考研翻译VIP班级讲义-马子辉

考研翻译VIP班级讲义-马子辉

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新东方考研翻译讲义主讲:马子辉课程简介课程大纲第一章考研翻译基础知识―翻译的定义二翻译的标准和翻译的方法三翻译的基本过程四考研翻译的核心解题策略第二章翻译技巧:词法翻译法-词义选择和词义引申二词性转换三增词法四省略法第三章翻译技巧:句法翻译法一名词性从句的翻译二定语从句的翻译三状语从句的翻译四被动结构的翻译第一讲翻译的定义翻译是一门语言的艺术,是语言之间的转换,是在准确理解的基础上用一种语言来忠实的表达另外一种(■fl.二:Ln1=1o考研翻译简介(一)考研翻译考查内容和形式根据全国硕士研究生统•考试英语考试大纲规定,考研翻译“主要考查考生准确理解内容或结构复杂的英语材料的能力。要求考生阅读一篇约400词的文章,并将其中5个划线部分(约150词)译成汉语,要求译文准确、完整、通顺。考生在答题卡2上作答。”(二)考研翻译的评分标准根据大纲规定,考研翻译的评分标准如下:5个小题,每题2分,共10分。•如果句子译文明显扭曲原文意义,该句得分最多不超过0.5分。•如果考生就一个题目提供了两个或两个以上的译法,若均正确,给分;如果其中一个译法有错,按错误译法评分。•中文错别字不个别扣分,按整篇累计扣分。在不影响意思的前提下,满三个错别字扣0.5分。(三)考研翻译今年考题特点和内容根据对大纲和最近十几年来考研翻译已经考过的真题的分析,我们发现考研翻译具有如下明显的特点。首先,考研翻译的短文内容大多是涉及当前人们普遍关注的社会生活、政治、经济、历史、文化、哲学、心理和科普方面的题材。其体裁基本上是议论文。如:1990年:人的性格和行为分析1991年:能源与农业1992年:智力评估的科学性1993年:科学研究的方法

11994年:科学家、技术与科学发展的关系1995年:标准化测试与评估1996年:科学发展的差别和动力1997年:动物的权利1998年:天体物理学中的大爆炸理论1999年:历史研究的方法论2000年:政府调控与工业化发展2001年:计算机与未来生活2002年:行为科学的发展2003年:人类学的发展2004年:语言学2005年:传媒领域中的电视媒介2006年:美国知识分子的作用2007年:法学在新闻报道中的作用。第二讲考研翻译的过程和核心解题策略翻译的基本过程翻译的基本定义“翻译是在准确理解的基础上用一种语言来忠实的表达另外一种语言”一、理解例子:Themedicinalherbhelpsacough.误译:这种草药帮助咳嗽。改译:这种草药可治疗咳嗽。二、表达例如,1997年考研翻译Doanimalshaveright?Thisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeauseful,ground-clearingwaytostart.Actually,itisn't,becauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.三、校对考研翻译解题的核心策略——拆分与组合一、理解英语原文,拆分语法结构由于英语语言具有“形合”的特点,就是说,英语的句子无论多么复杂,都是通过一些语法手段和逻辑手段连接起来的“象葡萄藤一样”的结构。在翻译句子之前,先通读全句,注意一边读一边拆分句子的语法结构。怎么拆分?正因为英语语法结构和逻辑结构比较明显,在理解英语的时候,我们可以把主句和从句拆分出来,或者把主干部分和修饰部分拆分出来。说得更具体一点,可以寻找下面一些"信号词''来对英语句子进行拆分,进而更加有效的理解英语原文:1.基本原则:把主句和从句拆分出来,把主干部分和修饰部分拆分出来。2.连词:如and,or,but,yet,for等并列连词连接着并列句;还有连接状语从句的连接词,如:when,as,since,until,before,after,where,because,since,thought,although,sothat,等等;它们就成了理解英语句子的拆分点。3.关系诩如连接名词性从句的who,whom,whose,what,which,whatever,whichever等关系代词和when,where,how,why等关系副词;还有连接定语从句的关系代词,如who,which,that,whom,whose等等;

2它们也是理解英语句子的拆分点。1.介词:如on,in,with,at,of,to等介词常常引导介词短语作修饰语,所以它们也是理解英语句子的拆分点。2.不定式符号to:不定式常常构成不定式短语做定语或者状语修饰语,所以也可以是拆分点。3.分词:过去分词和现在分词可以构成分词短语作修饰语,所以可以是拆分点。4.标点符号:标点符号常常断开句子的主干和修饰部分,也是一个明显的拆分点。例如:例1Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionatemannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.(35词,2003年62题)一、改变原文顺序,组合汉语译文整个句子的就可以组合成一个准确而有通顺的译文:社会科学是知识探索的一个分支,它试图象自然科学家用来研究自然现象那样,以理性的,有序的,系统的和冷静的方式来研究人类及其行为。第三讲翻译技巧:词法翻译法词义的选择和词义引申是考研翻译中最常用的翻译技巧。遣词用字恰如其分考题实伊(I:Childrenwillplaywithdollsequippedwithpersonalitychips,computerswithin-builtpersonalitieswillberegardedasworkmatesratherthantools,relaxationwillbeinfrontofsmell-television,anddigitalagewillhavearrived.(2001)1.英汉词字对应关系1)词字对等。这种情况多见于专有名词,技术词汇等,如:Marxism=马克思主义Aspirin=阿斯匹林激光=laser白血病=leukemia2)多种同义。这种情况在英汉翻译中较为普遍,也即是同一个词语有若干词义完全一样,但色彩意义不同的对应词,如:wife:妻子、爱人、夫人、老婆、老伴、媳妇、堂客、内人……president:总统、总裁、主席、董事长、议长、会长、社长、校长3)一词多义。这种情况在英汉翻译中最为普遍,也即是同一个词语有若干词义不同的对应词,如:cousin:堂兄、堂弟、堂姐、堂妹、表哥、表弟、表姐、表妹、卿carry:搬、运、送、提、拎、挑、担、抬、背、扛、搂、抱、端、举、夹、捧…4)交织对应。这类情况在英汉翻译中时有发生,也即是一组词义相近的词,根据不同的上下文,可以译作对应词语中的任何一个,如英语中的say,speak,talk,tell与汉语的“说、讲、谈、诉”之间的关系:5)无对等词语。翻译中的这种情况极少,偶有发生,一般用解释或音译的方式来解决英汉之间的对应关系。teenager:十三至十九岁的青少年(解释)prey:被捕食的动物(解释)hacker黑客2.词义辨析

3词义辨析是遣词用字的前提。一般来讲,词典给出的词义解释五花八门,无从定夺。在这样的情况下,我们可以从四个方面来处理英语词语的具体含义

41)根据构词法辨别词义我们可以根据词的前后缀,词根、词干来辨析词义;如:miniultrasonicprober=macrospacetransship=pneumonouitramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis=2)根据指代关系辨别词义我们可以根据人称代词、物主代词、指示代词等来辨析词义;如:(1)He[father]sentJohntotheuniversityandwaseagertohavehimdistinguishhimself.(2)Healthisabovewealth,forthiscannotgivesomuchhappinessasthat.3)根据上下文的语境或词的搭配辨别词义语境分析是翻译的重要手段,没有一定的上下文,翻译就无从着手。如下面一例:Tensionisbuildingup.根据不同上下文的具体情况,我们可分别将其译作:\lz\lz123456z(\z(\zf\Z(Y再如story一词的翻译:(1)Thiswarisbecomingthemostimportantstoryofthisgeneration.(2)Itisquiteanotherstorynow.(3)Somereporterswhowerenotincludedinthesessionbrokethestory.(4)He'llbeveryhappyifthatstoryholdsup.(5)ThegirFsstoryisoneofthesaddest.(6)AyoungmancametoScotti'sofficewithastory.(7)butofficialsrefusedtoconfirmthestory.(8)ThestoryabouthimbecamesmallerandbyandbyfadedoutfromtheAmericanTV.在不同的上下文中,以上8个story在各句中分别具有8种不同的含义:(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8),因此以上各句可分别译作:(1)⑵⑶⑷(5)(6)⑺(8)4)根据不同学科或专业类型辨别词义(1)Thelatheshouldbesetonafirmbase.(机械)(2)Asweallknow,abasereactswithanacidtoformasalt.(化学)(3)Atransistorhasthreeelectrodes,theemitter,thebaseandthecollector.(电子)

