehigherechelonsofEnglishsociety,butwithmoreaffectionandonabroadercanvas.His12-volumeseriesofnovels,groupedunderthetitleADancetotheMusicofTime(1951-1975),isahighlyreadableaccountoftheintertwinedlivesandcareersofpeopleintheartsandpoliticsfrombeforeWorldWarIItomanyyearsafterward.Hisfour-volumeautobiography,ToKeeptheBallRolling(1977-1983),complementsthefictionalizeddetailsthatformthebasisofhisnovels.In the 1970s interestfocusedonwritersasdisparateintheirconcernsandstylesasV.S.PritchettandDorisLessing.Pritchett,consideredamasteroftheshortstory(CompleteStories,1990),isalsonotedasaliterarycriticofremarkableerudition.Hiseasybutelegant,supplestyleilluminatedbothformsofwriting.LessingmovedfromtheearlyshortstoriescollectedasAfricanStories(1965)tonovelsincreasinglyexperimentalinformandconcernedwiththeroleofwomenincontemporarysociety.NotableamongtheseisTheGoldenNotebook(1962),aboutawomanwritercomingtogripswithlifethroughherart.In1983shecompletedaseriesoffivescience-fictionnovelsunderthecollectivetitleCanopusinArgus:Archives.Iris Murdoch, who wasateacherofphilosophyaswellasawriter,isesteemedforslylycomicanalysesofcontemporarylivesinhermanynovelsbeginningwithUndertheNet(1954)andcontinuingwithASeveredHead(1961),TheBlackPrince(1973),NunsandSoldiers(1980),andTheGoodApprentice(1986).Hereffectsaremadebythecontrastbetweenhereccentriccharactersandtheunderlyingseriousnessofherideas.OtherwritersnotedfornovelsofideasareMargaretDrabbleandhersister,A.S.Byatt.DrabblehasexploredthepredicamentofcontemporaryeducatedwomeninsuchnovelsasTheRealmsofGold(1975)andTheGatesofIvory(1991).SheinvestigatedthedilemmasfacedbyintelligentwomenenteringlatemiddleagealoneinTheSevenSisters(2002)andotherrecentnovels.ByattwontheBookerPrize,England’shighestliteraryaward,forPossession(1990),aboutaromanticinvolvementbetweentwoacademics.ShecompletedanambitiousquartetofnovelstracingchangingpatternsoffamilylifeinEnglandfromthe1950stothe1970swithAWhistlingWoman(2002).ArthistorianAnitaBrooknerwritesofwomeninsearchofhumanconnectionandestablishedherreputationwithHotelduLac(1984),whichwontheBookerPrize.Other distinctive talentsofthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyincludeAnthonyBurgess,novelistandmanofletters,mostpopularforhismordantnovelofteenageviolence,AClockworkOrange(1962),whichwasmadeintoasuccessfulmotionpicturein1971;and JohnLeCarré(pseudonymofDavidCornwell),whowonpopularityforingeniouslycomplexespionagetales,looselybasedonhisownexperienceintheBritishforeignservice.Burgess’sprolificoutputendedwithADeadManinDeptford(1993),whichvividlyrecreatesthelifeandtimesof16th-centuryplaywrightChristopherMarlowe.LeCarré’snovelsincludeTheSpyWhoCameinfromtheCold(1963),Tinker,Tailor,Soldier,Spy(1974),TheRussiaHouse(1989),andTheConstantGardener(2001).WilliamGoldingdisplayedawideinventiverangeinfictionthatexploreshumanevil:theallegoricalLordoftheFlies(1954);TheInheritors(1955),aboutNeandertallife;TheSpire(1964);andThePaperMen(1984),aboutanEnglishnovelist'scruelbehaviortoanAmericanscholar.GoldingwontheNobelPrizeinliteraturein1983.John Fowles produced severalhighlyexperimentalnovels,includingTheFrenchLieutenant’sWoman(1969),inwhichhebringsthefictionalnatureofthenoveltotheforeground,andAMaggot(1985),amysterysetinthe18thcentury.JulianBarnesestablishedhisreputationwithFlaubert’sParrot(1984),whichisaboutscholarshipandobsession,andfolloweditwithotherexperimentalandsatiricworks,includingEngland,England(1999).Dark