《六级快速快速阅读训练》由会员上传分享，免费在线阅读，更多相关内容在教育资源-天天文库。
六级快速快速阅读训练Passage1:TheNextSocietyTheneweconomymayormaynotmaterialize,butthereisnodoubtthatthenextsocietywillbewithusshortly.Inthedevelopedworld,andprobablyintheemergingcountriesaswell,thisnewsocietywillbeagooddealmoreimportantthantheneweconomy(ifany).Itwillbequitedifferentfromthesocietyofthelate20thcentury,andalsodifferentfromwhatmostpeopleexpect.Muchofitwillbeunprecedented.Andmostofitisalreadyhere,orisrapidlyemerging.Inthedevelopedcountries,thedominantfactorinthenextsocietywillbesomethingtowhichmostpeopleareonlyjustbeginningtopayattention:therapidgrowthintheolderpopulationandtherapidshrinkingoftheyoungergeneration.Politicianseverywherestillpromisetosavetheexistingpensionsystem,butthey--andtheirconstituents--knowperfectlywellthatinanother25yearspeoplewillhavetokeepworkinguntiltheirmid-70s,healthpermitting.Whathasnotyetsunkinisthatagrowingnumberofolderpeople--saythoseover50--willnotkeeponworkingastraditionalfulltimenine-to-fiveemployees,butwillparticipateinthelaborforceinmanynewanddifferentways:astemporaries,aspart-timers,asconsultantsonspecialassignments,andsoon.Whatusedtobepersonnelandarenowknownashumanresourcesdepartmentsstillassumethatthosewhoworkforanorganizationarefull-timeemployees.Employmentlawsandregulationsarebasedonthesameassumption.Within20or25years,however,perhapsasmanyashalfthepeoplewhoworkforanorganizationwillnotbeemployedbyit,certainlynotonafull-timebasis.Thiswillbeespeciallytrueforolderpeople.Newwaysofworkingwithpeopleatarm'slengthwillincreasinglybecomethecentralmanagerialissueofemployingorganizations,andnotjustofbusinesses.Theshrinkingoftheyoungerpopulationwillcauseanevengreaterupheaval,ifonlybecausenothinglikethishashappenedsincethedyingcenturiesoftheRomanEmpire.Ineverysingledevelopedcountry,butalsoinChinaandBrazil,thebirthrateisnowwellbelowthereplacementrateof2.2livebirthsperwomanofreproductiveage.Politically,thismeansthatimmigrationwillbecomeanimportantandhighlydivisiveissueinallrichcountries.Itwillcutacrossalltraditionalpoliticalalignments.Economically,thedeclineintheyoungpopulationwillchangemarketsinfundamentalways.Growthinfamilyformationhasbeenthedrivingforceofalldomesticmarketsinthedevelopedworld,buttherateoffamilyformationiscertaintofallsteadilyunlessbolsteredbylarge-scaleimmigrationofyoungerpeople.ThehomogeneousmassmarketthatemergedinallrichcountriesaftertheSecondWorldWarhasbeenyouth-determinedfromthestart.Itwillnowbecomemiddle-age-determined,orperhapsmorelikelyitwillsplitintotwo:amiddle-age-determinedmassmarketandamuchsmalleryouth-determinedone.Andbecausethesupplyofyoungpeoplewillshrink,creatingnewemploymentpatternstoattractandholdthegrowingnumberofolderpeople(especiallyoldereducatedpeople)willbecomeincreasinglyimportant.KnowledgeisallThenextsocietywillbeaknowledgesociety.Knowledgewillbeitskeyresource,andknowledgeworkerswillbethedominantgroupinitsworkforce.Itsthreemaincharacteristicswillbe:
1·Borderlessness,becauseknowledgetravelsevenmoreeffortlesslythanmoney.·Upwardmobility,availabletoeveryonethrougheasilyacquiredformaleducation.·Thepotentialforfailureaswellassuccess.Anyonecanacquirethe"meansofproduction",i.e,theknowledgerequiredforthejob,butnoteveryonecanwin.Together,thosethreecharacteristicswillmaketheknowledgesocietyahighlycompetitiveone,fororganizationsandindividualsalike.Informationtechnology,althoughonlyoneofmanynewfeaturesofthenextsociety,isalreadyhavingonehugelyimportanteffect:itisallowingknowledgetospreadnear-instantly,andmakingitaccessibletoeveryone.Giventheeaseandspeedatwhichinformationtravels,everyinstitutionintheknowledgesociety--notonlybusinesses,butalsoschools,universities,hospitalsandincreasinglygovernmentagenciestoo--hastobegloballycompetitive,eventhoughmostorganizationswillcontinuetobelocalintheiractivitiesandintheirmarkets.ThisisbecausetheInternetwillkeepcustomerseverywhereinformedonwhatisavailableanywhereintheworld,andatwhatprice.Thisnewknowledgeeconomywillrelyheavilyonknowledgeworkers.Atpresent,thistermiswidelyusedtodescribepeoplewithconsiderabletheoreticalknowledgeandlearning:doctors,lawyers,teachers,accountants,chemicalengineers.Butthemoststrikinggrowthwillbein"knowledgetechnologists"~computertechnicians,softwaredesigners,analystsinclinicallabs,manufacturingtechnologists,paralegals.Thesepeopleareasmuchmanualworkersastheyareknowledgeworkers;infact,theyusuallyspendfarmoretimeworkingwiththeirhandsthanwiththeirbrains.Buttheirmanualworkisbasedonasubstantialamountoftheoreticalknowledgewhichcanbeacquiredonlythroughformaleducation,notthroughanapprenticeship.Theyarenot,asarule,muchbetterpaidthantraditionalskilledworkers,buttheyseethemselvesas"professionals".Justasunskilledmanualworkersinmanufacturingwerethedominantsocialandpoliticalforceinthe20thcentury,knowledgetechnologistsarelikelytobecomethedominantsocial--andperhapsalsopolitical--forceoverthenextdecades.ThenewprotectionismStructurally,too,thenextsocietyisalreadydivergingfromthesocietyalmostallofusstilllivein.The20thcenturysawtherapiddecline'ofthesectorthathaddominatedsocietyfor10,000years:agriculture.Involumeterms,farmproductionnowisatleastfourorfivetimeswhatitwasbeforetheFirstWorldWar.Butin1913farmproductsaccountedfor70%ofworldtrade,whereasnowtheirshareisatmost17%.Intheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury,agricultureinmostdevelopedcountrieswasthelargestsinglecontributortoGDP;nowinrichcountriesitscontributionhasdwindledtothepointofbecomingmarginal.Andthefarmpopulationisdowntoatinyproportionofthetotal.Manufacturinghastraveledalongwaydownthesameroad.SincetheSecondWorldWar,manufacturingoutputinthedevelopedworldhasprobablytripledinvolume,butinflationadjustedmanufacturingpriceshavefallensteadily,whereasthecostofprimeknowledgeproducts-healthcareandeducation-hastripled,againadjustedforinflation.Therelativepurchasingpowerofmanufacturedgoodsagainstknowledgeproductsisnowonlyone-fifthorone-sixthofwhatitwas50yearsago.ManufacturingemploymentinAmericahasfallenfrom35%oftheworkforceinthe1950stolessthanhalfthatnow,withoutcausingmuchsocialdisruption.ButitmaybetoomuchtohopeforanequallyeasytransitionincountriessuchasJapanorGermany,whereblue-collarmanufacturingworkersstillmakeup25--30%ofthelaborforce.
2ThedeclineoffarmingasaproducerofwealthandoflivelihoodshasallowedfarmprotectionismtospreadtoadegreethatwouldhavebeenunthinkablebeforetheSecondWorldWar.Inthesameway,thedeclineofmanufacturingwilltriggeranexplosionofmanufacturingprotectionism-evenaslipservicecontinuestobepaidtofreetrade.Thisprotectionismmaynotnecessarilytaketheformoftraditionaltariffs,butofsubsidies,quotasandregulationsofallkinds.Evenmorelikely,regionalblockswillemergethattradefreelyinternallybutarehighlyprotectionistexternally.TheEuropeanUnion,NAFFAandMercosuralreadypointinthatdirection.ThefutureofthecorporationStatistically,multinationalcompaniesplaymuchthesamepartintheworldeconomyastheydidin1913.Buttheyhavebecomeverydifferentanimals.Multinationalsin1913weredomesticfirmswithsubsidiariesabroad,eachofthemself-contained,inchargeofapoliticallydefinedterritory,andhighlyautonomous.Multinationalsnowtendtobeorganizedgloballyalongproductorservicelines.Butlikethemultinationalsof1913,theyareheldtogetherandcontrolledbyownership.Bycontrast,themultinationalsof2025arelikelytobeheldtogetherandcontrolledbystrategy.Therewillstillbeownership,ofcourse.Butalliances,jointventures,minoritystakes,know-howagreementscontractswillincreasinglybethebuildingblocksofaconfederation.Thiskindoforganizationwillneedanewkindoftopmanagement.Inmostcountries,andeveninagoodmanylargeandcomplexcompanies,topmanagementisstillseenasanextensionofoperatingmanagement.Tomorrow'stopmanagement,however,islikelytobeadistinctandseparateorgan:itwillstandforthecompany.Oneofthemostimportantjobsaheadforthetopmanagementof{hebigcompanyoftomorrow,andespeciallyofthemultinational,willbetobalancetheconflictingdemandsonbusinessbeingmadebytheneedforbothshort-termandlong-termresults,andbythecorporation'svariousconstituencies:customers,shareholders,knowledgeemployeesandcommunities.1.Thenewsocietywillbemuchmoreimportantthantheneweconomyonlyinthedevelopedcountries.2.Inanother25yearspeoplewillhavetokeepworkingasfull-timeemployeesuntiltheirmid-70sifhealthpermits.3.NowadaysinChina,becauseofthepopulationpolicy,thebirthratehasdecreased.4.Indevelopedcountries,theissueofimmigrationwillbecomeimportantpolitically.5.Thedominantpartinthenextsociety'sworkforceis6.______makesknowledgespreadrapidlyandavailabletoeveryone.7.______haddominatedsocietyfor10,000yearsbutdeclinedrapidlyinthe20thcentury.8.Inordertoadjustforinflation,thecostof______whicharethemainknowledgeproductswastripled.9.Multinationalsin1913werecomposedofadomesticfirmsanditsself-containedandautonomous10.TopmanagementintheNextsocietywillbea______organ.Passage2:RainforestsTropicalrainforestsarethemostdiverseecosystem(生态系统)onEarth,andalsotheoldest.Today,tropicalrainforestscoveronly6percentoftheEarth'sgroundsurface,buttheyarehometo
3overhalfoftheplanet’splantandanimalspecies.WhatIsaRainforest?Generallyspeaking,arainforestisanenvironmentthatreceiveshighrainfallandisdominatedbytalltrees.Awiderangeofecosystemsfallintothiscategory,ofcourse.Butmostofthetimewhenpeopletalkaboutrainforests,theymeanthetropicalrainforestslocatedneartheequator.Theseforestsreceivebetween160and400inchesofrainperyear.Thetotalannualrainfallisspreadprettyevenlythroughouttheyear,andthetemperaturerarelydipsbelow60degreesFahrenheit.Thissteadyclimateisduetothepositionofrainforestsontheglobe.BecauseoftheorientationoftheEarth'saxis,theNorthernandSouthernhemisphereseachspendpartoftheyeartiltedawayfromthesun.Sincerainforestsareatthemiddleoftheglobe,locatedneartheequator,theyarcnotespeciallyaffectedbythischange.Theyreceivenearlythesameamountofsunlight,andthereforeheat,allyear.Consequently,theweatherintheseregionsremainsfairlyconstant.Theconsistentlywet,warmweatherandamplesunlightgiveplantlifeeverythingitneedstothrive.Treeshavetheresourcestogrowtotremendousheights,andtheyliveforhundreds,eventhousands,ofyears.Thesegiants,whichreach60to150ftintheair,formthebasicstructureoftherainforest.Theirtopbranchesspreadwideinordertocapturemaximumsunlight.Thiscreatesathickcanopy(树冠)levelatthetopoftheforest,withthinnergreenerylevelsunderneath.Somelargetreesgrowsotallthattheyeventoweroverthecanopylayer.Asyougolower,downintotherainforest,youfindlessandlessgreenery.Theforestfloorismadeupofmoss,fungi,anddecayingplantmatterthathasfallenfromtheupperlayers.Thereasonforthisdecreaseingreeneryisverysimpletheoverabundanceofplantsgatheringsunlightatthetopoftheforestblocksmostsunlightfromreachingthebottomoftheforest,makingitdifficultforrobustplantstothrive.The,ForestfortheTreesTheamplesunlightandextremelywetclimateofmanytropicalareasencouragethegrowthoftoweringtreeswithwidecanopies.Thisthicktoplayeroftherainforestdictatesthelivesofallotherplantsintheforest.Newtreeseedlingsrarelysurvivetomakeittothetopunlesssomeoldertreesdie,creatinga"hole"inthecanopy.Whenthishappens,alloftheseedlingsonthegroundlevelcompeteintenselytoreachthesunlight.Manyplantspeciesreachthetopoftheforestbyclimbingthetalltrees.Itismucheasiertoascendthisway,becausetheplantdoesn'thavetoformitsownsupportingstructure.Someplantspecies,calledepiphytes,growdirectlyonthesurfaceofthegianttrees.Theseplants,whichincludeavarietyoforchidsandferns,makeupmuchoftheunderstory,thelayeroftherainforestrightbelowthecanopy.Epiphytesarecloseenoughtothetoptoreceiveadequatelight,andtherunofffromthecanopylayerprovidesallthewaterandnutrients(养分)theyneed,whichisimportantsincetheydon'thaveaccesstothenutrientsintheground.StranglersandButtressesSomeepiphyteseventuallydevelopintostranglers.Theygrowlong,thickrootsthatextenddownthetreetrunkintotheground.Astheycontinuetogrow,therootsformasortofwebstructureallaroundthetree.Atthesametime,thestranglerplant'sbranchesextendupward,spreadingoutintothecanopy.Eventually,thestranglermayblocksomuchlightfromabove,andabsorbsuchahighpercentageofnutrientsfromthegroundbelow,thatthehosttreedies.