5(1)LineABisthebaseofthetriangleABC.(数学)(2)Thewearytroopsmarchedbacktothebase.(军事)(3)Heisonthesecondbase.(体育)练习、根据上下文翻译develop一词:1Hisplanedevelopedenginetroubleonlysevenmilesaftertakeoff.()2Modernaircraftaresoheavythatthewingsmustdevelopaverylargeliftforceinordertosustaintheaircraft.()3Inspiredbytheseideas,in1752Franklindevelopedapracticallightningrod.()4Ahypothesisisaspecificstatementdevelopedbyascientistfromobservations.()5Untilthedomaintheoryofmagnetismwasdeveloped,theydidnothavemuchsuccess.()6Todevelopthecapabilitiesofthegeophysicalprospecting,therenewalofthetechniquesandequipmentisthefirstthingtobeconsidered.()7Mostofthemoneycamefromsellingthesecretofanewtypeofpotatohehaddeveloped.()8AsyoungGoddardgrewintomanhood,hedevelopedtuberculosis.()9Wemustdevelopallthenaturalsubstancesinourcountrywhichcanmakeusrich.()10Severalattemptshavebeenmadethroughtheyearstodevelopthedeposit.()在考研翻译中,这种现象更是比比皆是:在1994年72)题aleaderofthenewschoolcontends中,school是“学派”的意思,而不是“学校”的意思;在1996年74)题elegantsystem中,elegant是“完美,完善”的意思,而不是“优雅”的意思;在2001年75)题Andhomeapplianceswillbecomesosmartlhat...中,smart是'‘智能化”的意思,而不是'‘聪明”的意思;在2003年75)题liketheconceptofsetinmathematics中,set是“集,集合”而不是“一套,放置”等意思…….。一、词义的选择$11:DIseeherhometonight今晚我送她回—oIndiaisthehomeofelephants.印度是大象的«He'sathomewiththeclassics.他—古典文学Newhomesareforsale.新一出售。She'salhomewheresheis.她在哪儿都。MaternityhomecostsinAmericahavegoneupsharply.美国收费已经急剧上涨。Muchisproducedhereforhomemarket.

6这里为—市场生产了许多产品。HelooksonLondonashishome.他把伦敦看成是他的O由此可见,一词多义的现象在英语中十分普遍。在翻译时,词义的选择应从以下几个方面着手。(-)根据词性确定词义如:forecast有“预报,预测”的意思,用作动词和用作名词时意思相同;increase作动词时,表示“增加,增长,增进''的意思,用作名词时主要还是表达这些意思。如:book这个单词,在作名词时,意思是“书,书籍”;用作动词却常表示“预订,预约''的意思。又如:while作连词时,有“当…的时候,而,虽然”等意思;作名词时,却指“片刻,一会儿”;作动词,又有“消磨”的意思。遇到这种情况,如果不弄清楚词性,常常就会将词义搞错,进而影响原文的正确理解和准确翻译。因此在翻译中,我们可以根据语法关系来辨别关键词的词性,以便能准确的判断词义。如:light:Thislightistoopoortoreadby.这一太暗不能看书。(名词)Aluminumisalightmetal.铝是•种—金属。(形容词)Willyoulightthefireforme?你替我好吗?(动词)round:TheEarthisnotcompletelyround.地球并不是完全—O(形容词)Let'sgointothehallandhavealookround.让我们进大厅«(副词)Theyaredancinginaround他们围成—跳舞(名词)Heworkedroundtheday.他工作了O(介词)Theboy*sevesroundedwithexcitement.男孩兴奋得眼睛的。(动词)(二)根据上下文确定词义我们以动词move为例,如果上下文不一样,move的意思显然也是不一样,必须依据上下文才能做到准确通顺的翻译。Thatcarwasreallymoving.Sharepricesmovedaheadtoday.Thestoryoftheirsufferingsmovedusdeeply.Workonthenewbuildingismovingquickly.Thegovernment^opinionsonthismatterhaven'tmoved.Imovethatwesupporttheintroductionofthisnewtechnologicalprocess.Shemovesinthehighestcirclesofsociety.Unlesstheemployersmovequickly,therewillbestrike.

7(三)根据汉语习惯搭配确定词义如:adeepwell是指深井;adeepvoice低沉的嗓音;adeepred鲜红色;deepinstudy专心学习;adeepmystery难以理解的奥妙;ade叩thinker知识渊博的思想家;deepoutrage强烈的愤怒。又如动词work在翻译时如果上下文不同,汉语习惯搭配也不一样,翻译时应该选择不同的词义来表达。Ithinkyoursuggestionwillwork.我想你的建议OThenewtreatmentworkslikemagic.新疗法神奇。Mywatchdoesn'twork.我的表不一了。Theseaworkshigh.海浪oSheworkedherwaytothefront.她好不容易才—前面。Therootofthepinetreeworkeddownbetweenthestones.松树的树根在石缝间—下去。Thenewregulationisworkingwell新规定—得很顺利。二、词义的引申(―)通过抽象化加以引申例如:Theyhavetheirsmilesandtears.他们有自己的。Weinsistthatinternationaltradeshouldnotbeaone-waystreet.我们坚持主张国际贸易不应是。Ihavenoheadformathematics.我数学方面的o(二)通过具体化加以引申例如;Thecarinfrontofmestopped,andImissedthegreen.我前面的车停住了,我错过了Perhapstheonlytroublewithcopperisthatitisnothardenoughforsomeuses.就某些用途来说,铜的唯一也许是硬度不够。第四讲翻译技巧:词法翻译法词性转换一、转译成动词例如:Iadmireyourdecisiontofightforthedifficultiesinpreparingtheexamination.译文:你决定战胜复习考试中的困难,这一点我很羡慕。(一)名词转译成动词1.由动词派生的名词转译成动词。Rocketshavefoundapplicationfortheexplorationoftheuniverse.火箭已经宇宙。InChina,thereisalotofemphasisonpoliteness.

8在中国,人们非常o1.含有动作意味的名词往往可以转译成动词。Acarefulstudyoftheoriginaltextwillgiveyouabettertranslation.仔细原文,你会得更好。Thesightandsoundofourjetplanesfilledmewithspeciallonging.我们的喷气式飞机,隆隆的机声,令我特别神往。2.英语中有些加后缀-er的名词,Heisagoodsinger.他一唱得好。Thosesmallfactoriesarealsolavishconsumerandwasterofrawmaterials.那些小工厂还在极大的—和—原材料。3.有些短语中作为中心主体词的名词往往可转译成动词,如Tohavearest和Tohaveagoodlookat里的rest和look.Youmustbetired.Whydon'tyoutakearest?你一定很累了,为什么不—一会呢?Thecarbrakedsharply,comingtorestontheedgeofthecliff.汽车猛的刹住,悬崖边上。(二)形容词转译成动词Iamanxiousabouthishealth.我—他的身体健康。Scientistsareconfidentthatallmatterisindestructible.科学家们都,所有的物质都是不灭的。常见的有:与思维和知觉相关的形容词:aware,conscious,certain,sure,mindful,ignorant,alert等;与情感相关的形容词:glad,pleased,cautious,careful,angry,happy,exhilarated,excited,confident,thankful,grateful,concerned,eager,afraid,doubtful,sorry等;与欲望相关的形容词:desirous,hopeful,anxious,keen,enthusiastic,zealous等。(三)副词转译成动词Sheopenedthewindowtoletfreshairin.她把窗子打开,让新鲜空气—«Aftercarefulinvestigationtheyfoundthedesignbehind.经过仔细研究之后,他们发现这个设计—了。小练习:汉语的动词使用频率比英语高,所以将英语各种词类转换成汉语动词是最常见的词类转换。如:住在楼上的人家得提着水桶去楼下的水龙头打水。(英语动词只有一个,汉语有5个。)以下是常见的英语各种词类转换为汉语的动词的情况。1)看到我们的喷气式飞机,听见隆隆的机声,我感到心驰神往。(名词转为动词)2)火箭已经用来探索宇宙。(名词转为动词)3)听他一说,房间里的每个人都大吃一惊。(介词转为动词)4)为使物体克服惯性而运动,就需要一个力。(介词转为动词)5)