humor permeates thenovelsofMurielSpark,whoisbestknownforThePrimeofMissJeanBrodie(1961),aboutaschoolteacherwhoturnsoutnottobewhatsheseems.Itwassuccessfullyadaptedforstageandscreen,withactressMaggieSmithintheroleofBrodie.Darknesswasthedominantmodeofmuchofthefictionofthe1980sand1990s.MartinAmis,sonofKingsleyAmis,producedferocioussatiresofmodernsocietyinsuchworksasMoney:ASuicideNote(1984)andTheInformation(1995).ShortstoriesandnovelsbyIanMcEwanhavedealtwithmomentsofextremecrisis,aswhenhischaractersfacetheirownmortalityinAmsterdam(1998),whichwontheBookerPrize.InAtonement(2002),whichwontheNationalBookCriticsCircleAward,McEwandealswithachild’sliesandherlaterattemptstocometotermswiththembywritingfiction.Anothercomicnovelist,WilliamBoyd,hadanimmediatesuccesswithAGoodManinAfrica(1981),aboutaBritishdiplomatwhousessexandalcoholtocounteractboredomwithhumorousresults.Boyd’sAnyHumanHeart(2002)chronicledinatongue-in-cheekmannerthedeclineoftheBritishwayoflifeduringthe20thcentury.Rose Tremain visited overlookedareasofthepastforherquirkyhistoricalnovels,suchasMusicandSilence(1999),setinthe17th-centurycourtofthekingofDenmark,ChristianIV,andTheColour(2003),setinNewZealandduringthe19th-centurygoldrush.BerylBainbridgealsominedthepast,butfromunusualviewpoints,inEveryManforHimself(1996)andAccordingtoQueeney(2001).EveryManforHimself,whichtakesplaceduringthevoyageandsinkingoftheTitanicin1912,isnarratedbyanassistanttothedoomedship’sdesigner.AccordingtoQueeneyportraysBritishlexicographerSamuelJohnsonasobservedbyhisfriendstheThralesandtheirdaughterQueeney.MichaelFaberproducedacontemporarynovelofVictorianEngland,TheCrimsonPetalandtheRose(2002).ThenovelsofPenelopeFitzgeraldreflectedabiographer'sskillofcreatinganextremelyvividpictureofhersubjects'livesandincludedTheBookshop(1978),Offshore(1979,winneroftheBookerPrize),andTheBlueFlower(1995). Other perspectives reinvigoratingEnglishfictioninthelate20thcenturycamefromnovelistsbornoutsideEngland;someofthesenovelslookedatcolonialismoritsaftereffects.V.S.NaipaulproducedthesemiautobiographicalnovelTheEnigmaofArrival(1987),aboutawriter’smigrationfromtheBritishcolonyofTrinidadtotheEnglishcountryside.SouthAfricanNadineGordimer,whowonthe1991NobelPrize,wroteofconflictinasocietydividedbyrace.English-educatedRuthPrawerJhabvalabasedmanyofhercomediesofmannersonherobservationsasaEuropeanlivinginIndia.Indian-bornSalmanRushdiesatirizedsocietyinsuchnovelsasMidnight’sChildren(1981)anddrewthecondemnationofIslamicfundamentalistsforSatanicVerses(1988).British-bornKazuoIshiguro,ofJapaneseancestry,elegantlyportrayedupper-classEnglishsocietyofthe1930sthroughtheeyesofabutlerinhisbest-knownnovel,TheRemainsoftheDay(1989).AnitaDesai,whochroniclesIndiansociety,counterpointsIndianandAmericancultureinFasting,Feasting(1999).ZadieSmith,thoughBritishborn,lookedatthelivesofimmigrantandmixedracefamiliesincontemporaryLondoninherdazzlingfirstnovel,WhiteTeeth(2000).Shecontinuedtoexploreethnicityinhersecondnovel,TheAutographMan(2002).CModernPoetryTwo of the most