4Competitionovernutrientsisalmostasintenseascompetitionforlight.Theexcessiverainfallrapidlydissolvesnutrientsinthesoilmakingitrelativelyinfertileexceptatthetoplayers.Forthisreason,rainforesttreerootsgrowoutwardtocoverawiderarea,ratherthandownwardtolowerlevels.Thismakesrainforesttreessomewhatunstable,sincetheydon'thaveverystronganchorsintheground.Sometreescompensateforthisbygrowingnaturalbuttresses.Thesebuttressesarebasicallytreetrunksthatextendoutfromthesideofthetreeandclowntotheground,givingthetreeadditionalsupport.Rainforesttreesaredependentonbacteriathatarecontinuallyproducingnutrientsintheground.Rainforestbacteriaandtreeshaveaveryclose,symbiotic(共生的)relationship.Thetreesprovidethebacteriawithfood,intheformoffallenleavesandothermaterial,andthebacteriabreakthismaterialdownintothenutrientsthatthetreesneedtosurvive.Oneofthemostremarkablethingsaboutrainforestplantlifeisitsdiversity.ThetemperaterainforestsofthePacificNorthwestaremainlycomposedofadozenorsotreespecies.Atropicalrainforest,ontheotherhand,mighthave300distincttreespecies.AllCreatures,GreatandSmallRainforestsarehometothemajorityofanimalspeciesintheworld.Andagreatnumberofspecieswhonowliveinotherenvironments,includinghumans,originallyinhabitedtherainforests.Researchersestimatethatinalargerainforestarea,theremaybemorethan10milliondifferentanimalspecies.Mostofthesespecieshaveadaptedforlifeintheupperlevelsoftherainforest,wherefoodismostplentiful.Insects,whichcaneasilyclimborflyfromtreetotree,makeupthelargestgroup(antsarethemostabundantanimalintherainforest).Insectspecieshaveahighlysymbioticrelationshipwiththeplantlifeinarainforest.Theinsectsmovefromplanttoplant,enjoyingthewealthoffoodprovidedthere.Astheytravel,theinsectsmaypickuptheplants'seeds,droppingthemsomedistanceaway.Thishelpstodispersethepopulationoftheplantspeciesoveralargerarea.Thenumerousbirdsoftherainforestalsoplayamajorpartinseeddispersal.Whentheyeatfruitfromaplant,theseedspassthroughtheirdigestivesystem.Bythetimetheyexcrete(排泄)theseeds,thebirdsmayhaveflownmanymilesawayfromthefruit-bearingtree.Therearealsoalargenumberofreptilesandmammalsintherainforest.Sincetheweatherissohotandhumidduringtheday,mostrainforestmammalsareactiveonlyatnight,duskordawn.Themanyrainforestbatspeciesareespeciallywelladaptedforthislifestyle.Usingtheirsonar,batsnavigateeasilythroughthemassoftreesintherainforest,feedingoninsectsandfruit.Whilemostrainforestspeciesspendtheirlivesinthetrees,thereisalsoalotoflifeontheforestfloor.Greatapes,wildpigs,bigcatsandevenelephantscanallbefoundinrainforests.Thereareanumberofpeoplewholiveintherainforests,aswell.Thesetribes--which,upuntilrecently,numberedinthethousands--arebeingforcedoutoftherainforestsatanalarmingratebecauseofdeforestation.DeforestationInthepasthundredyears,humanshavebegundestroyingrainforestsatanalarmingrate.Today,roughly1.5acresofrainforestaredestroyedeverysecond.Peoplearecuttingdowntherainforestsinpursuitofthreemajorresources:·landforcrops·lumberforpaperandotherwoodproducts
5·landforlivestockpasturesInthecurrenteconomy,peopleobviouslyhaveaneedforalloftheseresources.Butalmostallexpertsagreethat,overtime,wewillsuffermuchmorefromthedestructionoftherainforeststhanwewillbenefit.Theworld'srainforestsareanextremelyvaluablenaturalresource,tobesure,butnotfortheirlumberortheirland.TheyarethemaincradleoflifeonEarth,andtheyholdmillionsofuniquelifeformsthatwehaveyettodiscover.Destroyingtherainforestsiscomparabletodestroyinganunknownplanetwehavenoideawhatwe'relosing.Ifdeforestationcontinuesatitscurrentrate,theworld'stropicalrainforestswillbewipedoutwithin40years.1.VirtuallyallplantandanimalspeciesonEarthcanbefoundintropicalrainforests.2.Thereisnotmuchchangeintheweatherinthetropicalrainforestsalltheyearround.3.ThelargestnumberofrainforestsintheworldarelocatedontheAfricancontinent.4.Belowthecanopylevelofatropicalrainforestgrowsanoverabundanceofplants.5.Newtreeseedlingswillnotsurvivetoreachthecanopylevelunless______.6.Epiphytes,whichformmuchoftheunderstoryoftherainforest,getalltheirwaterandnutrientsfrom______.7.Stranglersaresocalledbecausethey______byblockingthesunlightandcompetingforthenutrients.8.Sincerainforestbacteriaandtreesdependoneachotherforlife,therelationshiptheyformistermed______.9.Plantspeciesaredispersedoveralargeareawiththehelpof______.10.Aswearestillignorantofmillionsofuniquelifeformsintherainforest,deforestationcanbecomparedtothedestructionof______.Passage3:SomeNotesonGender-NeutralLanguageGeneralThepracticeofassigningmasculinegendertoneutraltermscomesfromthefactthateverylanguagereflectstheprejudicesofthesocietyinwhichitevolved,andEnglishevolvedthroughmostofitshistoryinamale-centered,patriarchalsociety.Likeanyotherlanguage,however,Englishisalwayschanging.Oneonlyhastoreadaloudsentencesfromthe19thcenturyhooksassignedforthisclasstosensetheshiftsthathaveoccurredinthelast150years.Whenreaderspickupsomethingtoread,theyexpectdifferentconventionsdependingonthetimeinwhichthematerialwaswritten.Aswritersin1995,weneedtobenotonlyawareoftheconventionsthatourreadersmayexpect,butalsoconsciousoftheresponsesourwordsmayelicit.Inaddition,weneedtoknowhowtheshiftingnatureoflanguagecanmakecertainwordsawkwardormisleading."Man"Manoncewasatrulygenericwordreferringtoallhumans,buthasgraduallynarrowedinmeaningtobecomeawordthatreferstoadultmalehumanbeings.Anglo-Saxonsusedthewordtorefertoallpeople.OneexampleofthisoccurswhenanAnglo-Saxonwriterreferstoaseventh-centuryEnglishprincessas"awonderfulman".ManparalleledtheLatinwordhomo,"amemberofthehumanspecies."notvir,"anadultmaleofthespecies."TheOldEnglishwordforadultmalewaswaepmanandtheoldEnglishwordforadultwomanwaswifman.Inthecourseoftime,wifmanevolvedintotheword"woman.""Man"eventuallyceasedtobeusedtoreferto
6individualwomenandreplacedwaepmanasaspecifictermdistinguishinganadultmalefromanadultfemale.Butmancontinuedtobeusedingeneralizationsaboutbothsexes.Bythe18thcentury,themodern,narrowsenseofmanwasfirmlyestablishedasthepredominantone.WhenEdmundBurke,writingoftheFrenchRevolution,usedmenintheold,inclusiveway,hetookpainstospellouthismeaning:"Suchadeplorablehavocismadeinthemindsofmen(bothsexes)inFrance..."ThomasJeffersondidnotmakethesamedistinctionindeclaringthat"allmenarecreatedequal"and"governmentsareinstitutedamongmen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned."Inatimewhenwomen,havingnovote,couldneithergivenorwithholdconsent,Jeffersonhadtobeusingthewordmeninitsprincipalsenseof"males,"anditprobablyneveroccurredtohimthatanyonewouldthinkotherwise.Lookingatmoderndictionariesindicatethatthedefinitionthatlinks"man'withmalesisthepredominantone.Studiesofcollegestudentsandschoolchildrenindicatethatevenwhenthebroaddefinitionsof"msn"and"men"aretaught,theytendtoconjureupimagesofmalepeopleonly.Wewouldneverusethesentence"Agirlgrowsuptobeaman,"becauseweassumethenarrowerdefinitionofthewordman.ThePronounProblemThefirstgrammarsofmodernEnglishwerewritteninthe16thand17thcenturies.TheyweremainlyintendedtohelpboysfromupperclassfamiliesprepareforthestudyofLatin,alanguagemostscholarsconsideredsuperiortoEnglish.ThemaleauthorsoftheseearliestEnglishgrammarswroteformalereadersinanagewhenfewwomenwereliterate.Themasculine-genderpronouns(代词)didnotreflectabeliefthatmasculinepronounscouldrefertobothsexes.Thegrammarsofthisperiodcontainnoindicationthatmasculinepronounsweresex-inclusivewhenusedingeneralreferences.Insteadthesepronounsreflectedtherealityofmaleculturaldominanceandthemale-centeredworldviewthatresulted."He"startedtobeusedasagenericpronounbygrammarianswhoweretryingtochangealong-establishedtraditionofusing"they"asasingularpronoun.In1850anActofParliamentgaveofficialsanction(批准)totherecentlyinventedconceptofthe"generic"he.InthelanguageusedinactsofParliament,thenewlawsaid,"wordsimportingthemasculinegendershallbedeemedandtakentoincludefemales."AlthoughsimilarlanguageincontractsandotherlegaldocumentssubsequentlyhelpedreinforcethisgrammaticaledictinallEnglish-speakingcountries,itwasoftenconvenientlyignored.In1879,forexample,amovetoadmitfemalephysicianstotheall-maleMassachusettsMedicalSocietywaseffectivelyblockedonthegrounds'thatthesociety'sby-lawsdescribingmembershipusedthepronounhe.Justas"man"isnottrulygenericinthe1990s,"he"isnotatruegenericpronoun.Studieshaveconfirmedthatmostpeopleunderstand"he"torefertomenonly.Sentenceslike"Adoctorisabusyperson;hemustbeabletobalanceamillionobligationsatonce"implythatalldoctorsaremen.Asaresultofthefactthat"he"isreadbymanyasamasculinepronoun,manypeople,especiallywomen,havecometofeelthatthegenericpronounsexcludeswomen.Thismeansthatmoreandmorepeoplefindtheuseofsuchapronounproblematic.SolvingthePronounProblemTheyasaSingular-Mostpeople,whenwritingandspeakinginformally,relyonsingulartheyasamatterofcourse:"Ifyoulovesomeone,setthemfree"(Sting).Ifyoupayattentiontoyourownspeech,you'llprobablycatchyourselfusingthesameconstructionyourself."It'senoughtodriveanyoneoutoftheirsenses"(GeorgeBernardShaw)."Ishouldn'tliketopunishanyone,even
7iithey'ddonemewrong"(GeorgeEliot).Somepeopleareannoyedbytheincorrectgrammarthatthissolutionnecessitates,butthisconstructionisusedmoreandmorefrequently.HeorShe---Despitethechargeofclumsiness,double-pronounconstructionshavemadeacomeback:"Tobeblackinthiscountryissimplytoopervasiveanexperienceforanywritertoomitfromherorhiswork,"wroteSamuelR.Delany.Overuseofthissolutioncanbeawkward,however.Pluralizing-Awritercanoftenrecastmaterialintheplural.Forinstance,insteadof"Asheadvancesinhisprogram,themedicalstudenthasincreasingopportunitiesforclinicalwork,"try"Astheyadvanceintheirprogram,medicalstudentshaveincreasingopportunitiesforclinicalwork"EliminatingPronouns--Avoidhavingtousepronounsatall;insteadof"afirstgradercanfeedanddresshimself,"youcouldwrite,"afirstgradercaneatfindgetdressedwithoutassistance."FurtherAlternatives--hesheors/he,usingoneinsteadofhe,orusinganewgenericpronoun(thon,co,E,try,hash,hit).1."Man"couldbeusedtorefertofemalehumanbeinginthepast.2.In"allmenarecreatedequal"inDeclarationofIndependencebyThomasJefferson,theword"men"refertobothmalesandfemaleswhethertheyhavevoterightornot.3.In1879,MassachusettsMedicalSocietyrefusedtoadmitmorethantenfemalephysiciansbecausethesociety'sby-lawsdescribingmembershipusedthepronounhe.4.ThefirstgrammarsofmodernEnglishwerewritteninordertohelpboysfromtheupperclassprepareforthestudyofLatin.5."Man"paralleledtheLatinword"homo"'whichmeans______.6.Studiesshowthatevenwhenstudentsaretaughtthebroaddefinitionof"man"and"men",theythinkof______.7.Grammariansstartedtouse"he"asagenericpronounbecausetheyweretryingtochangeatraditionofusing"they"as______.8.Whenmostpeoplereadtheword"he",theywouldunderstandittoraterto______.9.Althoughsomepeopleareannoyedby______ofsingularthey,thisconstructionisusedmoreandmorefrequentlytosolvethepronounproblem.10.Anotherwayofsolvingthepronounproblemistouse______insteadofthesingular.Passage4:SoichiroHondaThefounderofHonda,SoichiroHondawasamechanicalengineerwithapassionformotorcycleandautomobileracing.Hondastartedhiscompanyin1946bybuildingmotorizedbicycleswithsmall,war-surplusengines.Hondawouldgrowtobecometheworld'sleadingmanufacturerofmotorcyclesandlateroneoftheleadingautomakers.Followingitsfounder'slead,Hondahasalwaysbeenaleaderintechnology,especiallyintheareaofenginedevelopment.SoichiroHondawasdescribedasamaverick(特立独行的人)inanationofconformists.Hemadeitapointtowearloudsuitsandwildlycoloredshirts.Aninventorbynaturewhooftenjoinedtheworkonthefloorsofhisfactoriesandresearchlaboratories,Hondadevelopedenginesthattransformedthemotorcycleintoaworldwidemeansoftransportation.Bornin1906,HondagrewupinthetownofTenryu,Japan.Theeldestsonofablacksmithwhorepairedbicycles,theyoungSoichirohadonlyanelementaryschooleducationwhen,inhis
8teens,helefthometoseekhisfortuneinTokyo.Anautorepaircompanyhiredhimin1922,butforayearhewasforcedtoserveasababy-sitterfortheautoshop'sownerandhiswife.Whileemployedattheautoshop,however,Hondabuilthisownracingcarusinganoldaircraftengineandhandmadepartsandparticipatedinracing.Hisracingcareerwasshortlived,however.Hesufferedseriousinjuriesina1936crash.By1937,Hondahadrecoveredfromhisinjuries.Heestablishedhisowncompany,manufacturingpistonrings,buthefoundthathelackedabasicknowledgeofcasting.Toobtainit,heenrolledinatechnicalhighschool,applyingtheoriesashelearnedthemintheclassroomstohisownfactory.Buthedidnotbothertotakeexaminationsattheschool.Informedthathewouldnotbegraduated,Hondacommentedthatadiplomawas"worthlessthanamovietheaterticket.Aticketguaranteesthatyoucangetintothetheater.Butadiplomadoesn'tguaranteethatyoucanmakealiving."Honda'sburgeoningcompanymassproducedmetalpropellersduringWWⅡ,replacingwoodenones.AlliedbombingandanearthquakedestroyedmostofhisfactoryandhesoldwhatwaslefttoToyotain1945.In1946,heestablishedtheHondaTechnicalResearchInstitutetomotorizebicycleswithsmall,war-surplusengines.ThesebikesbecameverypopularinJapan.Theinstitutesoonbeganmakingengines.RenamedHondaMotorin1948,thecompanybeganmanufacturingmotorcycles.BusinessexecutiveTakeoFujisawawashiredtomanagethecompanywhileHondafocusedonengineering.In1951,HondabroughtouttheDreamTypeEmotorcycle,whichprovedanimmediatesuccessthankstoHonda'sinnovativeoverheadvalvedesign,ThesmallerF-typecub(1952)accountedfor70%ofJapan'smotorcycleproductionbytheendofthatyear.ApublicofferingandsupportfromMitsubishiBankallowedHondatoexpandandbeginexporting.TheversatileC100SuperCub,releasedin1958,becameaninternationalbestseller.In1959,theAmericanHondaMotorwasfoundedandsoonbeganusingtheslogan,"YoumeetthenicestpeopleonaHonda,"tooffsetthestereotypeofmotorcyclistsduringthatperiod.ThoughthesmallbikesweredismissedbythedominantAmericanandBritishmanufacturersofthetime,theinexpensiveimportsbroughtnewridersintomotorcyclingandchangedtheindustryforeverintheUnitedStates.Evertheracingenthusiast,Hondabeganenteringhiscompany'smotorcyclesindomesticJapaneseracesduringthe1950s.Inthemid-1950s,Hondadeclaredthathiscompanywouldsomedaywinworldchampionshipevents--adeclarationthatseemedunrealisticatthetime.InJune1959,theHondaracingteambroughttheirfirstmotorbiketocompeteintheIsleofManTouristTrophyrace,thentheworld'smostpopularmotorcyclerace.ThiswasthefirstentrybyaJapaneseteam.WithridersNaomiTaniguchi,whofinishedsixth,TeisukeTanaka,whofinishedeighth,andKiyoshiKawashima,whowouldlatersucceedSoichiroasHondaMotorpresident,asteammanager,Hondawonthemanufacturer'sprize.However,theywerenotpleasedwiththeirperformance.Kawashimaremembers:"Wewereclobbered.Ourhorsepowerwaslessthanhalfthatofthewinner."Learningfromthisexperience,Soichiroandhisteamworkedevenhardertomakerapidprogressintheirmotorsportsactivities.Twoyearsaftertheirfirstfailure,theywerethesensationattheTTbycapturingthefirstfiveplacesinboththe125ceand250ccclasses.TheupstartJapanesehadoutclassedalltheirrivals.Asaresultoftheteam'sstellarperformance,theHonda