9查尔斯是位化学家,所以他对任何大夫开的药都怀疑。(形容词转为动词)1)当开关断开时,电路就形成开路,电流不能通过。(副词转为动词)2)在这种情况下,炉温就升高。(副词转为动词)二、转译成名词(一)英语中很多由名词派生的动词,以及由名词转用的动词,在汉语中往往不易找到相应的动词,这时可将其转译成汉语名词。1.名词派生的动词Thiskindofbehaviorcharacterizesthecriminalmind.Tothem,hepersonifiedtheabsolutepower.2.名词转用的动词Ourageiswitnessingaprofoundpoliticalchange.MostU.S.spysatellitesaredesignedtoburnupintheearth'satmosphereaftercompletingtheirmissions.(二)有些英语被动式句子中的动词,可以译成“受(遭)到……+名词”、“予(加)以+名词''这类结构。Hewastreatedveryshabbilybythepressduringthisperiod.Iwasencouragedbyourpresident.(三)形容词转译成名词1.英语中有些形容词加上定冠词表示某一类的人,汉译时常译成名词。Theydidtheirbesttohelpthesickandthewounded.他们尽了最大的努力帮助—和—oBothcompoundsareacids,theformerisstrongandthelatterisweak.这两种都是酸。—是强酸,—是弱酸。2.有时候根据情况,可以灵活处理,把有些形容词转换成名词来翻译。Hewaseloquentandelegant—butsoft.他有—、有,但性格软弱。Hiswholefamilywerereligious.他全家都是虔诚的—.小练习:1)MostUSspysatellitesaredesignedtoburnupintheearth'satmosphereaftercompletingtheirmissions.2)Thedesignaimsatautomaticoperation,easyregulation,simplemaintenanceandhighproductivity.3)Thenewcontractwouldbegoodfortenyears.4)Inthefissionprocessesthefissionfragmentsareveryradioactive.5)Heisphysicallyweakbutmentallysound.6)Supportersofthekfcnature^^theoryinsistthatwearebornwithacertaincapacityforlearningthatisbiologicallydetermined.

101)Radiowavesaresimilartolightwavesexceptthattheirwavelengthismuchgreater.2)Thespecificresistanceofironisnotsosmallasthatofcopper.三、转译成形容词(一)形容词派生的名词往往可以转译成形容词。Thisissueisofvitalimportance.这个问题至关―。Thepallorofherfaceindicatedclearlyhowshewasfeelingatthemoment.她—脸色清楚地表明了她那时的情绪。(二)有些名词加不定冠词作表语时,往往要以转译成形容词。Ourperformancewas_asuccess.我们的演出很一。Independentthinkingisanabsolutenecessityinstudy.独立思考对学习是绝对—O小练习:1)Giventhatthey'reinexperienced»they'vedoneagoodjob.2)Independentthinkingisanabsolutenecessityinstudy.3)Earthquakesarecloselyrelatedtofaulting.4)Itisdemonstratedthatgasesareperfectlyelastic.5)Thepressureinsideequalsthepressureoutside.四、其它词类转译(-)形容词与副词的互相转译1.由于英语中的名词在翻译的时候可以转换成汉语动词,所以修饰该名词的形容词往往转译成汉语副1^]OWemustmakefulluseofexitingtechnicalequipment.我们必须—利用现有的技术设备。Thisissheernonsense.这一是胡说2.由于英语中的动词在翻译的时候可以转换成汉语名词,所以修饰该动词的副词往往转译成形容词。Thisfilmimpressedhimdeeply.这部电影给了他印象。(二)名词与副词的互相转译1.名词转译成副词Thenewmayorearnedsomeappreciationbythecourtesyofcomingtovisitthecitypoor.2.副词转译成名词ItisofficiallyannouncedthatChinahassuccessfullylaunchedherfistmannedspaceship.小练习:1)Below4℃,waterisincontinuousexpansioninsteadofcontinuouscontraction.2)Onlywhenwestudytheirpropertiescanwemakebetteruseofthematerials.

111)Ihavethehonortoinformyouthatyourrequestisgranted.2)Thenewmayorearnedsomeappreciationbythecourtesyofcomingtovisitthecitypoor.3)Rapidevaporationattheheating-surfacetendstomakethesteamwet.英译汉的句子成分转换形式在很多情况下,英语中不同的句子成分也可以根据翻译的需要进行互相转换:譬如,主语转为宾语,宾语转为主语,主语转为谓语,主语转为定语,状语转为主语等等。下面是一些典型的英译汉句子成分转换模式。1)Asthematchburns,heatandlightaregivenoff.2)Thissortofstonehasarelativedensityof2.7.3)Caremustbetakenatalltimestoprotecttheinstrumentfromdustanddamp.4)Carefulcomparisonofthemwillshowyouthedifference.5)Thebabydoubleditsweightinayear.6)Thousandsofterrifiedwatchersstaredwiththeirheartsbeatingfast.7)Thetestisintendedtoreinforcewhatyouhavelearntinthepastfewweeks.8)Mathematicsiswelltaughtatthatschool.9)Theoceanwasfilledwithturtlesandfish,readyforthenet.第五讲翻译技巧:词法翻译法增词法-、增加原文中省略的部分(一)增补回答句中省略的词语Doyoulikesport?Yes,Ido.你喜欢体育运动吗?是的,我OShallIbringyouadictionaryoranencyclopedia?Both,please.给你带一本词典来还是带一本百科全书来?请.Areyoutired?Notvery.你累了吗?不太_。

12(-)增补并列结构中省略的词语Wedon'tretreat,weneverhaveandneverwilL我们不,我们从没有过,将来也决不o(weneverhaveandneverwill=weneverhaveretreatedandneverwillretreat)Afoolandhiswordsaresoonparted;amanofgeniusandhismoney.愚人会很快忘记说过的话,o(amanofgeniusandhismoney=amanofgeniusandhismoneyaresoonparted)Readingmakesafullman;conferenceareadyman;writinganexaclman.读书使人充实,讨论机智,写作准确。(三)增补表示逻辑关系或者平衡结构的词语Withoutasenseofyourfault,howcanrepentanceandamendmentbeexpected?对自己的错误都不能认识到,怎么能指望你会悔改呢?Sinceairhasweight,itexertsforceonanyobjectimmersedinit.空气具有重量,处在空气中的任一物体都会受到空气的作用力Studentsshouldlearnfromteachersandviceversa.学生应该想老师学习,。二、增加意义上或修辞上的需要上的部分(一)增加动词Hedismissedthemeetingwithoutaclosingspeech.他没有致闭幕辞就宣布会议。Hespokehopefullyofthesuccessofthenegotiation.他满怀希望地说谈判会成功。Afterthebasketballmatch,thechairmanstillhasanimportantmeeting.在篮球比赛之后,主席还有一个重要会议要0(二)增加形容词或者副词Whataleaderhewas!他真是一个领袖啊。Thecrowdsmeltedaway.人群散开了。Ashesatdownandbegantalking,wordspouredout.他一坐下来就讲开了,讲个没完。(三)增加名词1.在不及物动词后面增加名词Dayafterdayhecametohiswork-sweeping,scrubbing,cleaning.Heneverdrinksbeforedriving.AuntHarrietusedtoentertainlavishly.2.在形容词前增加名词Thistypewriterisindeedcheapandfine.Anewkindofaircraft—small,cheap,pilotless—isattractingincreasingattention.3.在抽象名词后增加名词如:toinnovate革新innovation革新toevolve进化evolution进化