remarkablepoetsofthemodernperiodcombinedtraditionandexperimentintheirwork.TheIrishwriterWilliamButlerYeatswasthemoretraditional.Inhisromanticpoetry,writtenbeforetheturnofthecentury,heexploitedancientIrishtraditionsandthengraduallydevelopedapowerfullyhonest,profound,andrichpoeticidiom,atitsmaturityinTheTower(1928)andTheWindingStair(1933).Theyoungerpoet,T.S.Eliot,bornintheUnitedStates,achievedmoreimmediateacclaimwithTheWasteLand(1922),themostfamouspoemoftheearlypartofthecentury.Throughamassofsymbolicassociationswithlegendaryandhistoricalevents,Eliotexpresseshisdespairoverthesterilityofmodernlife.HismovementtowardreligiousfaithdisplayeditselfinFourQuartets(1943).Hissurprisingcombinationofcolloquialandliterarydiction,hisfusingofantitheticalmoods,andhisstartling,complexmetaphoricaljuxtapositionsrelatehim,amongEnglishpoets,toJohnDonne.Eliot'sstylewasintimatelyinfluencedbyhisstudyofsuchFrenchpoetsasJulesLaforgueandSaint-JohnPerse.Eliot'sessays,promulgatingastyleofpoetryinwhichsoundandsenseareassociated,wereprobablythemostinfluentialworkinliterarycriticisminthefirsthalfofthecentury.Both Yeats and Eliot exercisedenormousinfluenceonmodernpoets.AthirdinfluencewasthatofGerardManleyHopkins,aVictorianpoetwhoseworkwasnotintroducedtotheworlduntil1918.TheconflictbetweenhisRomanCatholicismandhissenseofthebeautyofthisworld,andhiscomplicatedexperimentsinmetricsandvocabularyhaveattractedmuchattention.Of the many poets stimulatedtoindignantversebyWorldWarI,SiegfriedSassoon,WilfredOwen,andRobertGravesrankamongthemostlastinglyimportant.Graves'sabilitytoproducepureandclassicallyperfectpoetrykepthisreputationstronglongafter WorldWarII.Hishistoricalnovels,suchasI,ClaudiusandClaudiustheGod(both1934),alsohelpedtomaintainhispopularity.TheverseofDameEdithSitwell,whocommunicatedherdisdainofcommonplaceproprietyasmuchbythearistocraticindividualismofherpersonalattitudesasbyherpoetry,wasfirstpublishedduringWorldWarI;herexperimentalismhadlittledirectlytodo,however,withsocialproblems.Extravagantlyimaginativemetaphorsafterthemannerofthemetaphysicalpoets,andconsciousdistortionofsenseimpressions,somewhatasinmodernpainting,wereamongherpoeticdevices.AfterWorldWarIIshewrotemorecompassionateandmovingpoetry,asinTheCanticleoftheSun(1949)andTheOutcasts(1962).The succeeding generationofpoets,identifiedinthepopularconsciousnesswiththedepressionandsocialupheavalofthe1930s,madeuseatfirstofsomuchprivateoresotericsymbolismastorenderthepoetrybarelyintelligibletoanybutasmallcoterieofreaders.Thebestknownofthese—W.H.Auden,StephenSpender,andC.DayLewis—filledtheirearlierpoetrywithpoliticalandideologicaldiscussionandwithexpressionsofhorroratbourgeoissocietyandnascenttotalitarianism.AftersuchverseplaysasTheAscentofF-6,writtenin1936incollaborationwithChristopherIsherwood,Auden'spoetrybecamemorereflectiveinTheDoubleMan(1941)and,later,CityWithoutWalls(1969).So,too,DayLewismovedfromTheMagneticMountain(1935)toamorepersonallyricisminWorldAboveAll(1943).HisPoeticImage(1947)wasaproseexpositionofthemodernpoeticideal.Thepositionofpoetlaureate,heldbyDayLewisfrom1968to1972,subsequentlypassedtoSirJohnBetjeman,popularforhisnostalgichumor.Experimentalism continuedintheexuberantlymetaphoricalpoetryoftheWelshwriterDylanThomas,whosealmostmysticalloveoflifeandunderstandingofdeathwereexpressedinsomeofthemostbeautifulverseofthemiddleofthecentury.AfterThomas'sdeathin1953,anewgenerationofBritishpoetsemerged,someinfluencedbyhimandsomereactingagainsthisinfluence.AmongtheleadingpoetsofthatgenerationwereD.J.Enright,PhilipLarkin,JohnWain,ThomGunn,andTedHughes.Althoughtheyhaddifferentstyles,thesepoetsconstitutedwhatbecameknownasTheMovementandsoughttoappealtothecommonreaderwithanonsentimentalpoetryoftheeveryday,writtenincolloquiallanguage.Larkin(CollectedPoems,1988)oftenwroteofdeprivationandabsence.Hughes,whosepoetryisnotedforitsdepictionofthesavageryoflife,becameoneofEngland’smostsignificantpoetsandwasmadepoetlaureatein1984afterthedeathofBetjeman.PoetandcriticAndrewMotionwasnamedpoetlaureatein1999,followingHughes’sdeath.Prominent