9namebecamewellknownworldwide,anditsexportvolumerosedramatically.SoichiroseemedtohaveforeseenthefutureofJapan,which,twentyyearslater,wastobecomeoneoftheworld'sleadingeconomies.Hondawouldbecomethemostsuccessfulmanufacturerinallofmotorcycleracing.Hondahassincewonhundredsofnationalandworldchampionshipsinallformsofmotorcyclecompetition.WhileHondaoversawaworldwidecompanybytheearly-1970s(Hondaenteredtheautomobilemarketin1967),henevershiedawayfromgettinghishandsgreasy.SolSanders,authorofaHondabiography,saidHondaappeared"almostdaily"attheresearchlabwheredevelopmentworkwasbeingdone.Evenaspresidentofthecompany,"heworkedasoneoftheresearchers,'SandersquotedaHondaengineerassaying."Wheneverweencounteredaproblem,hestudieditalongwithus."In1973,Honda,at67,retiredonthe25thanniversaryofHonda'sfounding.HedeclaredhisconvictionthatHondashouldremainayouthfulcompany."Hondahasalwaysmovedaheadofthetimes,andIattributeitssuccesstothefactthatthefirmpossessesdreamsandyouthfulness,"Hondasaidatthetime.UnlikemostchiefexecutiveofficersinJapan,whostepdowntobecomechairmenoftheirfirms,Hondaretainedontythetitleof"supremeadviser".Inretirement,Hondadevotedhimselftopublicserviceandfrequenttravelabroad.HereceivedtheOrderoftheSacredTreasure,firstclass,thehighesthonorbestowedbyJapan'semperor.HealsoreceivedtheAmericanautoindustry'shighestawardwhenhewasadmittedtotheAutomotiveHallofFamein1989.HondawasawardedtheAMA'shighesthonor,theDudPerkinsAward,in1971.HondadiedonAugust5,1991fromliverfailureat84.Hiswife,Sachi,andthreechildrensurvivedhim.1.SoichiroHondawasamanwhopreferredtowearplainclothes.2.Whenenrolledinatechnicalhighschooltoobtainbasicknowledgeofcasting,SoichiroHondafinallygotthediplomaafterattendingtheexaminations.3.LikemostchiefexecutiveofficersinJapan,SoichiroHondaSteppeddowntobecomechairmenofHondaafterhisretirement.4.Evenasthepresidentofaworldwidecompany,SoichiroHondawouldworkattheresearchlabwiththeemployees.5.Followingitsfounder'slead,Hondahasalwaysbeenaleaderintechnology,especiallyintheareaof______.6.AfterWWⅡ,Hondamounted______onbicyclesandthesemotorizedbicyclessoldrapidlyinJapan.7.Apublicofferingandsupportfrom______allowedHondatoexpandhisbusinessandbegintoinvadetheinternationalmarket.8.In1959,theAmericanHondaMotorusedtheslogan,"______"tochangethenegativeimageofmotorcyclistsinAmerica.9.In1959withtheirfirstmotorbikeHondaracingteamparticipatein______race,whichwasthemostpopularmotorcycleraceatthattime.10.AccordingtoHonda,______are,themajorfactorsthatledtothesuccessofHondacompany.Passage5:
10ABriefHistoryofClockClocksAtbest,historiansknowthat5,000-6,000yearsago,greatcivilizationsintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricastartedtoexamineformsofclock-makinginsteadofworkingwithonlythemonthlyandannualcalendar.Littleisknownonexactlyhowtheseformsworkedorindeedtheactualdeconstructionofthetime,butithasbeensuggestedthattheintentionwastomaximizetimeavailabletoachievemoreasthesizeofthepopulationgrew.Perhapssuchfutureperiodsoftimewereintendedtobenefitthecommunitybyallottingspecificlengthsoftimetotasks.Wasthisthebeginningoftheworkingweek?SunClocksWiththedisappearanceofanyancientcivilization,suchastheSumerianculture,knowledgeisalsolost.Whilstwecanonlyhypothesizeonthereasonsofwhytheequivalenttothemodernwristwatchwasnevercompleted,weknowthattheancientEgyptianswerenexttolayoutasystemofdividingthedayintoparts,similartohours."Obelisks"(tallfour-sidedtaperedmonuments)werecarefullyconstructedandevenpurposefullygeographicallylocatedaround3500BC.AshadowwaseastastheSunmovedacrosstheskybytheobelisk,whichitappearswasthenmarkedoutinsections,allowingpeopletoclearlyseethetwohalvesoftheday.Someofthesectionshavealsobeenfoundtoindicatethe"year"slongestandshortestdays,whichitisthoughtweredevelopmentsaddedlatertoallowidentificationofotherimportanttimesubdivisions.AnotherancientEgyptian"shadowclock"or"sundial"hasbeendiscoveredtohavebeeninusearound1500BC,whichallowedthemeasuringofthepassageof"hours".Thesectionsweredividedintotenparts,Withtwo"twilighthours"indicated,occurringinthemorningandtheevening.Forittoworksuccessfullythenatmiddayornoon,thedevicehadtobeturned180degreestomeasuretheafternoonhours.WaterClocks"Waterclocks"wereamongtheearliesttimekeepingdevicesthatdidn'tusetheobservationofthecelestialbodiestocalculatethepassageoftime.TheancientGreeks,itisbelieved,beganusingwaterclocksaround325BC.Mostoftheseclockswereusedtodeterminethehoursofthenight,butmayhavealsobeenusedduringdaylight.Aninherentproblemwiththewaterclockwasthattheywerenottotallyaccurate,asthesystemofmeasurementwasbasedontheflowofwatereitherinto,oroutof,acontainerwhichhadmarkersaroundthesides.Anotherverysimilarformwasthatofabowlthatsankduringaperiodasitwasfilledofwaterfromaregulatedflow.ItisknownthatwaterclockswerecommonacrosstheMiddleEast,andthatthesewerestillbeingusedinNorthAfricaduringtheearlypartofthetwentieth-century.MechanicalClocksIn1656,"ChristianHuygens'(Dutchscientist),madethefirst"Pendulum(钟摆)clock",withamechanismusinga"natural"periodofoscillation(振幅)."GalileoGalilei"iscredited,inmosthistoricalbooks,forinventingthependulumasearlyas1582,buthisdesignwasnotbuiltbeforehisdeath.Huygens'clock,whenbuilt,hadanerrorof"lessthanonlyoneminuteaday".Thiswasamassiveleapinthedevelopmentofmaintainingaccuracy,asthishadpreviouslyneverbeenachieved.Laterrefinementstothependulumclockreducedthismarginoferrorto"lessthan10secondsaday".Themechanicalclockcontinuedtodevelopuntiltheyachievedanaccuracyof"a
11hundredth-of-a-secondaday",whenthependulumclockbecametheacceptedstandardinmostastronomicalobservatories.QuartzClocksTherunningofa"Quartzclock"isbasedonthepiezoelectricpropertyofthequartzcrystal.Whenanelectricfieldisappliedtoaquartzcrystal,itactuallychangestheshapeofthecrystalitself,Ifyouthensqueezeitorbendit,anelectricfieldisgenerated.Whenplacedinanappropriateelectroniccircuit,thisinteractionbetweenthemechanicalstressandtheelectricalfieldcausesthecrystaltovibrate,generatingaconstantelectricsignalwhichcanthenbeusedforexampleonanelectronicclockdisplay.Thefirstwrist-watchesthatappearedinmassproductionused"LED","LightEmittingDiode"displays.Bythe1970'stheseweretobereplacedbya"LCD","LiquidCrystalDisplay".Quartzclockscontinuetodominatethemarketbecauseoftheaccuracyandreliabilityoftheperformance,alsobeinginexpensivetoproduceonmassscale.Thetimekeepingperformanceofthequartzclockhasnowbeensurpassedbythe"Atomicclock".AtomicClocksScientistsdiscoveredsometimeagothatatomsandmoleculeshave"resonances"andthateachchemicalelementandcompoundabsorbsandemits"electromagneticradiation"withinitsowncharacteristic"frequencies".Thiswearetoldishighlyaccurateevenover"TimeandSpace".Thedevelopmentofradarandthesubsequentexperimentationwithhighfrequencyradiocommunicationsduringthe1930sand1940screatedavastamountofknowledgeregarding"electromagneticwaves",alsoknownas"microwaves".whichinteractwiththeatoms.ThedevelopmentofatomicclocksfocusedfirstlyonmicrowaveresonancesinthechemicalAmmoniaanditsmolecules.In1957."NIST".the"NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology",completedaseriesoftestsusinga"CesiumAtomicBeam"device,followedbyasecondprogramofexperimentsbyNISTinordertohavesomethingforcomparisonwhenworkingattheatomiclevel.By1960,astheoutcomeoftheprograms,"CesiumTimeStandards"wereincorporatedastheofficialtimekeepingsystematNIST.The"Naturalfrequency"recognizedcurrentlyisthemeasurementoftime.usedbyallscientists,definestheperiodof"onesecond"asexactly"9,192,631,770Oscillations"or"9,192,631,770CyclesoftheCesiumAtom'sResonantFrequency".Fromthe"Macrocosm",or"PlanetaryAlignment",tothe"Microcosm",or"AtomicFrequency",thecesiumnowmaintainsaccuracywithadegreeoferrortoabout"one-millionthofasecondperyear".Muchofmodernlifehascometodependonsuchprecisemeasurementsoftime.Thedayislongpastwhenwecouldgetbywithatimepiece(钟)accuratetothenearestquarterhour.Transportation,financialmarkets,communication,manufacturing,electricpowerandmanyothertechnologieshavebecomedependentonsuper-accurateclocks.Scientificresearchandthedemandsofmoderntechnologycontinueredriveoursearchforevermoreaccuracy,ThenextgenerationofCesiumTimeStandardsispresentlyunderdevelopmentatNIST's"BoulderLaboratory"andotherlaboratoriesaroundtheworld.SomethingtoRememberTheonlythingthatshouldberememberedduringallthistechnologicaldevelopmentisthatweshouldneverlosetheabilitytotellthetimeapproximatelybynaturalmeansandthepowersofdeductionwithoutrequiringcrutches(拐杖)toleanon.OurconceptofTIMEandusingittogetherwithTECHNOLOGYstillhasroomforradical
12reassessmentintermsofman'sevolutionarythinkingregardingourviewofthepast,ouronwardjourneyintothefutureandourconceptoftimeinrelationshiptouniverse.1.Itissuggestedthat5,000-6,000yearsagopeopleintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricastartedtoallotspecificlengthsoftimetotasks.2.AncientEgyptian"shadowclock"or"sundial"discoveredaround1500BC,couldmeasurepassageof"hours"automaticallyandcontinuously.3."Waterclocks"wasthefirstdevicethatdidn'tusetheobservationofthecelestialbodiestocalculatethepassageoftime.4.GalileoGalileibuiltthefirst"pendulumclock"asearlyas1656.5.Waterclocksweremostlyusedtodetermine______.6.Huygens'clock,amechanicalone,hadanerrorof"lessthanonlyoneminuteaday",whichwasamassiveleapinthedevelopmentof______.7.SinceQuartzclocksarebothinexpensivetoproduceinmassscaleand______inperformance,theycontinuetodominatethemarket.8.Scientificresearchandthe______continuetodriveoursearchforevermoreaccuracyintime.9.Ofalltheclocksintroducedinthepassage,theonewiththemostaccuracyis______.10.Nomatterhowadvancedthetechnologyofmeasuringtimewillbeweshouldneverlosetheabilitytotellthetimeapproximatelyby______.Passage6:It'sNeverTooLatetoStartExerciseResearchersFindGreatRewardsWhenMildExerciseProgramsAreStartedLateInLife.May13,2003--Youknowthebenefitsofexerciseprograms.Andifyou'vebeeninactive,youmayhavealsofeltthem--withsoremusclesandbruisedmotivationtocontinue.Butanewstudyinwomenshowsthattheoldadageistrue--it'snevertoolatetostartwhenitcomestoexerciseprograms.Sonowwhatcanyoudotojumpontheexercisebandwagon(乐队花车)?WebMDgotexercisetipsfromtheexperts."Therecertainlyseemstobesomethingheretosuggestthatwomencanstartexercisinglaterinlifeandstillreaptherewards,"leadresearcherandCDCepidemiologistEdwardW.Gregg,PhD,tellsWebMD.HisfindingsarepublishedintheMay16issueofTheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation.Researcherstracked9,500womenfor12years,startingwhentheywereatleastage66.Inthattime,theyfoundthatthosewhowentfromdoinglittleornothingtowalkingjustamileadayslashed(减少)theirriskOfdeathfromallcausesandfromcancerbynearlyhalf.Theirriskofheartdiseasealsofellbymorethanathird.Infact,theyenjoyednearlyasmuchprotectionaswomenwhowerephysicallyactivebeforethestudybeganandremainedso.Duringthestudy,heandhiscolleaguessurveyedthewomenontheirexerciselevelsatthestartofthetrialandagainuptosixyearslater.Yearslater,theresearcherstrackedtheirratesofdeathanddisease.Thenewinformationwefoundisthatolderwomenwhowentfrombeingsedentary(少活动的)orwalkingabouttwomilesaweekto"walkingeightmilesaweekbetweenthetwovisitshadsignificantlifeimprovements,"saysanotherstudyresearcher,JaneA.Cauley,DrPH,oftheUniversityofPittsburgh."We'retalkingaboutwomenwithanaverageageof77atthesecondvisit,"shetellsWebMD.
13"Andwe'retalkingabouttheirengaginginverymildexercise--andnotrunningmarathons."Butiftheonlyworkout(运动)you'vebeengettinglatelyinvolvestheTVremote,here'showtoavoidthosewalksaroundtheblockfrommakingyourbodyfeelasifitjusttackledBostonMarathon'sinfamous"HeartbreakHill".Getacheckupbeforeaworkout.Avisittoyourdoctoriswiseforanyonebeginninganexerciseprogram,butit'scrucialfortheelderlyorotherswhohavebeeninactivebecauseofhealthproblems.Inadditiontotheobvious--checkingyourheartandlungs--yourdoctorcanhelpdetermineifyourregimen(养生法)needstoconsiderothermedicalconditions,andthedrugsyoutakeforthem."Peoplecansometimescontrolconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurewithweightlossandexercisesotheydon'tneedtocontinuetheirmedications,"saysWilliamA.Banks,MD,professorofgeriatricsatSaintLouisUniversitySchoolofMedicine.It'simportanttoletyourdoctorknowaboutyournewexerciseprogramincaseyourmedicationdosesneedtobechanged."Adoctorcanalsohelpfacilitatethebesttypeofexerciseifyouhaveadisabilityorimpairment.Forinstance,manyofmypatientshavebadknees,soItellthemthatiftheystartrunningorevenwalking,they'regoingtohaveproblemsthatwilllikelyimpacttheirabilitytocontinue,"hetellsWebMD."SoItrytosteerthemtoanotheractivity,suchasswimmingswhichisespeciallygoodforpeoplewithjointproblemsorobesity(肥胖)."Startslow.Onceyougetthegreenlight,thekeytoavoidingfatigueandmusclepainistopulloutofthegateveryslowly."Youhearsomuchabouttheimportanceofgetting30minutesofexerciseaday,butthoserecommendationsshouldnotbeviewedasgoalsifyou'vebeensedentary--evenifyou'rehealthy,"Bankssays."Initially,youshouldactuallyshootbelowyourcomfortlevel."Toooften,people-especiallythosewhoareolderoverdoitinthebeginningandhurtthemselvestothepointwheretheyneedtwoweekstorecover.It'sbettertowalkforafewminutesadayseveryday,thando10minutesyourfirstdayandthennotbeabletowalkfortherestoftheweek."Gomoreoften.Ofcourse,thosefewminutesofyourexerciseprogramcanbedoneseveraltimesaday.First,trytodosomeactivityforafewminutesseveraltimesaday.Thenslowlyincreasethetimespentineachsession.Butdon'tworryaboutgoingfasteruntilyou'veexercisedregularlyforatleastonemonth.Akeytointensity=Ideally,youwanttobeaerobic(需要氧气的)enoughsoyoucanutterafewwordsorsyllablesineachsentence,butnotsolittlethatyou'respeakingincompletesentencesortoomuchsoyoucanbarelytalk,advisesBanks.Don'tgosolo.Althoughthereisnoevidencethatpeoplearefitterwhentheyexercisewithothers,theyaremorelikelytosticktoanexerciseprogram,oranythingelse,withthebuddysystem."We'realwaysbetterinthecompanyofothers,"saysBanks.Anotherbenefittogroupactivities:Organizedexerciseprograms,likethoseavailableforlowornocostattheYMCAorlocalhospitals,oftenincludeprofessionalguidance--especiallyuseful[orthosewithconditionssuchasobesity,diabetes,andarthritis."Thereareexercisetherapistsorphysiologistswhocanexpertlyguideyoutotheproperwaytoincreaseyourenduranceandintensitywithoutriskinginjuryorfatigue,"saysGregg.Dowhatyouenjoy.