13tosolve解决solution解决toderive推导derivation推导topersuade说服persuasion说服toprepare准备preparation准备backward落后backwardness落后tense紧张tension紧张arrogant自满arrogance自满mad疯狂madness疯狂antagonistic敌对antagonism敌对redundant多余redundancy多余Afterallpreparationsweremade,ourmeetingwillbegin.一切准备就绪以后,会议就开始。TheywantedtoeasethelensionintheMiddleEast.他们试图缓解中东的紧张。(四)增加表示名词复数的词1.增加重叠词表示复数Flowersbloomallovertheyard.升满了庭院。NewsmenwentflyingofftoMexico.飞到墨西哥去了。Therewererowsofhouseswhichhehadneverseenbefore.的房子,都是他从来没有见过的。2.增加数词或其他词表示复数Thelionisthekingofanimals.狮是—之王。Wehavetofacedifferentproblems.我们得面对—不同的—.Mr.Hobbsdidn'ttalkovermysuggestionswithhisbrotheruntilyesterdayafternoon.直到昨天下午,霍布斯先生才跟他兄弟讨论了我的。(五)增加表达时态的词1.对某种时间概念作强调时,往往要加一些词。Ihadknowntwogreatsocialsystems.那时以前,我就经历两大社会制度。(这里除了用“过”字外,还增加了“那时以前“,强调过去完成的动作。)Theoldmanhadtaughttheboytofishandtheboylovedhim.那位老人教会了孩子捕鱼,所以孩子很爱他。2.强调时间上的对比时,往往需要加一些词Man,was,isandalwayswillbetryingtoimprovehislivingconditions.人类一、—而且一总是在尽力改善生活条件。Iwas,andremain,gratefulforthepartheplayedinmyrelease.我的获释是他成全的,对此我很感激,—仍然很感激。Thehigh-altitudeplanewasandstillisaremarkablebird.该高空飞机一种了不起的飞机。第六讲翻译技巧:词法翻译法省略法一、从语法角度来看

14(一)省代词1.省略作主语的人称代词(1)省略作主语的人称代词Ihadmanywonderfulideas,butIonlyputafewintopractice.Hewasthinandhaggardandhelookedmiserable.(2)英语中,泛指人称代词做主语时,即使是作第一个主语,在汉语译文中往往也可以省略。Weliveandlearn.Whenwillhearrive?—Youcannevertell.Thesignificanceofamanisnotinwhatheattainedbutratherinwhathelongstoattain.2.省略作宾语的代词Themorehetriedtohidehismistakes,themoreherevealedthem.Pleasetakeofftheoldpictureandthrowitaway.3.省略物主代词Iputmyhandintomypocket.Shelistenedtomewithherroundedeyes.(-)代词it的省略Outsideitwaspitchdarkanditwasrainingcatsanddogs.Heglancedathiswatch;jtwas7:15.Ittookmealongtimetoreachthehospital.Itisthepeoplewhoarereallypowerful.(三)省略连接词Helookedgloomyandtroubled.Asitislate,youhadbettergohome.Ifsintercomes,canspringbefarbehind?IfIhadknownit,Iwouldnothavejoinedinto.Johnrosegloomilyasthetrainstopped,forhewasthinkingofhisailingmother.(四)省略冠词1.英语有冠词,汉语没有冠词;因此,英译汉时往往可将冠词省略。A_teachershouldhavepatienceinhiswork.Thehorseisausefulanimal.

15Itisoutofthequestiontoflytothemooninthepast.Themoonwasslowlyrisingabovethesea.1.英译汉时,省略原文中的冠词是一般情况。但在某些场合,冠词却不能省略,可以翻译为“一个,每一,这个,那个”等。例如:Heleftwithoutsayingaword.Egbertsaidhewasgettingadollaramile.Thisisthebookyouwanted.(五)省略介词1.省略表示时间的前置词ThePeople'sRepublicofChinawasfoundedin1949.比较:中华人民共和国成立王一九四九年。(介词译成汉语在句首时可以省略,在句尾就没有省略)OnJuly1,1997,HongKongreturnedtothePeople'sRepublicofChina.2.省略表示地点的前置词Smokingisprohibitedinpublicplaces.Inwinter,itismuchcolderintheNorththanitisintheSouth.如:Hestoodbythedesk.Istayedinmybrother'shouse.(四)省略动词Whenthepressuregetslow,theboiling-pointbecomeslow.Deliverymustbeaffectedwithinthetimestatedonthepurchaseorder.二、从修辞角度看(-)英语句子中有些短语重复出现,或者具有相同意义的词重友出现,英译汉时可按情况作适当省略。Universityapplicantswhohadworkedatajobwouldreceivepreferenceoverthosewhohadnot.Neitherpartyshallcancelthecontractwithoutsufficientcauseorreason.(二)根据汉语习惯,译文中可以省略一些可有可无的词。Therewasnosnow,thnleavesweregonefromthetrees,thegrasswasdeed.第七讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法

16名词性从句一、主语从句(一)以what,whatever,whoever,whether,when,where,how,why等词引导的主语从句,在翻译的时候,一般可以按照英语原文顺序来翻译。Whathetoldmewasonlyhalf-truth.-只是些半真半假的东西而已。Whateverisworthdoingshouldbedonewell.^都应该做好。Whetherhecomesornotmakesnodifference.都没有关系。Whenwecanbegintheexpeditionisstillaquestion.J乃然是悬而未决。Howheisgoingtodoitisamystery.:是个迷。(-)用it作形式主语的主语从句,可以把主语从句放到汉语句子最前面去翻译。为了强调起见,it-般可以译出来;如果不需要强调,it也可以不译出来。Itdoesn'tmakemuchdifferencewhetherheattendsthemeetingornot.:没有多大关系.(It没有翻译)Itseemedinconceivablethatthepilotcouldhavesurvivedthecrash.这看来是不可想象的。(It翻译为“这”)有时候,如果主语从句仍然按照英语原来的顺序翻译的话,it一般不需要译出来。在汉语译文的开始,一般可以用“…的是,...”这样的结构来翻译。Itisstrangethatsheshouldhavefailedtoseeherownshortcomings.(It不用翻译,还可以用“奇怪的是...”这样的结构来翻译)二、宾语从句(一)用that,what,how,when,which,why,whether,if等引起的宾语从句,翻译成汉语的时候,•般不需要改变它在原句中的顺序。Itoldhimthatbecauseofthelastcondition,I'dhavetoturnitdown.我告诉他,CanyouhearwhatIsay?你听得到吗?Idon'tknowhowheswamacrosstheriver.我不知道一二"Hehasinformedmewhentheyaretodiscussmyproposal.他已经通知我。有时可加"说''字,再接下去翻译英语原文宾语从句的内容。Smithrepliedthathewassorry.Hewouldremindpeopleagainthatitwasdecidednotonlybyhimselfbutbylotsofothers.(-)用it作形式宾语的句子,在翻译的时候,that所引导的宾语从句一般可按英语原文顺序翻译:it有时候可以不用翻译。Imadeitcleartothemthattheymusthandinthairpapersbefore10o'clockinthemorning.我向他和讲清楚了的:(it没有翻译)Iheardjtsaidihalhehadgoneabroad.听说.(it没有翻译)但有时候,也可以在译文中将that引导的宾语从句提前到句子最前面翻译。Iregarditasanhonor「一感到光荣。(it没有翻译)Weconsideritabsolutelynecessarythatweshouldopenourdoor/otheoulsideworld.,我们认为这是绝对必要的。(it翻译为“这”)三、表语从句Itseemsthatilisgoinglosnow.看起来z。ThatiswhyJackgotscolded.这就是zoThequestionremainswhetherwecanwinthemajorityofthepeople.问题是我们OHisviewofthepresswasthatthereporterswereeitherforhimoragainsthim.