British poetsofthelate20thcenturyincludedCraigRaine,WendyCope,JamesFenton,andSeamusHeaney.Raine’searlycollection,AMartianSendsaPostcardHome(1979),bringsafreshviewpointtomanytopics.WendyCope’swittyinsightsappearinMakingCocoaforKingsleyAmis(1986).Fenton’scollectionOutofDanger(1994)coverslove,war,andthepoliticalviolenceheencounteredasawarcorrespondentinsoutheastAsia.Heaney,fromNorthernIreland,wonthe1995NobelPrizeinliterature.Althoughhis poetryappearssimpleinitslanguageandflow,itsstructureandreferencesareoftencomplex.DModernDramaAside from the later playsofGeorgeBernardShaw,themostimportantdramaproducedinEnglishinthefirstquarterofthe20thcenturycamefromanotherIrishwriter,SeanO'Casey,whocontinuedthemovementknownastheIrishRenaissance.OtherplaywrightsoftheperiodwereJamesMatthewBarrie,JohnGalsworthy,SomersetMaugham,andSirNoelCoward.Beginninginthe1950stheso-calledangryyoungmenbecameanew,salientforceinEnglishdrama.ThedramatistsJohnOsborne,ArnoldWesker,ShelaghDelaney,andJohnArdenfocusedtheirattentionontheworkingclasses,portrayingthedrabness,mediocrity,andinjusticeinthelivesofthesepeople.Although Harold PinterandtheIrishwriterBrendanBehanalsowroteplayssetinaworking-classenvironment,theystandapartfromtheangryyoungmen.InsuchworksasTheBirthdayParty(1957)andBetrayal(1979)Pinterseemstoofferreasonableinterpretationsofhischaracters'behavior,onlytowithdrawtheinterpretationsorsetthemslightlyaskewinanefforttokeeptheaudienceintentoneveryleasthintintheactiononstage.OutsidetheliterarymainstreamwastheIrish-bornnovelist-dramatistSamuelBeckett,recipientin1969oftheNobelPrizeinliterature.LongaresidentinFrance,hewrotehislaconic,ambiguouslysymbolicworksinFrenchandtranslatedthemhimselfintoEnglish(WaitingforGodot,play,1952;HowItIs,novel,1964).Both English and AmericanaudienceshaveenthusiasticallyreceivedtheplaysofJoeOrtonandTomStoppard.Orton'sEntertainingMr.Sloane(1964),Loot(1967),andWhattheButlerSaw(1969)arefarcesdealingwiththeperversenessofmodernmorality;dazzlingverbalingenuitydistinguishesStoppard'sRosencrantzandGuildensternAreDead(1966),Travesties(1974),andTheRealThing(1982).Stoppard’sinventivenesscontinuedinhislaterplaysthatexploresuchnonliteraryideasasquantummechanics(Hapgood,1988)andentropy—nature’stendencytowarddisorder—(Arcadia,1993).Stoppard’strilogy,TheCoastofUtopia(2002),chronicledconflictingviewsamongradicalsin19th-centurytsaristRussia.MichaelFrayn,best-knownforhiscomedyNoisesOff(1981)aboutthetheater,basedtheplayCopenhagen(1998)ona1941meetingbetweentwophysicistsinvolvedinatom-bombresearchonoppositesidesduringWorldWarII.Other important BritishdramatistsofthelatecenturyincludedAlanAyckbourn,CarylChurchill,andDavidHare.Ayckbournwrotefarcicaldramasaboutmiddle-classanxieties,includingAbsurdPersonSingular(1973)andCommunicatingDoors(1995).ChurchillfocusedongenderandeconomicsinprovocativeplayssuchasCloud9(1979)andSeriousMoney(1987)andpresentedableakfutureofbarbarisminFarAway(2000).Hare’spoliticallyengagedplaysincludePlenty(1978),asatireaboutpostwarBritain,andTheJudasKiss(1998),aboutthedownfallofplaywrightOscarWilde. SeealsoDrama and Dramatic Arts;separatearticlesonliteraryformsandmovements.