14WhileGregg'sstudyandothershavefocusedonwalkingbecauseit'samongtheeasiestandmostpopularformsofexercise,youshouldpickanactivityyoulike,soyoucontinueit.]tcouldbegardening,swimming,tennis,ortheoldfavorite,walking."Ifyouabsolutelyhateexercise,likeme,Irecommendexercisemachines,"saysBanks."SinceIhatetoexercise,Irunonatreadmill(踏车)whilewatchingTV.I'mespeciallyfondofworkingoutwhilewatchingthecartoonPinkyandtheBrain."1.Itissuggestedthatwomenshouldnotdoexercisesiftheyareoversixty.2.AccordingtoEdwardW.Gregg,it'snevertoolateforwomentostartexercise.3.Allthe9,500womenwhoparticipatedintheresearchwouldhavelittleexercisesorwouldonlywalkjustamileadaybeforetheresearch.4.Anotherbenefitofgroupactivitiesisthatprofessionalguidanceinthegroupcanhelpcureobesity,diabetes,andarthritis.5.Sinceexercisesmaycontrolconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressure,someoldpeopledon'tneedto______iftheybeginanexerciseprogram.6.AsissuggestedbyWilliamA.Banks,______isespeciallygoodforpeoplewithjointproblemsorobesity.7.Forthosewhojuststarttoexercise,thebestwaytoavoidfatigueandmusclepainisto______.8.Fortheexerciser,asimplemethodincheckingtheintensityoftheexerciseistoseethatwhetheronecan______whilehavingtheexercise.9.Inorganizedexerciseprograms,exercisetherapistsorphysiologistscanexpertlyguideanexercisertotheproperwaytoincreasehisorher______withoutriskinginjuryorfatigue.10.Itisrecommendedthattheexercisershouldpickupanactivityhe/shelikessothathe/shemay______.Passage7:PreparingforWeightLossSurgeryForthosewhoconsiderweightlosssurgery,theyareattheendoftheirropes.Traditionalmethodsofdietandexercisehavehadnoeffect,andthisprocedureisalastresort.Butbynomeansistheleapfromthinkingaboutweightlosssurgerytotheoperatingtableashortone."Peopleneedtobeaware,ingreatdetail,oftheriskandbenefitsofweightlosssurgerysotheyunderstandwhatitisallabout,"saysHarveyJ.Sugerman,presidentoftheAmericanSocietyforBariatricSurgery."Theprocedureisnotwithoutrisk,andthereisagreatdealofanxietythatcomeswithit,soittakesconsiderablepreparation."Fromcheckingoninsurancecoveragetopsychologicalexamstosupportgroups,preparingforthislife-changingproceduretakestime,physicalandmentalreadiness,andmostofall,commitment.FirstSteps"Fromthetimeapersonfirstthinksabouthavingweightlosssurgery,tothetimetheymakethecommitmenttohaveitdoneistypicallyabouttwoyears,"saysJamesKolenich,abariatricsurgeonattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaMedicalCenter,Horizon."Mostpeopledon'trushintothis,theytalktofamilyandfriends,theytalktothehospital,theygohomeandtheythinkaboutitmore;it'susuallyaverythoughtfulapproach."Morethan60millionobesepeoplearelivingintheU.S.,accordingtotheAmericanObesityAssociation(AOA),andabout9millionareseverelyobese.Weightlosssurgery,alsocalled
15bariatricsurgery,canbesuccessfulwhendietandexercisehavefailed,andaperson'shealthisontheline.Overweightisthesecondleadingcauseofpreventabledeath,aftersmoking,intheU.S.,accordingtotheAOA."Thefirstthingapersonshoulddoiscontacthisinsurancecompanytolearnifheiscoveredforthesurgery,andheshouldcontacthisprimarycaredoctortofindoutifthereisdocumentationofhisstrugglewithobesity,"saysKolenich."Manyinsurancecompanieswanttoknowthataprimarycaredoctorhastriedtohelpthepatientloseweightwithpsychologicalcounseling,diet,andanexerciseplanforfiveyears,andformanypatients,thisisabigroadblock."Whilethereareotheroptions,suchaspersonallyfinancingtheprocedure,theyarecostly:TheNationalInstituteofDiabetesandDigestiveandKidneyDiseaseswebsitestatesthatthisprocedurecanrunfrom$20,000to$35,000.Withsuchaheftypricetagonweightlosssurgery,itpaystoensurethatyourdoctordocumentsyourbattlewithobesityearlyon,toopenupoptionsdowntheroad.Whenyou'vecrossedallyourisanddottedallyourisintheinsurancecategory,itistimetofindahospitalorcenter,andasurgeon,whicharefirst-rate.FindingaBatiatricSurgeon"Whenyou'relookingforasurgeon,askifheorsheisboard-certifiedbytheAmericanBoardofSurgery,"saysKotenich."IsheamemberoftheAmericanSocietyofBariatrieSurgeons?Whatisthemortalityrateofthesurgeon,themorbidityrate,thesuccessrate?"Clearly,thesurgeonyoufindshouldbewellexperiencedintheareaofweightlosssurgery."Makesurethesurgeonyouchooseisanexperiencedandqualifiedbariatriesurgeon,"saysDanielHerren,chiefofbariatricsurgeryatMt.SinaiHospitalinNewYork."It'sclearthatthemoreexperiencedthesurgeon,thelowertheriskofmortality.Ideally,youwouldprefertofindasurgeonwhohasperformedatleast100oftheseprocedures."Whatyouarelookingfordoesn'tstopwithnumbersandstatistics--youwillalsoneedasupportsystem,Lookforacenterorhospitalthatofferseducationalseminarstothosewhoarejustbeginningtheprocesssoyoucanlearnmoreabouttheactualprocedure,thebenefits,andtherisks.Alsolookforsupportgroups,thatcanbeutilizedpre-andpost-operatively.PreparingforWeightLossSurgery"Thesinglemostimportantfactoristhattheyhavetorealizethesurgeryisnotacureforobesity,"saysHerren."It'saverypowerfultoolusedinthefightagainstobesity.Itneedstobeconsideredaspartofaprocess,andalifelongcommitmenttofollowupwithphysicians,aregularexerciseprogram,andhealthyeating.Ifapersondoesn'tunderstandthatthisisalifelongcommitment,thatit'snetaquickfix,thenheorsheisnotagoodcandidate."Fromaphysicalstandpoint,thepreparationforweightlosssurgeryinvolvesmeetingwithdoctors--alotofthem.Apersonalsoneedstomeetwithanutritionist,tobegintobetterunderstandtheelementsofhealthyeating,andhoweatinghabitsneedtochangebeforeandafterthesurgery."Bygettingintoapropernutritionalmindsetbeforesurgery,suchaslearningtoeatsmallerportions,eatingSlowly,payingcloserattentiontothenutritionalmake-upofmeals,apersonisbetteradaptedforthemajorchangesintheirlifestyleafterthesurgery,"saysHerron.UnderstandingtheRisksUnderstandingthepossibleoutcomesofweightlosssurgery,includingtherisks,isanimportantpartofpreparingfortheprocedure."Educationisatremendouslyimportantpartofthe
16preoperativeprocess,"saysHerron."Thereisnoquestionthattherearemajorrisksassociatedwiththeoperation.However,thoseriskscanbeminimizedbyhavingathoroughpreoperativeworkupsotherearen'tsurprisesduringtheprocedure,andbymakingsurethesurgeonisexperiencedandqualified."Nonetheless,dealingwiththeemotionaltollofthisprocedurecanbedifficult,especiallywhenconsideringthepossibilityofdeath."Therehavebeengoodstudieslookingattheriskofdyingafterweightlosssurgery,showingthatalthoughthereisariskofdeathwithsurgery,theoverallsurvivalrateisimprovedwithsurgerycomparedtonothavingthesurgeryatall,andlivingwithobesity,"saysHerron.Ithelpsthatmostcentersandhospitalsandinsurancecompanies,requirepsychologicalevaluationspriortotheallowingtheprocedure--whichbenefitsbothpatientanddoctor."Youhavetofillyourmindwithasmuchoptimismandpositivethinkingaspossible,"saysJoeDeSimone,PhD,apsychiatristinprivatepracticeinN.Y.,whoworkswithpatientspreparingforweightlosssurgery."Basically,thepreparationistobecomemoreconsciousofwhatyouarethinkingandfeeling,andstartpreparingyourselftothinkoffoodandyourlifeinadifferentway.Thisisacourageousstepforpeopletotake,andit'snotjustaboutweightchanging--it'saboutlifechanging."Pest-OpExpectationsWhileweightlosssurgerydoeshaveamajorimpactonaperson'slife,itrequires,likeanysurgicalprocedure,somerecoverytime."Therecoveryperiodisquitevariable,"saysHerron."Ihavesomepatientswhotakeaweekoffandarebackfulltime,andotherswhotakethreetofourweekstorecover.Whileit'scertainlyphysicallypossibletobebackto90%ofcapacityafteraweek,mostpeopletakelongertoadjusttothenewlifestyle."Newtechniqueshavealsohelpedtolessenrecoverytime.Today,theprocedurecanbeperformedminimallyinvasivelyviasmallincisions.Inafewcentersaroundthecountryitcanevenbedoneonanoutpatientbasis.Patientsalsoneedtorememberweightlosssurgeryisnotacure."It'snotamagicbullet,butisanamazinglypowerfulweight-losstool,"saysHerron."Apersonwillfindtheywillloseaboutapoundperdayforthefirstmonthorso.Thenthey'lllosebetween50%-75%oftheirexcessbodyweighttypicallyduringthefirst12monthsaftersurgery."Whatfollowsisdedicationtoahealthydietandexerciseregimen,continualfollow-upwithdoctorstomonitorprogress,andcommitmenttoanewlife.1.Weightlosssurgeryisoneofthetraditionalwaysoflosingweight.2.Manypeoplehaveweightlosssurgerypossiblybecauseoverweightmaygiverisetodeath.3.Afterhavingtheweightlosssurgery,apersonwillnotsufferfromobesityanymore.4.Apersonalsomightberequiredtoquitsmokingtoimprovetheoutcomeoftheoperation.5.Itisadvisablethatapatienthavehis/heroperationcoveredbytheinsurancecompanybecauseweightlosssurgeryisusually______.6.Apersonwhothinksabouthavingweightlosssurgeryshouldfind______bariatricsurgeon.7.Eatingsmallerportions,eatingslowly,payingattentiontothenutritional______ofmealsareexamplesofhealthyeatinghabits.8.Duringthepreparingprocedure,oneimportantpartistohelpthecandidatesunderstandthepossibleoutcomesand______.9.AccordingtoHerron,afterhavingthesurgery,therecoverytime______frompersontoperson.
1710.Withthedevelopmentof______,therecoveryperiodmaybecomeshorterandshorter.Passage8:BirdBrainsCrackingWalnutsThescene:atrafficlightcrossingonauniversitycampusinJapan.Carrioncrowsandhumanslineuppatiently,waitingforthetraffictohalt.Whenthelightschange,thebirdshopinfrontofthecarsandplacewalnuts,whichtheypickedfromtheadjoiningtrees,ontheroad.Afterthelightsturngreenagain,thebirdsflyawayandvehiclesdriveoverthenuts,crackingthemopen.Finally,whenit'stimetocrossagain,thecrowsjointhepedestriansandpickuptheirmeal.Biologistsalreadyknewthecorvinefamily--itincludescrows,ravens,rooks,magpiesandjackdaws--tobeamongthesmartestofallbirds.Butthisremarkablepieceofbehaviorwouldseemtobeaparticularlyacutedemonstrationofbirdintelligence.Researchersbelievetheyprobablynoticedcarsdrivingovernutsfallenfromawalnuttreeoverhangingaroad.Thecrowsalreadyknewaboutdroppingclamsfromaheightontheseashoretobreakthemopen,butfoundthisdidnotworkforwalnutsbecauseoftheirsoftgreenoutershell.Otherbirdsdothis,althoughnotwithquitethesameprecision.IntheDardiaMountainsofGreece,eaglescanbeseencarryingtortoisesuptoagreatheightanddroppingthemontorocksbelow.DoBirdsHaveIntelligence?Scientistshavearguedfordecadesoverwhetherwildcreatures,includingbirds,showgenuineintelligence.Somestillconsiderthehumanmindtobeunique,withanimalscapableofonlythesimplestmentalprocesses.Butanewgenerationofscientistsbelievesthatcreatures,includingbirds,cansolveproblemsbyinsightandevenlearnbyexample,ashumanchildrendo.Birdscaneventalkinameaningfulway.GoodMemorySomebirdsshowquiteastonishingpowersofrecall.AtypeofNorthAmericancrowmayhavetheanimalworld'skeenestmemory.Itcollectsupto30,000pineseedsoverthreeweeksinNovember,andthencarefullyburiesthemforsafekeepingacrossoveranareaof200squaremiles.Overthenexteightmonths,itsucceedsinretrievingover90percentofthem,evenwhentheyarecoveredinfeetofsnow.MakingandUsingToolsOnthePacificislandofNewCaledonia,thecrowsdemonstrateatool-making,andtoolusingcapabilitycomparabletoPaleolithicman's.DrGavinHunt,aNewZealandbiologist,spentthreeyearsobservingthebirds.Hefoundthattheyusedtwodifferentformsofhooked"tool"topullgrubsfromdeepwithintreetrunks.Otherbirdsandsomeprimateshavebeenseentouseobjectstoforage.Butwhatisunusualhereisthatthecrowsalsomaketheirowntools.Usingtheirbeaksasscissorsandsnippers,theyfashionhooksfromtwigs,andmakebarbed,serratedrakesorcombsfromstiffleatheryleaves.Andtheydon'tthrowthetoolsawayafteroneuse--theycarrythemfromoneforagingplacetoanother.Scientistsarestilldebatingwhatthisbehaviormeans.Man'suseoftoolsisconsideredaprimeindicationofhisintelligence,isthisaskillacquiredbychance?Didthecrowsacquiretoolmakingskillsbytrialanderrorratherthanplanning?Or,initsabilitytoadaptandexploitanenormousrangeofresourcesandhabitats,isthecrowclosertohumansthananyothercreature?