17他对新闻界的看法是,四、同位语从句能接同位语从句的名词主要有:belief(相信),fact(事实),hope(希望),idea(想法,观点),doubt(怀疑),news(新闻,消息),rumor(传闻),conclusion(结论),evidence(证据),suggestion(建议),problem(问题),order(命令),answer(回答),decision(决定),discovery(发现),explanation(解释),information(消息),knowledge(知识),law(法律),opinion(意见,观点),truth(真理,事实),promise(承诺),report(报告),thought(思想),statement(声明),rule(规定),possibility(可能)等。(-)一般来说,同位语从句可以直接翻译在主句后面。Heexpressedthehopethathewouldcomeovert。visitChinaagain.他表示希望OThereisapossibilitythalheisaspy.有可能o(二)有时候在翻译同位语从句时,可以将其放在所修饰的名词前面,相当于前置的修饰语,但不一定使用定语的标志词”的这种情况下,同位语从句都是比较简单。Weknowthefactthatbodiespossessweight.我们都知道IOTherumorthathewasarrestedwasunfounded.「是没有根据的。(三)增加“即”(或者“以为这样的词来连接,或用冒号、破折号直接分开主句和同位语从句。Butthisdoesnotinanywayalterthefaclihaltheyarenow,fromapracticalpoimofview,irrational.但这却丝毫改变不了这样一个事实,Wehavereachedtheconclusionthatpracticeisthecriterionfortestingtruth.我们已经得出这样的结论:实践是检验真理的标准。Notlongago,thescientistsmadeanexcitingdiscoverythatthiswastematerialcouldbeturnedintoplastics.不久前,科学家们获得一个二。第八讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法定语从句的翻译一、前置法:把定语从句翻译到所修饰的先行词前面,可以用"的'’来连接。Hewhohasnevertastedwhatisbitterdoesnotknowwhatissweet.不知道什么息而。Spaceandoceansarethenewworldwhichscientistsaretryingtoexplore.太空和海洋足OHislaughter,whichwasinfectious,brokethesilence.打破了沉寂。二、后置法:把定语从句翻译在所修饰的先行词后面,翻译为并列分句。(-)重复先行词。ItoldthestorytoJohn,whotoldittohi>brother.他把这件事告诉了约翰,,WewishtoexpressoursatisfactionalthistoIheSpecialCommillee、whoseactivitiesdeservelobeencouraged.在我们对特别委员会表示满意,0You,whosepredecessorsscoredinitialsuccessinastronomicalresearch,haveacquiredagreateraccomplishmentinthisrespect.,而你们现在则在这一方面获得了更大的成就。Althoughhelacksexperience,hehasenterpriseandcreativity,whicharedecisiveinachievingsuccessinihearea.他虽然经验不足,但很有进取心和创造力,o(二)省略先行词。Hereceivedthelelte〉ihalannouncedihedealhofyouruncle.是他接到那封信,。Theyworkedoutanewmethodbywhichproductionhasnowbeenrapidlyincreased.他们制定出一种新方案,‘―三、融合法:把定语从句和它所修饰的先行词结合在一起翻译。downstairs.楼下有人要见你。Inourfactory,therearemanypeoplewhoaremuchinlerestedinIhenewinvention.在我们工厂里,o

18Weusedaplaneofwhichalmosteverypartcarriedsomeindicationofnationalidentity.我们驾驶的,Shehadabalanceatherbanker'swhichwouldhavemadeherbelovedanywhere.她在银行里的四、状译法(一)译成表示“时间”的分句Adriverwhoisdrivingthebusmustn'ttalkwithothersorbeabsent-minded.,不许和人谈话,也不能走神。(二)译成表示“原因”的分句HeshowednofurtherwishforconversationwithMrs.Smith、whowasnowmorethanusuallyinsolentanddisagreeable.他似乎不愿再和史密斯太太讲话,。(三)译成表示"条件”的分句Menbecomedesperateforwork,anywork,whichwillhelpthemtokeenalivetheirfamilies.人们极其迫切地要求工作,:o(四)译成表示“让步”的分句Heinsistedonbuyinganotherhouse,whichhehadnousefor-他坚持要再买一幢房子(五)译成表示“目的”的分句Hewishestowriteanarticlethatwillattractthepublicattentiontothematter.,他想写一篇文章。Heiscollectingauthenticmaterialthatproveshisargument.,他正在收集确凿的材料.(六)译成表示“结果”的分句Theytriedtostampouttherevolt*whichspreadallthemorefuriouslythroughoutthecountry.他们企图镇压反抗,»(七)译成表示“转折”的分句Shewasverypatienttowardsthechildren,whichherhusbandseldomwas.她对孩子们很有耐心,:。第九讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法状语从句的翻译一、时间状语从句在英语中,时间状语从句的连接词常常有:when(当…的时候),whenever(每当...),as(当…时),since(自从...),until(直到…,如果不....),till(直到...),before(在…前),after(在…后),assoonas(一…就),once(一旦…),themoment(一…就),immediately(一…就),theday(在…那天),nosooner...than(一…就),hardly(scarcely)...when(一...就),theinstant(一…就),instantly(一...就),directly(就),theminute(一...就),thesecond(一…就),everytime(每当…),bythetime(等到.…的时候)等。(一)译成相应的时间状语Whileshespoke,thetearswererunningdown.ShecameinwhenIwashavingsupper.Ashefinishedthespeech,theaudienceburstintoapplause.(二)译成“一(刚、每)…就”的结构I'llletyouknowassoonasIhaveitarranged.Directlyheutteredthesewordstherewasadeadsilence.(三)译成条件句Turnofftheswitchwhenanythinggoeswrongwiththemachine.Abodyatrestwillnotmovetillaforceisexertedonit.Wecan*tstartthejobuntilwehavetheapprovalfromtheauthorityconcerned.

19二、原因状语从句英语中,原因状语从句的连接词常常是:because(因为),since(既然,由于),as(因为),nowthat(既然),seeingthat(既然),consideringthat(考虑到,因为),inthat(在某方面),inviewofthefactthat(鉴于)。(一)译成表示“原因”的分句,放在主句之前翻译,显示“前因后果”的关系。Thecropsfailedbecausetheseasonwasdry.Wehadtoputthemeetingoff,sincesomanypeoplewereabsent.(二)有时候可以用汉语的“之所以…是因为”的结构来连接。Agasdiffersfromsolidinthatithasnodefiniteshape.Hewillgetpromoted,forhehasdonegoodwork.Theoryisvaluablebecauseitcanprovideadirectionforpractice.(三)not...because的结构Idon'tteachbecauseteachingiseasyforme.三、条件状语从句英语中连接条件状语从句的连接词常常有:if(如果),unless(除非,如果不),providingthat(假如),solongas(只要),onconditionthat(条件是),supposethat(假如),incase(如果),onlyif(只要),ifonly(但愿,要是...就好了)等。(一)翻译在主句前面。Itwasbetterincasetheywerecaptured.If_youtellmeaboutit,thenIshallbeabletodecide.(二)翻译在主句后面,用来补充说明条件。Youcandrivetonight_ifyouareready.NodoubtIcouldearnedsomethingifIhadreallymeantto.四、让步状语从句英语中,表示让步关系的连接词常常有:though(虽然),although(虽然),evenif(即使),as(尽管),while(尽管),whatever(无论什么),wherever(无论哪里),whoever(无论谁),however(无论怎样),nomatter(不论,不管),forallthat(尽管),grantedthat(即使),inspiteofthatfactthat(W)»despitethefactthat(不管)等等。NomatterwhatIsayorhowIsayit,healwaysthinksI'mwrong.Whilewecannotseetheair,wecanfeelit.Grantedthatyoudon'tliketheproposal,youshouldn'thaverejecteditwithoutconsultingothers.五、目的状语从句在英语中,连接目的状语从句的连接词常常有:that(为了,以便),sothat(为了,以便),lest(以防),incase(以防,以免),forfearth以(以防)inorderthat(为了)等等。(一)一般翻译在主句前面。一般来说,这种表示“为了”的目的状语从句通常放在主句前面翻译。Hepushedopenthedoorgentlyandstoleoutoftheroomforfearthatheshouldawakeher.Weshouldstartearlysothatwemightgettherebeforenoon.(二)还可以翻译在主句后面,表示“省(免)得”、“以免”、“以便”、“使得”、“生怕”等概念。Heemphasizeditagainandagain,lestsheshouldforget.Theyhidthemselvesbehindsomebushedforfearthattheenemyshouldfindthem.六、结果状语从句(一)英语中,连接结果状语从句的连词常常有:sothat,so...that,such...that,tosuchadegree等等,通常可以翻译为“结果,如此…以致于…”,可以直接翻译。Hemadeawrongdecision,sothathalfofhislifetimewaswasted.