18DrHuntsaidthisofhisresearch:"Therearemanyintriguingquestionsthatremaintobeansweredaboutcrows'toolbehavior.Mostimportantwouldbewhetherornottheymostlylearnorgeneticallyinherittheknow-howtomakeandusetools.Withoutknowingthatitisdifficulttosayanythingabouttheirintelligence,althoughonecouldguessthatthesecrowshavethecapabilitytobeascleverascrowsingeneral."Thewoodpeckerfinchisanotherconsummatetoolmaker;Itwillsnapoffatwig,trimittosizeanduseittopryinsectsoutofbark.Incaptivity,acactusfinchlearnthowtodothisbywatchingthewoodpeckerfinchfromitscage.Theteacherhelpedthepupilbypassingaready-madespineacrossforthecactusfinchtouse.CommunicationAbilityAnothersignofintelligence,thoughttobeabsentinmostnon-humananimals,istheabilitytoengageincomplex,meaningfulcommunication.TheworkofProfessorIrenePepperbergoftheUniversityofArizona,Tucson,hasnowshownthegeneralperceptionofparrotsasmindlessmimicstobeincorrect.ThecaptiveAfricangreyparrotAlexisoneofanumberofparrotsnowbelievedtohavetheintelligenceandemotionalmake-upofa3to4yearoldchild.UnderthetutelageofProfessorPepperherg,heacquiredavocabularyofover100words.Hecouldsaythewordsforcolorsandshapesand,apparently,usethemmeaningfully.Hehaslearnedthelabelsformorethan35differentobjects;heknowswhentouse"no,"andphrasessuchas"comehere,""IwantX,"and"WannagoY."Abird'sabilitytounderstand,orspeak,anotherbird'slanguagecanbeveryvaluable.NewZealandsaddlebacksoccupythesameterritoryforyears.Theyhavedistinctsong"dialects"passedonthroughthegenerations.Newterritoryvacanciesarehardtofind,soyoungmalesarealwaysonthelook-outfornewwidowsintowhoseterritorytheycanmove.Whiletheywanderaroundtheforest,theylearnthedifferentdialectsongs,justaswemightlearnalanguageordeveloparegionaldialect.Assoonasaterritory-owningmaledies,anewyoungmalemaymoveintotakeoverwithin10minutes.Hewillimmediatelystartsingingthedialectoftheterritoryheisin.PossessingAbstractConceptsIntelligence--ifthisiswhatscientistsagreethesebirdspossess--isnotlimitedtothebirdswealwaysthoughtofas"bright."InrecentexperimentsatCardiffUniversityinBritain,apigeonidentifiedsubtledifferencesbetweenabstractdesignsthatevenartstudentsdidnotnotice.ItcouldeventellthataPicassowasnotthesameasaMonet.Theexperimentseemstoshowthatpigeonscanholdconcepts,orideas,intheirheads.ThevisualconceptforthepigeonisPicasso'spaintingstyle.SocialNecessityMakesBirdsSmart.Scientistsbelieveitisnotphysicalneedthatdrivescreaturestobecomesmarter,butsocialnecessity.Thecomplexitiesoflivingtogetherrequireahigherlevelofintelligence.Corvidsandparrots,alongwithdolphins,chimps,andhumansareallhighlysocial--andsmart--animals.Someravenscertainlyapplytheirintelligenceforthegoodoftheflock.InNorthAmerica,theycontactotherravenstotellthemthelocationofacarcass(动物尸体).RavensarespecializedfeedersonthecarcassesoflargemammalssuchasmooseduringtheharshwintermonthsofNorthAmerica.Thebirdsroosttogetheratnightonatree,arrivingnoisilyfromalldirectionsshortlybeforesunset.Thenextmorning,allthebirdsleavetheroostashighlysynchronized(同步地)
19groupsatdawn,givingafewnoisycaws,followedbyhonking.Theymayallbeflyingoffinthedirectiontakenbyabird,whichhaddiscoveredacarcassthepreviousday.Thisbirdleadstheotherstohisfoodstore,apparentlysharinghisfindingwiththerestoftheflock.Ravensshareinformationabouttheirfindingsoffoodcarcassesbecausedeadanimalsarepatchily(散落地)distributedandhardtofind.Manyeyeshaveabetterchanceoffindingacarcass,andonceonehasbeenlocated,theinformationispooled(共享的).Althoughthecarcassnowhastobesharedbetweenmoreindividuals,theheavysnowfallandriskofmammalscavengers(食腐动物)takingthefoodmeanthatasinglebirdorasmallgroupcouldnoteatitallaloneanyway.IntelligenceInheritanceThelevelofintelligenceamongbirdsmayvary.Butnolivingbirdistrulystupid.Eachgenerationofbird'sthatleavestheprotectionofitsparentstobecomeindependenthastheinborngeneticinformationthatwillhelpittosurviveintheoutsideworldandtheskillsthatithaslearnedfromitsparents.Theywouldneverhavemetthechallengeofevolutionwithoutsomedegreeofnativecunning.It'sjustthatsomehavemuchmorethanothers.1.TheexampleoftheJapanesecarrioncrowsatthebeginningofthepassageisademonstrationofthe______.A)kindnessofpeopleB)harmoniouslivingconditionsC)ecologicalstabilityD)birdintelligence2.______believe(s)thatbirdsaswellassomeothernon-humananimalsshowintelligence.A)BiologistsB)AnewgenerationofscientistsC)ResearchersoftheUniversityofArizonaD)OnlyDrHuntandhiscolleagues3.AtypeofNorthAmericancrowcan______mostofthepineseedsitburiedeventheyareindeepsnow.A)eatupB)retrieveC)crackD)lose4.ThewritercomparestheabilityofthecrowsonthePacificislandofNewCaledoniainmakingandusingtoolswiththatof______.A)PaleolithicmanB)NorthAmericancrowC)thewoodpeckerfinchD)carrioncrows5.Peoplegenerallyregardparrots'speakinghumanlanguageas______.A)meaningfulcommunicationB)conveyanceoffeelingsC)mindlessmimicsD)ridiculousnoises6.ANewZealandsaddlebacklearnsthelanguageofanothersaddlebackinorderto______.A)shareinformationaboutfoodwithitB)beatitinthecompetitionforaspouseC)usethedialecttocontroltheterritoryitjustmovesintoD)showthatithastheabilitytoacquiredifferentdialects7.Itis______thatdrivesbirdstobecomeintelligent.A)societynecessityB)physicalneedC)geneticinformationD)psychologicalrequest8.Somebirds,suchas______,mayholdideasintheirheads.9.SomeravensinNorthAmericaapplytheirintelligenceforthegoodoftheflockby______theotherstohisfoodstore.
2010.Birdsgeneticallyinheritskillsandabilitiestomeetthe______.Passage9:Television:TheCyclopsThatEatsBooksWhatisdestroyingAmericatodayisnottheliberalbreedofpoliticians,ortheInternationalMonetaryFundbankers,misguidededucationalelite,ortheWorldCouncilofChurches.Thesearelargelysymptomsofagreaterdisorder.Butifthereisanysingleinstitutiontoblame,itistelevision.Television,infact,hasgreaterpoweroverthelivesofmostAmericansthananyeducationalsystemorgovernmentorchurch.Childrenparticularlyareeasilyinfluenced.Theyarefascinated,hypnotized(着迷的)andtranquilizedbyTV.Itisoftenthecenteroftheirworld.Evenwhenthesetisturnedoff,theycontinuetotellstoriesaboutwhatthey'veseenonit.Nowonder,then,thatwhentheygrowuptheyarenotpreparedforthefrontlineoflife;theysimplyhavenomentaldefensestoconfronttherealityoftheworld.TheTruthAboutTVOneofthemostdisturbingtruthsaboutTVisthatiteatsbooks.Onceoutofschool,nearly60%ofalladultAmericanshaveneverreadasinglebook,andmostoftherestreadonlyonebookayear.AlvinKernan,authorofTheDeathofLiterature,saysthatreadingbooks"isceasingtobetheprimarywayofknowingsomethinginoursociety."Healsopointsoutthatbachelor'sdegreesinEnglishliteraturehavedeclinedby33%inthelasttwentyyears.Americanlibraries,headds,areincrisis,withfewpatronstosupportthem.Thousandsofteachersattheelementary,secondaryandcollegelevelscantestifythattheirstudents'writingexhibitsatendencytowardssuperficiality(肤浅)thatwasn'tseen,say,tenorfifteenyearsago.Itshowsupnotonlyinthestudents'lackofanalyticalskillsbutintheirpoorcommandofgrammarandrhetoric.ThemechanicsoftheEnglishlanguagehavebeentorturedtopiecesbyTV.Visual,movingimagescan'tbeheldinthenetofcarefullanguage.Theywanttobreakout.Theyreallyhavenothingtodowithlanguage.Solanguage,grammarandrhetorichavebecomefractured.Recentsurveysbydozensoforganizationsalsosuggestthatupto40%oftheAmericanpublicisfunctionallyilliterate.Theproblemisn'tjustinourschoolsorinthewayreadingistaught.TVteachespeoplenottorean.Itmakesthemincapableofengaginginanartthatisnowperceivedasstrenuous(费力的)andactive.Passiveasitla,televisionhasinvadedourculturesocompletelythatyouseeitseffectsineveryquarter,evenintheliteraryworld.Itshowsupmsupermarketpaperbacks,fromStephenKingtopulp.fiction(低俗小说).ThesearereallyformsofverbalTV-literaturethatissosuperficialthatthosewhoreaditcanrevel,inthesamesensationstheyexperiencewhentheyarewatchingTV.Evenmoreimportantly,thegrowinginfluenceoftelevision-haschangedpeople'shabitsandvaluesandaffectedtheirassumptionsabouttheworld.Thesortofreflective,criticalandvalue-ladenthinkingencouragedbycookshasbeenrenderedoutofdate.TheCyclopsInthiscontext,wewoulddowelltorecalltheCyclops(独眼巨人)--theraceofone-eyedgiantsinGreekmyth.ThefollowingisHamilton'sdescriptionoftheencounterbetweentheadventurerOdysseusandPolyphemus,aCyclops.
21AsOdysseuswasonhiswayhome,heandhiscrewfoundPolyphemus'cave.Theystayedinitasashelterandwaitedfortheownertocomeback.Atlasthecame,hideousandhuge,tallasagreatmountaincrag.Drivinghisflockbeforehimheenteredandclosedtheeave'smouthwithaponderousslabofstone.Thenlookingaroundhecaughtsightofthestrangers.Heroaredoutandstretchedouthismightyarmsandineachgreathandseizedoneofthemenanddashedhisbrainsoutontheground.Slowlyhefeastedoffthemtothelastshred,andthen,satisfied,stretchedhimselfoutacrossthecavernandslept.Hewassafefromattack.Nonebuthecouldrollbackthehugestonebeforethedoor,andifthehorrifiedmenhadbeenabletosummoncourageandstrengthenoughtokillhimtheywouldhavebeenimprisonedthereforever.WhatIfindparticularlyappropriateaboutthismythasitappliestodayisthatfirst,theCyclopsimprisonsthesemenindarkness,andthat,second,hebeatstheirbrainsoutbeforehedevoursthem.Itdoesn'ttakemuchimaginationtoapplythistotheeffectsofTVonusandourchildren.TV'sEffectonLearningQuiteliterally,TVaffectsthewaypeoplethink.InFourArgumentsfortheEliminationofTelevision(1378),JerryManderquotesfromtheEmeryReportthatwhenwewatchtelevision"ourusualprocessesofthinkinganddiscernment(识别能力)aresemi-functionalatbest."Thestudyalsoarguesthatwhiletelevisionappearstohavethepotentialtoprovideusefulinformationtoviewers,thetechnologyoftelevisionandtheinherentnatureoftheviewingexperienceactuallyinhibitlearningasweusuallythinkofit.WhenwewatchTVwethinkwearelookingatapicture,oranimageofsomething,butwhatweareactuallyseeingisthousandsofdotsoflightblinkingonandoffinastrobe(屏闪)effectthatiscalculatedtohappenrapidlyenoughtokeepusfromrecognizingthephenomenon.Morethanadecadeago,Manderandotherspointedtoinstancesof"TVepilepsy(癫痫症),"inwhichthosewatchingthisstrobeeffectoverextendedtheircapacities,andtheNewEnglandJournalofMedicinerecentlyhonoredthisafflictionwithamedicalclassification:videogameepilepsy.ShadowsontheScreenTelevisionalsoteachesthatpeoplearen'tquitereal;theyareimagesorlittlebeingswhomoveinamediumnothickerthanasliverofglass.Unfortunately,thetendencyistostartthinkingoftheminthewaychildrenthinkwhentheyseetoomanycartoons,thatpeoplearemerelyobjectsthatcanbedestroyed.Orthatcanfalloveracliffandbesmashedtopiecesandpickthemselvesupagain.Thisviolenceofcartoonshasnobasisinreality.Actualpeoplearen'timagesbutsubstantial,physical,corporealbeingswithsouls.And,ofcourse,theviolenceontelevisionleadstoviolence.TV：EatingOutOurSubstanceTVeatsbooks.Iteatsacademicskills.Iteatspositivecharactertraits.Iteveneatsfamilyrelationships.HowmanyfamiliesdoyouknowthatspendthedinnerhourinfrontoftheTV,seldomcommunicatingwithoneanother?Howmanyhaveatelevisiononwhiletheyhavebreakfastorprepareforworkorschool?Andwhataboutschool?I'veheardcollegeprofessorssayoftheirstudents,"Well,youhavetoentertainthem."OneIknowrecommendsusingTVandfilmclipsinsteadoflecturing,"throwinginacommercialeverytenminutesorsotokeepthemawake."Ateachershouldteach.ButTVeatstheprinciplesofpeoplewhoaresupposedtoberesponsible,transformingthemintopassiveservantsoftheCyclops.
22TVeatsoursubstance.Whatwesee,hear,touch,smell,feelandunderstandabouttheworldhasbeenprocessedforus.TVteachesthatalllife-stylesandallvaluesareequal,andthatthereisnoclearlydefinedrightandwrong.Muggeridgeconcluded:"Thereisadangerintranslatinglifeintoanimage,andthatiswhattelevisionisdoing.Indoingit,Itisfalsifying(窜改)life.Farfromthecamera'sbeinganaccuraterecorderofwhatisgoingon,itistheexactopposite.Itcannotconveyreality,nordoesitevenwantto."1.Televisiondoesn'thelpbuildupmentaldefensesforpeopleto______.A)dealwithviolenceB)faceasharpcompetitionC)competewithrivalsD)confronttherealityoftheworld2.Televisionis______theEnglishlanguage.A)destroyingB)diffusingC)purifyingD)standardizing3.Televisionhas______onpeople'scharacter.A)apositiveeffectB)anegativeeffectC)noeffectD)sbeneficialeffect4.OneofthemostdisturbingtruthsaboutTVisthatitmakesreadingbooksceasetobe______inoursociety.A)themostpopularrecreationB)theonlymethodofacquiringliteracyC)theprimarywayofgettinginformationD)thefinancialresources5.Televisionhasinvadedourculturesocompletelythatthatitevenhaseffecton______.A)theliteraryworldB)foreigncountriesC)thehighly-educatedpeopleD)thosewhodon'twatchTVatall6.TelevisioniscomparedtotheCyclopsbecause______.A)itdeprivesusofourthinkingabilitybeforedestroyingusB)itisalsoenormousinsizeC)itisascruelastheone-eyedgiantD)bothTVandtheCyclopsdoharmToourchildren7.Intranslatinglifeintoanimage,televisionis______life.A)recordingB)imitatingC)creatingD)falsifying8.WhenwewatchTV,our______aresemi-functionalatbest.9.WhenchildrenseeTOOmanycartoonstheymayregardpeopleas______insteadofsubstantial,physical,corporealbeingswithsouls.10.Itisstatedintheconclusionthatbytranslatinglifeinto______,televisionisfalsifyinglife.Passage10:Youdon'thavetobe18:GoingtocollegeasanadultEverysooften,especiallywhenI'mfeelingdown,Itakeoutmyoldcollegenotes,textbooksanddiplomas,andtakealittlestrolldownmemorylane.IrememberthefunIhadincollege,thepeopleImet,theprofessorswhotaughtmeandtheexperiencesthatchangedmylife.AndI'mgladImadethesacrifices.Aftergraduatinghighschool,Ithoughtcollegewasn'tforme.Iservedafour-yearstintintheU.S.MarineCorps,andthentookajobwiththepostalservice.Inmynavet,Ithoughtthat
23movingupwithintheagencywouldbefairlyeasy.Iwasbright,knowledgeable,eagertolearnnewthingsandwillingtoputinthetimeneededtodevelopmyself.ButIranintoabrickwall.Itseemedtherewasaninsidetrack,andIwasdefinitelynotonit.Afteraboutayearandahalf,Irealizedthatmychancesofadvancementwerenil,anditwastimetodosomethingaboutit.Ifloatedtheideaofattendingcollegetomycoworkersandsuperiorsandtheresponsewasmostlynegative.Buttherewereafewpeoplewhothoughtitwasagoodidea,andIdidaLotofthinking.Isawtwochoices:1.StaywhereIwas,miserableinalow-leveljob.2.Takeachanceandgivecollegeatry.SincemyjobwasLeadingmenowhere,Idecidedtostartcollege.OvercomingtheinitialobstaclesWhenIstarted;Iencounteredalotofresistancefrompeopleatwork.Thephrase"careerstudent"wasbandiedaboutatme,asifIwaslearningnothingpracticalandbasicallytryingtoavoidgrowingup.Actuallyitwastheotherwayaround,Isawstayinginmyjobasawaytoavoidfacingresponsibilities,andcollegeasamorerealworld—andanislandofsanityinmylife.Whileitmadelittledifferencetomeifmycoworkersorbossessupportedmydecisiontoattendcollege,Ididwantmyfamilybehindme.Thesupportwasthere-Ididn'tneedanyfinancialhelp,butIgotalotofmoralsupportfrommyparents,aswellasfromfriendsandrelatives.ProbablythebiggestobstacleIfaced,sinceIwasplaguedbydoubtsaboutmyownintelligenceandabilities,wasjustgettingstarted.IdecidedtostartclosetohomeanddomyfirsttwoyearsofcollegeatPalmBeachCommunityCollege,whichwasonthewaytowork,andthentransfertoFloridaAtlanticUniversity,whichwasmoreoutoftheway.IhaddrivenpastthecampusofPalmBeachCommunityCollegeseveraltimes.Inthespringof1987,Ifinallyworkedupthenervetogointotheadmissionsoffice.Formanypeoplethatfirststepisabigone,andit'seasytobelievethatoneissteppingintoanabyss,butPBCCwasflexibleenoughforme.IhadtotaketheAmericanCollegeTestand,afterscoringwellonthat,wasabletoregisterforclasses.MyfirstclasswasintroductiontotheSocialSciences,andfromthemomenttheprofessorbegantolecture,IknewIhadfoundaplacewhereIcouldlearnandgrow.CultureShockYoumightexpecttoexperiencecultureshockincollegeafteryourday-to-dayexperiences.Ifound,instead,thatmostofthecultureshockhappenswhenyouleaveclassandgobacktowork.Forwhileyourcoworkersandbossesarenotchanging,youare.Youmayfindyourselfcollidingwiththepeopleatwork.Theymayfindthatyournewhabits,likestudyingduringbreaksandlunch,andnotgoingtothelocalbartodrinkandgripeaboutwork,aredisturbingthestatusquo(当前的状况).Youmayevenbetemptedtogiveup.Pleasedon't.Itmaybedifficult,youmaybeexhaustedandyoumayhavetotuneoutcriticism,butIcantellyoufromexperiencethatit'sallworthitonthedayyouputonthecapandgownandreceiveyourdiploma.CollegelifeforadultsSoyou'vegoneanddoneit.Youhavebeenacceptedformatriculation(注册入学)atacommunitycollegeoruniversity,andhavebeengivenadateandtimetoregister,Yourbiggest.worrymaybeaboutwhatthingsarelikeintheclassroom.Doestheprofessortakeattendance?Somedo,somedon't,thoughallencourageperfectattendanceandclassparticipation.Isthereabreak?Iftheclassisthreehourslong,thereprobablyis.Whenyoureporttoyourfirstclass,trytobetherealittleearly.Getagoodseat,preferablyinthefrontofthe
24classroomsoyoucanseeandheartheprofessorbetter.Havealltherequiredbooksfortheclass,andanotebookandpen.Whenclassstarts,theprofessorwillhandoutasyllabus,discussit,talkabouttermpapersandmaythenbeginteaching.Youmaybeworriedabouthowtheprofessorwillreacttoyou.Youneedn'tbethatconcerned.AtthecommunitycollegeanduniversityIattended,professorswelcomedolderstudents.Wetendedtobemorefocusedongettinganeducation,hadalottocontributetotheclassdiscussionbecauseofourexperienceintheworldandwerelesslikelytoargueoveragrade.Asyougettoknowyourclassmatesintheclass,youmayfindyourselfgravitatingtowardotherstudentsyourage.There'snothingwrongwiththis,butifthere'sagroupproject,theprofessorwillprobablywantthegenerationstoworktogether.Thisisagoodopportunitytobroadenyourhorizons.Thatdoesn'tmeanyoushouldjustshowup,takeclassesandtakeoff.Theremaybeacluboractivityforyourmajoroncampusthatcanhelpyouinyourjobsearchlateron.Youmayevenfindthatthecompanyofotherscholarswillhelpyouexpandyourintellectualhorizons.Andtakinginacollegesportseventonceinawhilecanbeafunwaytomeetotherpeople.TheBigTimeGraduationfromPalmBeachCommunityCollegewasamilestoneinmylife.Againsttheodds,Ihadachievedsomething.Iwas"walkingonsunshine,"asthesonggoes,andhadlearnedtoletallthenegativitygoinoneearandouttheother.Ihadmadefriendswiththeprofessors,andthestudentsIhadworkedwithwerewonderful.Intruth,Iwasaddictedtothechallengesthatcollegeprovided.IgraduatedfromcommunitycollegeinDecember1990,thenstartedatFloridaAtlanticUniversitythefollowingmonth.FloridaAtlanticUniversitywasawholenewworldawaitingdiscovery.Myfirsttimethere,Ihadbeenscared.Itwassobigandseeminglyimpersonal.Sure,therewouldbesomepeoplefromthecommunitycollegeonthesametrackasIwason,butstilltherewerelotsofstrangers.InApril1994,IhadaccumulatedenoughcreditstograduatefromFAU.Itwasabittersweetoccasion.Ilovededucationandlearning,butwantedtomakemycareerchangesoonerratherthanlater.TwomonthsaftergraduationIleftthepostoffice,diplomainhand,andembarkedonanewcareer.Ithasn'talwaysbeeneasyandithasn'talwaysbeenthatmuchfun,butI'veneverregrettedreinventingmylife.Iamnowacopyeditorforanewspaper,withafewyearsofexperienceundermybelt,andhavealsoearnedacomputernetworkingcertificationalongtheway.Evennow,Ihavegrandplansthatinvolvelawschoolsomeday,andmaybeanMBA.Acollegedegreeopensdoors.Itmightnotbepossibletoseethedoorswhenyouarejuststartingout,buttheyarethereifyouhavethepatienceanddrivetopursueyourdreams.Goodluckinyourfutureendeavors.1.Thewriterdecidedtoattendcollegebecause______.A)hecouldseenohopeofmovinguptheladderinthepostalagencyB)hewaseagertolearnnewthingsallhislifeC)hisrelativesandfriendsurgedhimtoreceivefurthereducationD)withoutadiplomahecouldnotget'promotioninhisorganization2.Howdidthewriter'scolleaguesreactwhentheygottoknowhisdecision?A)Theyofferedhimalotofmoralsupport.
25B)Theythoughtitwasagoodidea.C)Theyrefusedtogivehimanyfinancialhelp.D)Theirresponsesweremostlynegative.3.Accordingtothewriter,mostofthecultureshockhappenswhenhe______.A)wentintotheclassroomafterworkB)leftclassandwentbacktoworkC)participatedinagroupprojectD)tookinacollegesportsevent4.Inthewriter'sopinion,unlikewhatotherpeoplethought,______isawaytoavoidfacingresponsibilities.A)stayinginhisjobB)beinga"careerstudent"C)quittingjobsD)goingbacktocollege5.Forthewriter,thebiggestobstacleduringthewholeprocessofattendingcollegewas______.A)justgettingstartedB)resistancefrompeopleatworkC)topasstheAmericanCollegeTestD)cultureshockexperiencedincollege6.Careerstudentsusuallycontributemoretotheclassdiscussionbecauseoftheir______.A)intelligenceandabilitiesB)willingnesstoparticipateC)agreeablepersonalityD)experienceintheworld7.Thewriterthoughtthatoneoftheachievementshehadwasthat______.A)hebegantolovelearningB)hewaspromotedinthepostalofficeaftergettingthediplomaC)hehadlearnedtoignorenegativecommentsD)hehadnodifficultywhenheembarkedonanewcareer8.Oneoftheadvantagesofcampuslifewasthatonemay______inthecompanyofotherscholars.9.Bysaying______theauthormeantthatwithacollegedegree,onecanexpectmorechancesofemploymentandsuccess.10.Lookingbackonhisdecisiontogotocollege,thewriter______.Passage11:SuggestionsforImprovingReadingSpeedImprovementofReadingRateItissafetosaythatalmostanyonecandoublehisorherspeedofreadingwhilemaintainingequalorevenbettercomprehension.Inotherwords,youcanimprovethespeedwithwhichyougetwhatyouwantfromyourreading.Theaveragecollegestudentreadsbetween250and350wordsperminuteonfictionandnon-technicalmaterials.A"good"readingspeedisaround500to700wordsperminute,butsomepeoplecanread1,000wordsperminuteormoreonthesematerials.Whatmakesthedifference?Therearethreemainfactorsinvolvedinimprovingreadingspeed:(1)thedesiretoimprove,(2)thewillingnesstotrynewtechniquesand(3)themotivationtopractice.Learningtoreadrapidlyandwellpresupposesthatyouhavethenecessaryvocabularyandcomprehensionskills.Whenyouhaveadvancedonthereadingcomprehensionmaterialstoalevelatwhichyoucanunderstandcollege-levelmaterials,youwillbereadytopracticespeedreadingin
26earnest.TheRoleofSpeedintheReadingProcessUnderstandingtheroleofspeedinthereadingprocessisessential.Researchshowsacloserelationbetweenspeedandunderstanding--althoughitistheoppositeofwhatyoumightexpect!Amongthousandsofindividualstakingreadingtraining,inmostcasesanincreaseinratewasaccompaniedbyanincreaseincomprehensionandadecreaseinratebroughtdecreasedcomprehensionwithit.Itappearsthatploddingorword-by-wordanalysisinhibitsratherthanincreasesunderstanding.Mostadultsareabletoincreasetheirreadingrateconsiderablyandratherquicklywithoutloweringtheircomprehension.Thesesameindividualsusuallyshowadecreaseincomprehensionwhentheyreducetheirrate.Suchresults,ofcourseareheavilydependentuponthemethodusedtogaintheincreasedrate.Simplyreadingmorerapidlywithoutactualimprovementinbasicreadinghabitsusuallyresultsinloweredcomprehension.FactorsthatReduceReadingRateSomeofthefactorswhichreducereadingrate:1.Limitedperceptualspan(word-by-wordreading);2.Slowperceptualreactiontime(slowrecognitionandresponsetothematerial)3.Vocalization(readingaloud)4.Faultyeyemovements(includinginaccuracyinplacementofthepage,inreturnsweep,inrhythmandregularityofmovement,etc.);5.Regression(needlessorunconsciousre-reading)6.Faultyhabitsofattentionandconcentration(includingsimpleinattentionduringthereadingactandfaultyprocessesofretention)7.Lackofpracticeinreading--useitorloseit!8.Fearoflosingcomprehension,causingthepersontodeliberatelyreadmoreslowly;9.Habitualslowreading,inwhichthepersoncannotreadfasterbecauseheorshehasalwaysreadslowly;10.Poorevaluationofwhichaspectsareimportantandwhichareunimportant;11.Theefforttoremembereverythingratherthantorememberselectively.Sincetheseconditionsalsotendtoreducecomprehension,increasingthereadingratebyeliminatingthemislikelytoproduceincreasedcomprehension,too.Thisisentirelydifferentfromsimplyspeedinguptherateofreading--whichmayactuallymaketherealreadingproblemmoresevere.Inaddition,forcedaccelerationmaydestroyconfidenceinone'sabilitytoread.Theobvioussolution,then,istoincreaserateasapartofatotalimprovementofthewholereadingprocess,asspecialtrainingprogramsinreadingdo.BasicConditionsforIncreasingReadingRateAwell-plannedprogrampreparesformaximumincreaseinratebyestablishingthenecessaryconditions.Fourbasicconditionsinclude:1.Haveyoureyeschecked.Often,veryslowreadingisrelatedtouncorrectedeyedefects.Beforeembarkingonaspeedreadingprogram,makesurethatanycorrectableeyedefectsyoumayhavearetakencareof.2.Eliminatethehabitofpronouncingwordsasyouread.Ifyousoundoutwordsinyourthroatorwhisperthem,yourreadingrateisslowedconsiderably.Youshouldbeabletoreadmostmaterialsatleasttwoorthreetimesfastersilentlythanorally,becauseyoucangetmeaningfrom
27phraseswithoutreadingeachwordindividually.Ifyouareawareofsoundingor"hearing"wordsasyouread,trytoconcentrateonkeywordsandmeaningfulideasasyouforceyourselftoreadfaster.3.Avoidregressing(rereading).Theaveragestudentreadingat250wordsperminuteregressesorrereadsabout20timesperpage.Rereadingwordsandphrasesisahabitwhichwillslowyourreadingspeeddowntoasnail'space.Usually,itisunnecessarytorereadwords,fortheideasyouwantareexplainedandelaboratedmorefullylater.Furthermore,theslowestreaderusuallyregressesmostfrequently.Becausehereadsslowly,hismindhastimetowanderandhisrereadingreflectsbothhisinabilitytoconcentrateandhislackofconfidenceinhiscomprehensionskills.4.Developawidereye-span.Thiswillhelpyoureadmorethanonewordataglance.Sincewrittenmaterialislessmeaningfulifreadwordbyword,thiswillhelpyoulearntoreadbyphrasesorthoughtunits.RateAdjustmentPoorresultsareinevitableifthereaderattemptstousethesamerateforalltypesofmaterialandforallreadingpurposes.Hemustlearntoadjusthisratetohispurposeinreadingandtothedifficultyofthematerial.Thefastestrateworksoneasy,familiar,interestingmaterialorinreadingtogatherinformationonaparticularpoint;Aslowerrateisbetterformaterialwhichisunfamiliarincontentandlanguagestructureorwhichmustbethoroughlydigested.Theeffectivereaderadjustshisratertheineffectivereaderalwaysusesthesame.Ratemaybeadjustedoverallforanentirearticle,orinternallyforpartsofanarticle.Asananalogy,imaginethatyouplantotakea100-milemountaintrip.Sincethistripwillincludehills,curves,andamountainpass,youestimateitwilltakethreehoursforthetotaltrip,averagingabout35milesanhour.Thisisyouroverallrateadjustment.Inactualdriving,however,youmayslowdowntonomorethan15milesperhouronsomecurvesandhills,whilespeedingupto50milesperhourormoreonrelativelystraightandlevelsections.Thisisyourinternalrateadjustment.Similarly,thereisnosetratewhichthegoodreaderfollowsinflexiblyinreadingaparticularselection,eventhoughhehassethimselfanoverallrateforthetotaljob.Readingrateshouldvaryaccordingtoyourreadingpurpose.Tounderstandinformation,forexample,skimorscanatarapidrate.Todeterminethevalueofmaterialortoreadforenjoyment,readrapidlyorslowlyaccordingtoyourfeeling.Toreadanalytically,readatamoderatepacetopermityoutointerrelatedideas.Thenatureanddifficultyofthematerialalsocallsforadjustmentsinrate.Obviously,levelofdifficultydependsgreatlyontheparticularreader'sknowledge.WhileEinstein'stheoriesmaybeextremelydifficultformostlaymen,theywouldbeverysimpleandcleartoaprofessorofphysics.Hence,thelaymanandthephysicsprofessorwillreadthesamematerialatdifferentrates.Generally,difficultmaterialwillentailaslowerratersimplermaterialwillpermitafasterrate.Ingeneral,decreasespeedwhenyoufindthefollowing:1.Unfamiliarterminology.Trytounderstanditincontextatthatpoint;otherwise,readonandreturntoitlater.2.Difficultsentenceandparagraphstructure.Slowdownenoughtoenableyoutountanglethemandgetaccuratecontextforthepassage.3.Unfamiliarorabstractconcepts.Lookforapplicationsorexamplesofyourownaswellasstudyingthoseofthewriter.Takeenoughtimetogetthemclearlyinmind.
284.Detailed,technicalmaterial.Thisincludescomplicateddirections,statementsofdifficultprinciples,andmaterialsonwhichyouhavescantbackground.5.Materialonwhichyouwantdetailedretention.Ingeneral,Increasespeedwhenyoumeetthefollowing:1.Simplematerialwithfewideaswhicharenewtoyou.Moverapidlyoverthefamiliarones;spendmostofyourtimeontheunfamiliarideas.2.Unnecessaryexamplesandillustrations.Sincetheseareincludedtoclarifyideas,moveoverthemrapidlywhentheyarenotneeded.3.Detailedexplanationandideaelaborationwhichyoudonotneed.4.Broad,generalizedideasandideaswhicharerestatementsofpreviousones.Thesecanbereadilygrasped,evenwithscantechniques.1.Apersonwithagoodreadingspeedusuallyreadsbetween250and350wordsperminuteonfictionandnon-technicalmaterials.2.Ifoneattemptstoremembereverythingratherthantorememberselectivelyduringreading,he/shemayhaveacomparativelyslowreadingrate.3.Thewriterproposestousethesamerateforalltypesofmaterialandforallreadingpurposes.4.Knowledgeablepeoplereadfaster.5.Ifonehasthedesiretoimprovehisreadingspeed,themotivationtopracticeand,hemayimprovehisreadingspeed.6.Apreconditionforareadertolearntoreadrapidlyandwellisthathemusthavethenecessary______.7.Differentfromwhatmostpeopleexpect,theresearchshowsthatanincreaseinreadingratemayleadto______.8.Toavoiddestroyingconfidenceinone'sabilitytoread,oneshouldspeeduptherateofreadingasapartof______.9.Rereadingofaslowreaderreflectsbothhis______andhislackofconfidenceinhiscomprehensionskills.10.Aneffectivereaderusuallyadjustshisratetohispurposeinreadingandtothedifficultyofthematerialwhileanineffectivereaderalways______.Passage12:TheInterviewAttheDemobilizationCentre,aftertheusualroundofmedicalinspection,returnofserviceequipment,andissueofallowancesandcivilianclothing,Ihadbeeninterviewedbyanofficerwhosejobwastoadviseoncareers.OnlearningthatIhadasciencedegreeandvariedexperienceinengineeringtechnology,heexpressedtheopinionthatIwouldhavenodifficultyinfindingagoodcivilianjob.Industrywasreorganizingitselfforpost-warproductionandtherewasalreadyanurgentdemandforqualifiedtechnologists,especiallyinthefieldofelectronics,whichwasmyspecialinterest.Ihadbeenverymuchencouragedbythis,asIhadmadeapointofkeepingupwithnewtrendsanddevelopmentsbyborrowingbooksthroughtheCentralLibrarySystem,andbysubscribingtovarioustechnicaljournalsandmagazines,soIfeltquiteconfidentofmyabilitytoholddownagoodjob.HehadgivenmealetterofintroductiontotheHigherAppointmentsOfficeinTavistockSquare,London,andsuggestedthatIcallonthemassoonasIhadsettledmyselfin"digs"andhadenjoyedashortholiday...