20Thedifferenceissuchthatallwillperceiveit.(二)有时候,如果在主句中含有“never,neverso,notso,notsuch”等否定词,“butthal和bulwhal”也可以连接结果状语从句,构成双重否定。翻译的时候,可以翻译为“没有…不Shenevercomesbutsheborrow.Sheisnotsooldbutthatshecanread.第十讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法被动语态的翻译一、译成汉语主动句(一)保存原文主语ThemeetingisscheduledforApril6th.Watercanbechangedfromaliquidintoasolid.Whenrustisformed,achemicalchangehastakenplace.(二)主宾颠倒Shewasgivenanewpenbyherfather.Heatandlighlcanbegivenoffbythischemicalchange.Onlyasmallporlionofsolarenergyisnowbeingusedbyus.Communicationsatelliteshavealreadybeenusedforlivingtransmissioninourcountry.Thenumericaldataconcernedareprovidedinthenextchapter.(三)增加主语Theissuehasnotyetbeenthoroughlyexplored.Shewasseentoenterthebuildingaboutthetimethecrimewascommitted.Whatwesayherewillnotbelongremembered,butwhatwedoherecanchangetheworld.二、译成汉语无主句Measureshavebeentakentopreventtheepidemicfromspreadingquickly.Watercanbeshownascontainingimpurities.Theunpleasantnoisemustbeimmediatelyputanend.三、译成汉语判断句Thedecisiontoattackwasnot[akenlightly.PrintingwasintroducedintoEuropefromChina.ThemanuscriptwassenttotheprinterinLondonafewweeksbeforetheFrenchrevolution.ThecreditsysteminAmericawasfirsladoptedbyHarvardUniversityin1872.四、译成汉语被动句使用“被、受、遭、让、给、由、把、得到、受到、加以、得以、为…所、由…来”等等。Theministerwasfoundtohaveappropriatedgovernmentmoney.Hehadbeenfiredforrefusingtoobeyordersfromtheheadoffice.Theschoolboywasknockeddownbyaminibuswhencrossingthestreet.

21Hewaspraisedbyhisteacher.Problemsshouldberesolvedingoodtime.Foralongperiodtocome,mostofChina'selderlywillcontinuetobeprovidedforbytheirfamilies.五、常用被动句型“It+被动语态+that”的翻译Itisconsideredthatbioclimatologyisaninvolvedsubject.Itisstressedthatthefieldofsciencemaybedividedintotwomajorareas:naturalscienceandsocialscience.Itshouldbepointedoutthatthisprocessisoxidation.下面是一些常用被动句型的习惯译法:Itishopedthat...Itisassumedthat...Itisclaimedthat...Itisbelievedthat...Itisreportedthat...Itisconsideredthat...Itissaidthat...Itissupposedthat...Ithasbeenannouncedthat...Itisassertedthat...Itisrumoredthat...Itisrumoredthat...Itisnoticedthat...Itissuggestedthat...Itisreputedthat...Itislearnedthat...Itisdemonstratedthat...Itisestimatedthat...Itisestimatedthat...Itispointedoutthat...Itisproposedthat...Itwastoldthat...Itwasfirstintendedthat...Itwillbesaidthat...Itwillbeseenfromthisthat...Itwasnotedabovethat...Itmustbeadmittedthat...Ithasbeenillustratedthat...Itisstressedthat...Itisstressedthat...Itcannotbedeniedthat...Itcanbesaidwithoutexaggerationthat...Itissometimesaskedthat...Itwasfeltthat...Itisuniversallyacceptedthat...Itisunanimouslyagreedthat...Itisallegedthat...Itiscalculatedthat...Ithasbeenprovedthat...Ithasbeenfoundthat...Itisstilltobehopedthat...Itiswell-knownthat...Itshouldberealizedthat...第H^一■讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法否定结构的翻译

22一、部分否定(-0all,both,every,everybody,everyday,everyone,many,everything,entirely,altogether,absolutely,wholly,completely,everywhere,always,often等与否定词not搭配使用。常常翻译为“并非所有,并不是都。如:all...not(不全是,不都是),both...not(并非两个都,不是两者都),every…not(不是每个都),notalways(不总是,不一定),notoften(不经常),notaltogether(不全是),notnecessarily(未必)等。Allthatglittersisnotgold.Boththewindowsarenotopen.Everybodydoesnotbelievetherumor.TheyarenotalwaysintheofficeonSundays.Theresponsibilityisnotaltogethermine.Thesituationisnotnecessarilyso.(二)"all...not”和“every…not”等结构属于传统用法。现代英语中采用“Notall…”和“Notevery...”这种表达形式。Notallmetalsaregoodconductors.Noteveryoneacceptshisproposal.二、全部否定never(决不,从来不),no(没有,不),nol(不,不是),none(没人,谁都不,没有任何东西),nobody(没人),nothing(什么也没有,没有任何事情),nowhere(没有什么地方),neither(两者都不),nor(也没有,也不),notatall(一点也不)。Heisnoprofessor.Noneofmyfriendssmoke.Ourgreatmotherlandhasneverbeforebeensoprosperousasitistoday.Nothingintheworldisdifficultfortheonewhosetshismindtoit.Neverhavewebeendauntedbydifficulties.三、双重否定常见的双重否定形式主要有:no…not(没有不),without...not(没有就不),never(no)...without(每逢总是,没有不),never(no)...but(没有不),not(none)...theless(并不就不),not(never)...unless(不少于,不亚于,和一样),not...anytheless(没有而少做)。Nownospaceshipcannotbeloadedwithman.(用汉语的双重否定翻译)(用汉语的肯定结构翻译)Youwillneversucceedunlessyouworkhard.(用汉语的双重否定翻译)(用汉语的肯定结构翻译)Thereisnothingunusualthere.Themachineisworkingnonetheworseforitslongservice.

23Shedidnotworkanythelessforherillness.That'snothinglessthanamiracle.Notaskissodifficultbutwecanaccomplishit.四、形式肯定但意义否定(一)morethancan…结构morethancan…在意义上相当于英语的cannot...,可以翻译为“简直不,无法,难以“;而morethanonecanhelp相当于aslittleaspossible,可以翻译为'‘尽量不,绝对不Thebeautyoftheparkismoreihanwordscandescribe.Theboyhasbecomeveryinsolentanditismoreihanhisparentscanbear.Don'ttellhimmoreihanyoucanhelp.Sheneverdoesmoreworkthanshecanhelp.(二)anythingbut...结构anythingbut…结构表示否定意义,常常翻译为“绝对不,根本不,一点也不Heisanythingbutascholar.Thewoodbridgeisanythingbutsafe.(三)haveyettodo…结构haveyettodo…结构表示否定意义,相当于havenotyetdone...,常常翻译为'‘还没有Ihaveyettohearthestory.Ihaveyettolearnthenewskill.(四)may(might)aswell…结构may(might)aswell…结构表示否定意义,常常翻译为“还不如”。Itisstillraininghardoutside;wemayaswellstayhereoverthenight.Youmightaswellbumthebookthangivethemtoher.(五)借助具有否定意义的动词或动词短语这样的动词或者动词短语常常有:miss(错过,即没有碰到),deny(拒绝,即没有答应),lack(缺乏,即不足),refuse(拒绝,即否认,没有答应),escape(逃避,即没有被发现),resist(抵抗,即没有放弃),reject(拒绝,即没有答应),decline(拒绝,即没有答应),doubl(怀疑,即不太确信),wonder(想知道,cease即不明白),fail(失败,即没有完成),exclude(排除,即没有接受,不包括),overlook(没有注意到),(终止,即没有坚持),neglect(没有注意到),defy(不服从),forbid(不许),giveup(放弃,即没有坚持),refrainfrom(不允许),losesightof(彳、管),keepupwith(彳、落后于),save...from(使...彳、),shutone'seyesto(不看),tosaynothingof(更不用说),nottomention(更不用说),protect(keep,prevent)...from(不让),keepoff(不接近),keepout(不让进入),turnadeafearto(不听,不顾),fallshortof(不足),liveupto(不辜负),dissuade...from(劝…不要),keep...dark(不把…说出去)等。Thespecificationlacksdetail.Myhusbandmissedthelastbus,sohehadtogobackhomeonfoot.Theerrorincalculationescapedtheaccountant.