29Shortlyaftermyreturn,IvisitedtheAppointmentsOffice,whereIwasinterviewedbytwocourteous,impersonalmenwhoquestionedmecloselyonmyacademicbackground,servicecareerandexperienceinindustry.IexplainedthataftergraduatingIhadworkedfortwoyearsasaCommunicationEngineerfortheStandardOilCompanyattheirArubaRefinery,earningenoughtopayforpostgraduatestudyinEngland.AttheendoftheinterviewtheytoldmethatIwouldbenotifiedofanyvacanciessuitabletomyexperienceandqualifications.TwoweekslaterIreceivedaletterfromtheAppointmentsOffice,togetherwithalistofthreefirms,eachofwhichhadvacanciesforqualifiedCommunicationEngineers.Ipromptlywrotetoeachone,statingmyqualificationsandexperience,andsoonreceivedveryencouragingreplies,eachwithaninvitationtoaninterview.EverythingwasworkingverysmoothlyandIfeltontopoftheworld.IwasnervousasIstoodinfrontoftheHeadOfficeinMayfair;thisfirmhadahighinternationalreputationandthethoughtofbeingassociatedwithitaddedtomyexcitement.Anyway,Ireasoned,thiswasthefirstoftheinterviews,andifIfailedheretherewerestilltwochancesremaining.Theuniformedattendantpolitelyopenedthelargedoorsforme,andasIapproachedthereceptionist'sdeskshesmiledquitepleasantly."Goodmorning."Herbrowswereraisedinpoliteenquiry."Goodmorning,"Ireplied,"MynameisBraithwaite.IamhereforaninterviewwithMr.Symonds."Ihadtakenagreatdealofcarewithmyappearancethatmorning.Iwaswearingmybestsuitwiththefightshirtandtieandpockethandkerchief;myshoesweresmartlypolished,myteethwerewellbrushedandIwaswearingmybestsmile--allthishadpassedtheverycriticalinspectionofMr.andMrs.BelmontwithwhomIlived.ImightevensaythatIwasquiteproudofmyappearance.Yetthereceptionist'ssmilesuddenlydisappeared.Shereachedforalargediaryandconsulteditasiftoverifymystatement,thenshepickedupthetelephoneand,cuppingherhandaroundthemouthpieceasifforgreaterprivacy,spokerapidlyintoit,watchingmestealthilythewhile."Willyoucomethisway?"Shesetoffdownawidecorridor,herbackstraightandstiffwithadisapprovalwhichwasechoedinthetap-tapofherhighheels.Attheendofthecorridorweenteredanautomaticlift;thegirlmaintainedasilenthostilityandavoidedlookingatme.Atthesecondfloorwesteppedoutintoapassageontowhichseveralroomsopened;pausingbrieflyoutsideoneofthemshesaid"Inthere,"andquicklyretreatedtothelift.Iknockedonthedoorandenteredaspaciousroomwherefourmenwereseatedatalargetable.Oneofthemrose,walkedaroundtoshakehandswithmeandintroducedhiscolleagues,andthenindicatedachairinwhichIseatedmyself.AfterabriefenquiryintomyplaceofbirthandR.A.F.serviceexperience,theybegantoquestionmecloselyontelecommunicationsandthedevelopmentofelectronicsinthatfield.Thequestionswerestudied,deliberate,andsuddenlythenervousnesswhichhadtroubledmeallthemorningdisappeared;nowIwasconfident,ateasewithafamiliarsubject.Theyquestionedmeontheory,equipment,circuits,operation;onmytrainingintheU.S.A.,andonmyexperiencethereandinSouthAmerica.Theywerethorough,butIwasrelaxednow;theyearsofstudy,fieldworkandpostgraduateresearchwereabouttopayoff,andIknewthatIwasholdingmyown,andevenenjoyingit.Andthenitwasallover.Mr.Symonds,thegentlemanwhohadwelcomedme,leanedbackinhischairandlookedfromonetoanotherofhisassociates.Theynoddedtohim,andhesaid:
30"Mr.Braithwaite,myassociatesandIarecompletelysatisfiedwithyourrepliesandfeelsurethatintermsofqualification,abilityandexperience,youareabundantlysuitedtothepostwehaveinmind.Butwearefacedwithacertaindifficulty.EmployingyouwouldmeanplacingyouinapositionofauthorityoveranumberofourEnglishemployees,manyofwhomhavebeenwithusaverylongtime,andwefeelthatsuchanappointmentwouldunfavorablyaffectthebalanceofgoodrelationshipwhichhasalwaysobtainedinthisfirm.Wecouldnotofferyouthatpostwithouttheresponsibility,neitherwouldweaskyoutoaccepttheoneortwoothervacanciesofadifferenttypewhichdoexist,for.theyareunsuitableforsomeonewithyourhighstandardofeducationandability.So,I'mafraid,wewillnotbeabletouseyou."Atthisherose,extendedhishandinthecourtesyofdismissal.Ifeltdrainedofstrengthandthought;yetsomehowImanagedtoleavethatoffice,navigatethepassage,liftandcorridor,andwalkoutofthebuildingintothebusysunlitstreet.IhadjustbeenbroughtfacetofacewithsomethingIhadeitherforgottenorcompletelyignoredformorethansixexcitingyearsmyblackskin.IthadnotmatteredwhenIvolunteeredforaircrewservicein1940;ithadnotmatteredduringtheperiodofflyingtrainingorwhenIreceivedmywingsandwaspostedtoasquadron;ithadnotmatteredintheexcitinguncertaintiesofoperationalflying,oflivingandlovingfromdaytoday,brotheredtomenwholikemyselfhadnotomorrowandcouldnotaffordtowastetodayontheabsurditiesofprejudice;ithadnotmatteredwhen,uniformedandwinged,Ivisitedtheatresanddancehalls,pubsandprivatehouses.Ihadforgottenaboutmyblackfaceduringthoseyears.Isawitdailyyetnevernoticeditscolour.IwasanairmaninflyingkitwhileonHisMajesty'sbusiness,smiledat,encouraged,welcomedbygratefulciviliansinbarsoronthestreet,whosawnotme,buttheuniformanditsrelationshiptotheglorious,undyingFew.Yes,IhadforgottenaboutmyskinwhenIhadsoeagerlydiscussedmypost-warprospectswiththeCareersOfficerandtheAppointmentspeople;IhadquiteforgottenaboutitasIcheerfullyenteredthatgrand,imposingbuilding...Now,asIwalkedsadlyaway,Iconsciouslyturnedmyeyesawayfromthesightofmyfacereflectedinthelargeplate-glassshopwindows.Disappointmentandangerwereasolidbitterlumprisinginsideme;Ihurriedintothenearestpubliclavatoryandwasviolentlysick.1.Theofficeratthedemobilizationcenterthoughtitwashardfortheauthortofindajob.2.Theauthorwasgoodatcomputer.3.Qualifiedtechnologistswereinbadneedofinthefieldofelectronics.4.TheauthorhadworkedintheheadquartersofStandardOilCompany.5.Theauthorwasquiteproudof______thatmorningofinterview.6.Theauthorsteppedoutoftheliftat______.7.Mr.Symondsandhisassociateswere______withtheauthor'sreplies.8.Theauthorhadeitherforgottenorcompletelyignored______formorethansixyears.9.Theauthorwassmiledat,encouragedandwelcomedbycivilianswhenhewasin______.10.Theauthorwasviolentlysickbecausehefelt______.Passage13:TheSciencethatImitatesNature'sMechanismsAEuropeanindustrialistnotlongagobecameverysuspiciousaboutAmericanpurposesandintentionsincertainareasofscientificresearch.HelearnedbychancethattheUnitedStateswassigningcontractswithscientistsinEngland,France,Italy,Germany,Belgium,Sweden,Uruguay,
31Chile,Argentina,Australia,andothercountries,callingforresearchintosuchmattersasthefunctionofthefrog'seyeandthelearningabilityoftheoctopus.Itseemedtotheindustrialistthatsuchstudiescouldnotpossiblyhaveanypracticalvalue.HeseriouslybelievedthattheUnitedStateswasemployingtheforeignscientiststodomeaninglessworkandoccupytheirtime,whileAmericanscientistswerebusyinthereallyimportantareasofscience.HewasunawareofthefactthattheUnitedStateswasspendingmuchmoremoneyathomethanabroadforsimilarstudies.NaturedoesthingsbetterthanpeopleActually,theresearchhequestionedinvolvesafieldofsciencesonewthatmostpeoplehaveneverheardofit.Namedbionicsin1960,thisscienceisthestudyoflivingcreatures,astudyinsearchofprincipleapplicabletoengineering.Naturehasoperatedavastlaboratoryfortwobillionyears,andbionicsprobesthesecretsofthemarvelous"special-purpose"mechanismsthathavedeveloped.Takethefrog'seyeforexample.Afrogeatsonlyliveinsects,anditseyeinstantlyspotsamovingflywithinreachofitstongue.Youcansurroundafrogwithdead(thereforemotionless)flies,anditwillneverknowtheyarethere.Ifwecancompletelyunderstandthemechanicofthefrog'seye,wecandevelopa"mapreadingeye"formissilesanda"pattern--recognitioneye"forourbasicairdefensesystemcalledSAGE(semi-automaticgroundenvironment).SAGEisbadlyoverworked.Itsinternationalnetworkofradar"EYES"suppliesatremendousmassofunimportantdetailsaboutmeteorites,clouds,flightsofducks,geese,andfriendlyplanes,anditsometimesgetsconfused.Untilwecanbuildamechanicalfrog'seyeintoSAGE,itwillremainsomewhatinefficient.MilitaryandcivilianusesThefrog'seyeholdspromiseincivilianlife,too.Forexample,atmostmajorairportstheairtrafficproblem--with20millionflightsperyeartohandle--hasreachedacriticalstage.Wemustdevelopbetterdevicesformonitoringandcontrollingairtraffic.Special-purposemechanismasexcitingasthefrog'seyecanbefoundthroughoutnature.Thebatisunderstudybecausethebat'ssonarismuchmoreefficientthanman-madesonar.Bybouncingsupersonicsqueaksoffobjectsaroundhim,thebatfliesaboutwithremarkableskills.Abatcanflythroughadarkroomstrungwithdozensofpianowiresandnevertouchasinglewire.ThemosquitoisunderstudybecauseweneedtosolvetheproblemofStaticthatlessenstheefficiencyofourcommunicationssystems.Amosquito,simplybyvibratingitswings,cansetupahumthatwillcutthroughanyinterferingnoise(manornaturecancreateloudwhistlesorthunder,forinstance)andgiveamessagetoanothermosquito150feetaway.ElectricalsystemTheoreticallyatleastweshouldbeabletocopythesemechanismsfoundinnature,forallbiologicalorganisms-frommosquitotofrogtoman--areinpartactuallyelectricalsystems.Thesenseorgansthat"connect"allanimalstotheoutsideworldaremerelytransducers--instrumentslikeamicrophone,TVcamera,orphonographpickuparm--whichconvertoneformofenergyintoanother.Amicrophone,forexample,convertssoundintoelectricalsignalswhicharecarriedtoaloudspeakerandconvertedbackintosoundwaves.Similarly,thenervecellsofaman'searconvertacryforhelpintoelectricalpulseswhicharespedoverhisnervoussystemtothebrain.Thebrainreceivesthesignal,andthensendsanansweringelectrical-pulsemessagetohislegs,whereitisconvenedintomuscularenergywhenhestartsrunningtowardthecry.
32Wehavebeenslowtoprofitfromthiscloseanalogybetweenabiologicalorganismandanelectronicsystem.Itwasonlyintheearly1950'sthatweconsciouslybegantounitebiologistswithphysicists,chemists,electronicexperts,mathematicians,andengineersinateamtosolvethemysteriesofbiologicalmachinery.Thefirstformalbionicsmeeting--calledbytheU.S.AkForce--washeldin1960.Ayearlatertherewere20,000biologistsatworkinresearchlaboratoriesintheUnitedStatesmorethandoublethenumberemployedtenyearsearlier.ElectronicandnonelectronicAbionicistcan,ofcourse,copymuchinnaturewithoutresortingtoelectronics.Forexample,anairplanewingthatgivesuniquestabilitytoasmallplanewasintroducedbytheCessnaCompanyin1960;thewingtipsofaseabirdservedasthemodel.Anartificialgilltoextractoxygenfromwaterandthrowoffcarbondioxidelikeafish'sgillisbeingstudiedbytheNavyforuseonsubmarines.FortheNavy,too,theU.S.RubberCompanyismakingtestsofarubber"skin"forboatsandsubmarinehulls,modeledontheelasticskinofadolphin.Butthegreatestadvancesinbionicsunquestionablywillbeelectronicinnature.Alreadyaninstrumentlaboratoryhasdevelopedan"eye"thatcanpeerthroughamicroscopeanddistinguishcertainkindsofdiseasedceilsfromhealthycells.GeneralElectricCompanyhasanexperimentaleye,theVisilog,thatoperatesontheprincipleusedbythehumaneyeinjudgingdistanceasasolidsurfaceisapproached.Wehumansjudgeoutrateofapproachbythechangedoccurringinthetextureofasurfaceasoureyesgetcloserandclosertoit.Thisexplainswhywesometimesfailtoseeaglassdoor,butwealwaysstopshortofabrickwall.GeneralElectric'seyecalculatestherateofapproachtoanytexturedsurfaceandcontainsadevicetoslowtheapproachspeed.Itisbeingdeveloped,hopefully,topemitaplannedmoon-proberockettomakeasoftlandingonthemoon'ssurface.AsmallvarietyofVisilogmaybecreatedfortheblind.Ears,nose,andbrainTheowl'searsarefascinatingtomanybionicists,fortheowlhasuncannydirectionalhearing.Hecanhearamousechewingandflydownonit,eventhoughitishiddenfromsightunderapileofleaves.Forthoseengagedindesigningsensitivemechanicearsforlisteningtoenemysonar,owlresearchmayindeedhavevalue.Noristhenosebeingignored.Manymalecreaturesfindtheirwaytotheirmatesbyfollowinganodorgivenoffbythefemale.Toexploremechanicalscentdetection,theArmorresearchFoundationhasdevelopedasyntheticnosewhichcan,itisbelieved,detectscentsinvaporsataratioofoneparticletoamillion.TheFoundationthinksthatitcanbeusedinearlydetectionoffoodspoilage,andtowarnindustrialandmilitarypersonnelofthepresenceofpoisonousvapors.Finally,thebionicistisextremelyinterestedintheonegeneralmechanismthatservestheentireanimalkingdom--thebrain.Thebrainmakesallanimalsunimaginablyefficient,likesmall-sizecomputers."Actually,though,"saysDr.WarrenS.Moculloch,oneofourgreatcomputer-scientists,"computersarenothingmorethanstupidbeasts,theyhaven'tthebrainsofanant.Andtheycan'tdothejobthatmustbedone."Hopefully,bionicistisextremelyinterestedintheonegeneralmechanismthatmimicsthebrain.Butaslongasthetinybrainofapigeoncontinuoustobafflescience,thereseemslittlelikelihoodofunderstandingthesecretsofthehumanbrainduringthiscentury.Yet,evenifthebionicistneverattainsthisgoal,hewillmakemanydiscoveriesthatonceseemedimpossibletous.