24Pleasekeepthenewsdark.(六)借助具有否定意义的名词常见的具有否定意义的名词有:neglect(没有注意到),failure(失败,即没有完成),refusal(拒绝,即否认,没有答应),absence(不在,缺少),shortage(不足),reluctance(不情愿),ignorance(没有注意到),loss(没有),exclusion(排除,即没有接受,不包括),lack(缺乏,没有),negation(拒绝,即否认),Greekto(对…一无所知)等等。Wecannotfinishtheworkintheabsenceoftheseconditions.Shewasatalosswhatgodo.EnglishliteratureisGreektoher.这样具有否定意义的形容词或者形容词短语常常有:farfrom(远不,一点也不),freefrom(不受…影响),safefrom(免于),shortof(缺少,不足),ignorantof(不知道,没有注意到),independentof(不受…的支配),impatientof(对…不耐烦),deficient(缺乏),devoidof(不具有,缺乏),aliento(不同),foreignto(不适合,与…无关),blindto(看不见),farandfewbetween(很少),absentfrom(不在),differentfrom(不同),reluctantto(不愿意),lessthan(少于,不多于)deadto(对...没有反应),thelast(最后的,即最不愿意,最不配,决不)等等。Thenewspaperaccountsarefarfrombeingtrue.Presentsuppliesoffoodareshortofrequirements.Holidaysarefewandfarbetween.Heisthelastmanshewantstomeet.(八)借助具有否定意义的介词或者介词短语常见的有:past(超过),above(不低于),without(没有),beyond(超出),insteadof(而不是),invain(无效,没有),inthedark(一点也不知道),ataloss(不知所措),butfor(要不是),inspiteof(不管),atfault(出错),against(不同意),before(还没有…就),below(不到…),beside(与…无关),but(除…之外),excepl(除…之外),from(阻止,使…不做某事),off(离开,中断),under(在…之下,不足),within(不超出),beneath(不如,不足),beneathone'snotice(不值得理睬),outof(不在…里面,不在…状态),outofthequestion(不可能),inthedarkabout(对…不知)等等。Thatlazyboywenttoclassbeforehehadpreparedhislesson.Mr.Smithwasabovereproach.Herbeautyisbeyondcompare.五、形式否定但意义肯定这一类翻译方法与上面一类”形式肯定但意义否”结合起来,就是通常人们所说的“正话反说、反话正说“的翻译技巧。常见的带有隐含肯定意义的词组或单词主要有:not…until(直到……才),not...to。(越……越好),nonebul(只有),nothingbut(只有,只不过),nothingmorethan(仅仅),nosooner...than(刚一就),noneotherthan(不是别的人或物而正是),nonetheless(依然,仍然),notbutthat(虽然)"makenothingof”(对等闲视之),fornothing(徒然,免费),notonly…butalso(不仅而且),not...longbefore(很快就),nomorethan(仅仅,只是),nootherthan(只有,正是)等等。Youcan'tbetoocarefulindoingexperiments.Thereisnomaterialbutwilldeformmoreorlessundertheactionofforces.

25Itisnomorethanabeginning.Theygavemethewrongbook,andIdidn'tnoticeituntilIgotbacktomyroom.六、否定成分的转译(-)否定主语转换为否定谓语Noenergycanbecreated,andnonedestroyed.Nosoundwasheard.Neitherplanispracticable.(二)否定谓语转换为否定状语Hedoesn'tstudyintheclassroom.Iwasnotplayingallthetime.Thewomandidnotcomeheretoaskusforhelp.Metalsdono\changetheirformaseasilyasplasticbodiesdo.(三)主句的否定转换为从句的否定Shedidnotcomebecauseshewantedtoseeme.Youshouldnotdespisehimbecauseheisyoung.(四)否定主句的谓语转换为否定宾语从句的谓语1.常常出现在动词think,believe,except,suppose,imagine,reckon,fancy,anticipate,figure等后面的宾语从句中。Idon'tthinkthattheymusthavearrivedtherebynow.Idon'tsupposetheywillobjecttomysuggestion.Ididn'timaginethathewouldgoabroad.2.当有view,wish,belief,thought,opinion等名词作主句的表语从句时Itisnotmyopinionthatheisthebestmanforthejob.Itisnotmythoughtthathecanfinishtheworkwithinaweek.Itisnotmywishthatyoushouldbreakyourword.小练习:考题实例:Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwithitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.(2002)

26(正说反译)考题实例:Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriateonthevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.(1999)英语中的否定按语言学家们的划分大致上有4类:完全否定(带no的词语,如nothing,none等)、半否定(hardly,scarcely等)、部分否定(notall,notevery等)及带否定意义的词语(fail,without等),翻译时一般情况下可以对号入座。不过也并非见到yes便是“是'no便是“不”,有很多情况需要根据具体问题酌情处理,譬如这样一例:A:"Idon'tthinkhesawus.”B:44Yes,hedid.”这里的don'tthink和Yes都不能按常规对号入座译作“不想”和“是的”,而应译作“认为(他没有)”和“不由此可见,在必要的时候,需要恰当地运用正反交替,只有这样,才能准确地传达出原文的意思。1.英译汉的正反交替的一般处理方法1.英语为肯定式,汉语译作否定式有时候,照字面译出来会造成文句不通顺,因此需要正说反译。#$11Pleasekeepthefireburning.我们一般不说“请保持火燃烧”,而是译作“别让火灭了。”这种方法可广泛用于各种词类、短语、甚至句子的翻译上,ill:1)Itwasbeyondhispowertosignsuchacontract,(prep.)2)Timeiswhatwewantmost,butwhat,alas,manyuseworst,(adv.)3)Ihavereadyourarticle.Iexpecttomeetanolderman.(adj.)4)Theguerrillaswouldratherfighttodeathbeforetheysurrendered,(conj.)5)Idroppedmedicineandtookupphysics.6)Themothersaidshewouldletoffhersonwashingthedishesifhecouldfinishhisassignmentbeforesupper.7)Hedivedintothewaterfullyclothedandrescuedtheboy.2.英语为否定式,汉语译作肯定式其交替转换的情况和前者类似,有时需要反说正译,主要也是从便于表达考虑。1)Don%tlosetimeinpostingthisletter.2)Somepeoplecaneatwhattheylikeandgetnofatter.3)Hemanifestedastrongdislikeforhisfather'sbusiness,(noun)4)Suchflightcouldn4tlongescapenotice.5)Thepostofficeisatthenextcomer»youcan'tmissit.3.同一词语,既可译作肯定式,又可译作否定式

27这类情况需根据上下文,视情况的需要,取其相应的含义。1)Tmnewtothework.2)Heisfreewithhismoney.3)Herealizedthathewasintrouble.4)Thestationisnodistanceatall.5)It4snolessthanafraud.6)Theworksofartwereleftintact,themoneygone.7)Thecriminalisstillatlarge,(phrase)2.英语中的双重否定结构双重否定一般来说可译作肯定,其道理如两个负数相加为正数一样。不过,它是一种特殊的强调句式。以haveto(不得不)为例,两个“不”字去掉之后意思不变,但语气强度就差多了。下面是一些较为典型的双重否定译例。1)Thereisnorulethathasnoexception.2)Thereisnotanyadvantagewithoutdisadvantage.3)Itneverrainsbutitpours.4)Itisimpossiblebutthatamanwillmakesomemistakes.3.否定的转移英语动词think,believe,suppose,not…because等否定结构,在译成汉语时,须将否定的部位由句子的前面转移到后面,这就叫做“否定的转移如:1)Idon'tthinkweneedwastemuchtimeonthis.2)Shedidn'tbelievethatsuchthingsmatteredmuch.3)Theenginedidn'tstopbecausethefuelwasfinished.4)Don'tscampyourworkbecauseyouarepressedfortime.6翻译中的否定的陷阱英语否定结构中有一些句式结构往往容易出错,须倍加小心。alL.mot(并非都)1)Allthatglittersisnotgold.2)Allcitiesdidnotlooklikeastheydotoday.both...not(并非两者都)1)Butyousee,webothcannotgo.2)Boththeinstrumentsarenotprecisionones.