33Eveninourlifetimehemaybeabletobuildmachinesthatwillbeintelligentenough.1.TheUnitedStateswasmakingresearchonthefrog'seyeandthelearningability.2.TheUnitedStateswasemployingtheforeignscientiststodomeaninglessworktooccupytheirtime.3.Bionicsisastudyinsearchofprincipleapplicabletoengineeringbystudyingoflivingcreatures.4.Bionicsisnowdevelopedtoaremarkablelevel.5.Wemustdevelopbetterdevicesformonitoringandcontrollingairtrafficbecause_____hasreachedacriticalstage.6.Amosquitocangiveamessagetoanothermosquito150feetawayby_____.7.Animals'senseorgansareonly_____whichconvertenergyfromoneformintoanother.8.TheU.S.RubberCompanyismakingtestsofmodelingtheelasticskinofadolphinfor_____.9.Owlresearchmayhavevalueindesigning_____.10._____isageneralmechanismthatservestheentireanimalkingdom.Passage14:IntelligentTransportSystemToday,therearemanywaystotravelaroundalargemetropolitanarea,forworkorpleasure.Youcouldwalk,althoughtherangeisadmittedlylow.Youcouldbicycle,butyoustilldoalotofwork,andit'sdangerous.Youcoulddriveacar,whichtakesconcentrationandsobrietyandalicense.Youcouldrideabus,andletsomeoneelsedrive.Youcouldtakeatrain,andletacomputerdriveyou.Oryoucouldfly,andwaitalongtimefortheplanetotakeoffandland.Allmodesoftransportationhaveadvantages,anddisadvantages.However,inrecentdecades,thesinglesystemthathaswonoverallothersistheprivateautomobile.Thisallowsyoutogofromyourstartingpointtoyourdestinationpoint,withyourcompletecontrol,atareasonablespeedinareasonabletime.Unfortunately,apartfromthepollutantscreatedbythevehicleitself,thefactthatsomanyotherpeopleseemtoenjoyitsperceivedfreedomcausesmajortrafficjams,andtherequirementfortrafficcontroldevices.Toomanypeopleusingtoolittleroadspaceatthesametimecausestrafficjams.Itismostprofoundonlargegradeseparatedroads,thathavelimitedaccess.Therehavebeenvarioussolutionstriedout,includinghighoccupancyvehiclelanes,rampmetering,orroadwidening.Unfortunately,theysimplydon'tsolvetheproblemoflackofcapacity.Trafficcontroldevicesimposecertaincontrolsontheflowoftraffic.Mostcommonaretrafficlights.Thesemetertheflowoftrafficbetweentwoormoreroadssothatatnotimeisanyvehicleinconflictwithanyother.However,theyalsoimposethattrafficcomestoacompletestop,requiringvehiclestostopandthenstartagain.Thisnotonlyslowsvehiclesdown,butalsoistheprimecauseofwastedenergyinurbansettings.Unfortunately,citiesareveryreluctanttospendmoney.Thereforeanyfuturetransportsystemhastobecheapforcities.Thisimpliesthatcurrentinfrastructureiskeptasmuchaspossible,orimproved.Usingroads,theprimeinfrastructureavailabletodaywouldmeantheformfactorforvehicleswouldstaythesame,buteachindividualvehiclecouldbemademoreintelligent.Sofortomorrow,weneedtodesignatransportsystemthatusesroadsoraveryslight
34improvementonroadstoprovideahighcapacitysystemthatprovidesserviceforeveryone.Thiscouldbeachievedbyimplementingthefollowingeightsystems,eachofwhichprovidesmoreofaburdenonthecarmanufacturer,butwouldeventuallyprovideasystem,whichisautomatic,safeandefficient.Firstly,allcarsshouldhaveintelligencebrakesandcruisecontrol.Thesewouldremovethedriverfromtheresponsibilityofhavingtofollowalongbehindsomebody.Bypressingabutton,thedriverwouldgivecontrolofthedistancebetweenhiscarandthecarinfront.Ifthecarinfrontsloweddown,youwouldnothavetowaitforthebrakelightstolightup,thedrivertoseethem,Wenpressthebrakepedaltherightamount,andcontinuouslymonitorthedistance.Insteadthecarwouldbeprogrammedtocontinuouslymonitorthedistancetothecarinfrontandinstantlyalteritsspeedtomatchandmaintainthedistance.Byspeedingupthefeedbackcircuit,youcanclosethedistanceofcars,andthereforeincreasethecapacity.Youalsoremovedrivererrorsoreducingthenumberofaccidents.Also,carscouldcommunicatelocallywitheachotherandwareaheadoftimethatfollowingcarsneedtoslowdown.Next,youneedtoremovethedriverfromtheresponsibilityofsteeringthevehicle.Havingcomplexvisionsystemsonacarseemsoverthetopastheynotonlydramaticallyincreasethecostofthecar,butalsothecomplexityofthecontrolsoftware.Insteadyoucouldbuilddetectorintothefrontofthecarthatdetectthemiddleofalaneoftraffic.Thecarwouldtryandkeepthevehicleinthatlane.Junctionscouldbebuiltbyhavingthecenterlinesplit.Theoperatororrouteplanningsoftwarewoulddecidewhichofthetwoormoresignalstofollow.Separatinglanesofautomaticcarsfromthosedrivenbyhumansespeciallyonhighspeedhighways,wouldgiveanincentivetonotonlypurchaseanautomaticcarbutalsotopurchasetheroadspacewhichituses.Sincetheseseparatelaneswouldhavenotonlyfastmovingtrafficbutalsosafertraffic,theycouldbemarkedandsoldbycitiestocreatearevenuestreamtoallowthebuildingofmoreaugmentedroads.Havingadeviceinthecarthatdoesrouteplanningisagreathelpforpeoplewhodon'tknowthewayaroundyourcity.Butwhatifyoulivedinthecityformanyyears?It'snotgoingtobethatmuchuse,isit?Bylinkingrouteplanningwithrealtimeinformationontrafficlevelsinthecity,youcanquicklydivertyourjourneytousethemostefficientroads.Thisinformationcouldberelayedtovehiclesusingbroadcastradio.Roadsidesensorsthatdeterminetheflowoftrafficonaroadwoulddetectthespeeds.Theabilitytoremovetheparkingrequirementsfromnearabuildingwouldallowmorecompactcities,whicharebetterpedestrianenvironments.However,peopledon'tliketowalkfromaparkingstructurethatisalongwayfromtheirdestination.Thesolutionistoallowthecartodropoffthepassengerswhererequiredandthendriveitselftothenearestparkingstructurethatisknowntohaveaspace.Byautomaticallycontrollingthespeedandlocationofalltraffic,youcan'makejunctionsworkveryefficiently.Atthemoment,sometraffichastostop,andwhenitresumes,thecarsspreadoutintoalargedispersevolume.Insteadyoucouldmoveeachgroupofcarsasapacket,adjustingitsspeedsothatitarrivesatanintersectionatjusttherighttimesothatitneverhastostop.Thiscouldbeachievedbychangingthespeedofasectionofroadsothosecarsslowdowngradually.Thespeedsofroadsegmentswouldbesetbynearbyjunctioncomputerseachlinkedtotheother.Thiswouldcreateaholistictrafficcontrolsystem.Ifonesectionlostpower,thesystem
35wouldreverttoanormaljunction.Whenagroupofpeoplemovefromonelocationtoanother,itwouldmakesensetoallowthemtotraveltogetherinsteadofhavingtoeachuseaseparatevehicle.Ondemandgrouptransportwouldallowtherequestofalargevehiclewhichcanautomaticallymovepeoplefromonelocationtoanother.Thesevehicleswouldbestoredatstrategiclocations,andthensenttotherequestingsiteasquicklyaspossible.Vehiclescouldbebookedinadvance,andyoupaybythetimeusedinminutes,notthedistancetraveledordestination.Attheotherendisthereplacementofthetaxi.Thiswouldbesimilartothegrouptransportbutforsmallergroups.Againthesevehicleswouldbestoredatstrategiclocations,sothatpeopledon'thavetowaitverylong.Againtheyarehiredbytheminuteofuse.Sinceyouarenolongerrequiredtoownyourownvehicle,thetotalnumberofvehiclesrequiredinthewholesystemisreduced,andthereforethenumberofparkingspacesrequired.Givenafullydemanddriventransportsystem,youwouldneverneedtofindanotherparkingspaceinyourlife.Aftertheaboveisimplemented,youhaveondemandprivateorgrouptransportvehiclesdrivingthemselvesfrompointtopointwithouttheneedtostopatjunctions,waitfortrafficjamsonfreeways,orgetlostalongtheway.1.Ridingabicycletakesconcentration,sobrietyandalicense.2.Privateautomobileisthemostimportantmodeoftransportationinrecentdecades.3.Airpollutionisthemostseriousproblemcausedbytheexistoftoomanyprivateautomobiles.4.Trafficlightsarethemostcommontrafficcontroldevices.5.Driverscanbefreefromtheresponsibilityofhavingtofollowalongbehindsomeonewiththehelpof______.6.Havingcomplexvisionsystemwillincreasethecostofthecarandincrease______.7.Youcanhavefastmovingandsafertrafficin______.8.Tosolvetheproblemofparking,weneedthecartodriveitselftothenearestparkingstructureafter______.9.Wehavearequestofalargevehiclewhichcanautomaticallymovepeoplefromonelocationtoanothertomeetthedemandof______.10.Inordertobeprompt,taxiforthetransportofsmallergroupsshouldbestoredat______.Passage15:PlanningandPeopleInallkindsoforganizations--companies,schools,hospitals,etc.--decisionsappearcorrectintheorybutdonotworkinpractice.Therearemanyreasonsforthis.Toillustratetheproblemsinvolvedwewillconsiderfourcaseswheredifferentdecisionshavetobetaken.CaseNo.1Themanagerofashippingcompanywasinterestedinusinglargemetalcontainersforthecompany'scargoinsteadofconventionalmethodsofloadingandunloading.Hediscoveredthattheuseofcontainerswaslessexpensiveandquickerthanconventionalmethods.Morecargocouldbesentatonetimeanddelaysonthewaywereshorter.Theonlymajordisadvantage(apartfromtheinitialcostofthecontainers)wasthatnotallshipscouldtakethem.However,themanagerbelievedthathiscompanycouldfindenoughshipsfortheircontainers.Hisplantousecontainerswasadoptedbytheboardofdirectors.Unfortunately,however,itwasneverputinto
36practice.Thedockersheardabouttheplananddidnotlikeit.Thereasonwasthatthecontainerswouldmakeaboutaquarterofthedockersredundant.Theplanwaskilled.Thecomparisonofcontainerswithconventionalmethodsisshowninthefollowingtable.AdvantagesDisadvantagesContainers1.lessfreightexpenses2.quickerdelivery3.morecargocanbesentatonetime4.shorterdelaysontheway1.notallshipscantakethem2.heavyinitialcostConventionalmethods1.allshipscanusethem2.noneedtospendmoneyonthecontainers1.morefreightexpenses2.slowerdelivery3.lesscargocanbesentatonetime4.longerdelaysonthewayCaseNo.2Asolarpumpwasbuiltinasmalldesertvillage.Thepumpusedthedesert'smostcommonresource-sunlight,toincreaseitsgreatestnecessity-water.Solarcollectorswereusedtocollectthesun'srays.Flatcollectorscanbestationaryanddonothavemovingpartswhichcanbebrokeninsandstorms.Thesystemusedthe20degreecentigradetemperaturedifferencebetweenthesolarcollectorsandthegroundwatertoworkagasexpansionenginewhichpumpedwaterfromundertheground.Someofthesocialeffectsofthenewpumpswereplannedfor.Childrenaged6to15usedtobringthewaterfromwells,wheretheymettheoldmenofthevillageandreceivedinformaleducationfromthem.Inordertoreplacethis,aschoolwasalsoincludedintheproject.Buttheprojecthadnotconsideredthetraditionalpowerstructureofthevillage.Assoonastheforeignexpertsleft,thetworichestmeninthevillagetookcontrolofthepumpandstartedsellingwatertoeveryoneelse.Theresultwasthatthemajorityofpeoplewerepoorerthanbefore.CaseNo.3In1946therewasaprogramintheRioGrandevalleytosubstitutehybridcornforthenativecorn.Thenativecornwasofpoornutritionalqualityandgaveapoorquantityofgrainwhilethehybridcornwasofexcellentqualityandgaveaboutthreetimesaslargeacropasthenativevariety.Inthefirstyearhalfofthe84farmersinthevillageplantedhybridcornanddoubledthecornproduction.Threeyearslater,however,onlythreefarmersplantedhybridcorn.Theotherswereplantingthetraditionalvariety.Atthebeginningoftheprojecttheprogramleaderstudiedtheecologyoftheareaandshowedfilmsdemonstratingthesuperiorityofthenewcorn.Thefarmersagreedthatthehybridcornhadgreatadvantages.Thesizeofthecropconfirmedtheseadvantages.Whydidtheystopplantingit?Theanswerwassimple:theirwivesdidnotlikeit.Theycomplainedthatitwasn'tgoodforcookingandtheydidn'tliketheflavor.CaseNo.4Themanagerofalargeofficebuildinghadreceivedmanycomplaintsabouttheliftserviceinthebuilding.Heengagedagroupofengineerstostudythesituationandmakerecommendationsforimprovement.Theengineerssuggestedtwoalternativesolutions:1.addingmoreliftsofthesametypes;2.replacingtheexistingliftsbyfasterones.Themanagerdecidedthatbothalternativesolutionsweretooexpensive.Sothefirm'spsychologistofferedtostudytheproblem.Henoticedthatmanypeoplearrivedattheiroffices
37feelingangryandimpatient.Thereasontheygavewasthelengthoftimetheyhadtowaitforthelift.However,thepsychologistwasimpressedbythefactthattheyhadonlyhadtowaitarelativelyshorttime.Itoccurredtohimthatthereasonfortheirannoyancewasthefacttheyhadtostandbytheliftsinactive.Hesuggestedasimple,inexpensivesolutiontothemanager.Thiswasadoptedandcomplaintsstoppedimmediately.Thesolutionwastoplacealargemirrornexttothelifts.Threeofthesecasesshowfailure,andonesuccess.Whatconclusionscanbemadeaboutthedecisioninvolved?First,inanydecision,someconsiderationsaremorerelevantthanothers.Itisamistaketoattemptto,solveaprobleminengineeringtermswhentheproblemisapsychologicalone.Similarly,itiswrongtoconcentrateonthesocialeffectsofanewinventionifitismechanicallyinadequate.Itisamistaketoattempttoimproveonepartofasystemifthewholesystemhastobechanged.Secondly,thereisamorefundamentalquestion.Asolutionmaybetechnicallyverycrudebutwillworkbecausepeopleareenthusiasticaboutit.Someprojectspredictnegativehumanreactionsbutareunabletopersuadepeoplethattheprojectisright.Otherprojectsfailbecauseofindifference--peopleneitherlikeitnordislikeit-theyjustdonotthinkitisnecessary.Aprojectwillbesuccessfulonlyifthepeopleinvolvedbelievethatitisnecessaryandvaluablefortheirownlives.Somepeoplebelievethatinthesecasestheplansarerightbutthepeoplearewrong.History,however,hasshownthisbelieftobedangerous.1.Thereareshorterdelaysonthewayifcontainersareused.2.Theplanofthemanagerofashippingcompanytousecontainerswasrejectedbytheboardofdirectorsbecausetheplanwasstronglyopposedbythedockers.3.Usingthecontainerstotransportcankeepthegoodsclean.4.Sunlightisthedesert'smostcommonresourcewhilefreshairisthedesert'sgreatestnecessity.5.Childrencanreceive______fromtheoldmenwhenbroughtwaterfromwellsinthedesert.6.Comparedwiththehybridcorn,thenativecornispoorin______.7.Thedisadvantageofthehybridcornisthatitwas______andpoorinflavor.8.Thepsychologistfoundthatmanypeoplefelt______whentheyarrivedattheiroffice.9.Iftheproblemisapsychologicalone,wecan'tattemptto______.10.Historywasshownthatthebeliefthat______isdangerous.
此文档下载收益归作者所有