28cannot...too(怎么也不足以)1)Theimportanceofthisconferencecannotbeoverestimated.2)Ishallneverbeabletostresstoomuchforyourkindness.3)Youcannotbetoocarefulinproofreading.forall...(尽管;不;说不定)1)Heseemedasfreshasever,forallthatIneversawhimdrinkoreat.2)YoumayleaveatonceforallIcare.3)Forallweknew,thefilesweweresupposedtophotographwerealreadyontheirway.Itbe+adj.+noun+that...(再也会)1)Itisagoodworkmanthatneverblunders.2)Itisalonglanethathasnoend.3)Itisanillwindthatblowsnobodygood.第十二讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法比较结构一、as…as…句型(—)as…as…句型Myparcelisasheavyasyours.Sheisasmuchinterestedinmusicasever.Theeconomicdevelopmentinourcountryisasstablerecentlyasformerly.(二)notas(orso)…as…句型Myuncleisnotas(orso)tallasyourfather.Peoplearenotsohonestastheyoncewere.(三)notsomuch...as...句型通常翻译为“与其说…不如说Hewasnotsomuchangryasdisappointed.Theoceansdonotsomuchdividetheworldasuniteit.Badwritingiscausednotsomuchbymistakesingrammarasbyweaknessinstyle.(四)notsomuchas…句型notsomuchas…这个结构相当于“noteven…”,所以通常翻译为“甚至不…,甚至没有…请注意与notsomuch…as…这个结构的区别。Hedidn'tsomuchasaskmetosetdown.Hecannolsomuchasspellaword.Hehadn'tsomuchashisfarehome.

29二、比较级+Ihantodo…句型通常翻译为“不至于做某事”。Yououghttoknowbetterthantogoswimmingonsuchacoldday.Ihavemoresensethantotellhimaboutourplan.IhadabeltercommandofEnglishihanlomakesuchfoolishmistakes.more...than…句型(一)moreAthanB句型moreAthanB通常用于同一个人或者事物在两个不同性质或者特征上面的比较。翻译为“与其说B,不如说A:类似的结构还有lessAthanB,翻译为“与其说A,不如说B”,请注意这两个结构中“与其实说”与“不如说''的对象,即A与B两者的在翻译中的位置。Heismoregoodthanbad.Heislessgoodthanbad.Heismoreawriterthanateacher.Heislesscleverthandiligent.(二)morethan…句型1.moreihan后面接数词,表示“多于…,….以上”的意思。Ihaveknownhimformoreihantwentyyeans.Ihavemorethantendollarsinmypocket.2.moreihan后面接名词或者动词,表示“不只是…”的意思。Heismorethanafathertoher.Hemorethansmiled,butlaughed.3.moreihan后面接形容词、副词或者分词,表示“极其,非常”的意思。Shewasmorethankindtous.Hewasmorethanupsetbytheaccident.4.morethan.・.can…则表示“难以…,完全不能…”的意思。ThatismorethanIcanunderstand.Thecoldwasmorethanthechildrencouldbear.(三)nomore.・.than…句型nomore…than…句型在意义上与notanymorethan….一样,表示对两者都否定,所以可以翻译为“…和….一样不,不…正如…,既不…也不…,…和…两者都不跟nomore…than…句型相近,但是意义相反的句型是noless…than…,可以翻译为“既是…,也是…,两者都是…Hisgrammarisnobetterthanmine.Heisnomoreawriterthanapainter.Heisnolessawriterthanapainter.Iamnomoreapoetthanheisascholar.翻译定语从句的常用方法技巧L合并法译例即在句式较短的情况下,将定语从句用“……的”结构译出。如:

301)Pollutionisapressingproblemwhichwemustdealwith.2)Intheroomwheretheelectroniccomputeriskept,theremustbenodustatall.2.分译法译例分译法即化整为零,分别翻译;对于长而复杂的定语从句,我们可以采取此法;如:1)TheyarestrivingfortheidealwhichisclosetotheheartofeveryChineseandforwhich,inthepast,manyChinesehavelaiddowntheirlives.2)Betweenthesetwotinyparticles,theprotonandtheelectron,thereisapowerfulattractionthatisalwayspresentbetweennegativeandpositiveelectriccharges.3.替换法译例混合法即是为了便于译文的表达,采用打破原文的定语结构的方法,用自己的话译出原文的意思;如:1)Thereweremeninthatcrowdwhohadstoodthereeverydayforamonth.2)Goodclockshavependulumswhichareautomaticallycompensatedfortemperaturechanges.4.兼有状语功能的定语从句的译例1)Weknowthatacat,whoseeyescantakeinmanymoreraysthanoureyes,canseeclearlyinthenight.2)Thediodeiscoatedwithathinlayerofhardglasswhicheliminatestheneedforahermeticallysealedpackage.3)Electroniccomputers,whichhavemanyadvantages,cannotcarryoutcreativeworkandreplaceman.4)Foranymachinewhoseinputandoutputforcesareknown,itsmechanicaladvantagecanbecalculated.5)Filtrytogetanillustrateddictionarydealingwithtechnicalglossary,whichwillenablemetotranslatescientific1iteraturemoreexactly.第十三讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法强调结构、(-)强调宾语Suchgoodstudentswehaveneverseen.Nolaworddidshesaythewholetwohours.(二)强调状语Alnolim。andundernocircumstanceswillChinabethefirsttouseormenacetousenuclearweapons.Neverwilltheygiveupthestruggleforfreedomandpeace.(三)强调表语Moreseriouswastheproblemofenvironmentalpollution.Verystrangethethingseemed.(四)强调宾语补足语

31Electroniccomputersmakepossiblethefastcomplicatedcalculation.Ascandalpeoplecallthewholematter.二、在动词前面加上助动词do,也是英语中一种表示强调的方法。翻译成汉语时,可使用“的确,确实,务必,一定,千万,真的”等词来突出强调语气。Shedidaccomplishthetaskintime.Wedohavesufficientfoodanddrink.三、英语中,如果在what,where,who,why,how等疑问词后面加上thedevil,thehell,onearth,in(或under)heaven等词组用来加强语气,有时在某些否定词或最高级后面也可以加上。nearth以增强语气。翻译成汉语时,可以增加“究竟,到底”等词来处理。Whothedevilisthatwoman?Whatonearthisthematteroverthere?Howonearthcanoneaccomplishsuchafeat?四、ltis+被强调部分+that…强调句型。ItwasProfessorWuthat(who)sentmetheletter.Itwasmyfatherwhodidtheexperimentinthelabyesterdayevening.ItwasImyselfwhoopenedthewindow.Itwasyourmother-in-lawthat(whom)Imetintheparkthedaybeforeyesterday.Itisthisnoveltheytalkedaboutlastweek.ItwasataneveningpartythatIfirstsawher.ItwaswhenHemingwaylivedinCubathathewroteTheOldManandtheSea.Itisonlywhenoneisillthatonerealizestheimportanceofhealth.Itwasnoluntilrecentlythatscientistsknowmuchaboutlungcancer.五、有些表示程度的形容词或副词,也可以用来增强语气。翻译的时候,也可以增加“就是,正是,是,到底,究竟,完全,最''等词来表示强调。YouaretheverymanIamlookingfor.Whoeversaidso?Thepearisrottenrightthrough.Putitrightinthemiddle.Thisismuchthebest.Thatarticlewassimplyridiculous.第卜四讲翻译技巧:句法翻译法插入结构一、副词插入语Apparenlly,itisgoingtorain.Fortunately,Ipassedtheexamination.

32Incidentally,yourproposalhasbeenputtothediscussionatthemeeting.Hewasluckier,however,becausehewasonlyslightlywounded.Heisyoung.HehasmuchexperienceinteachingEnglish,though.二、形容词短语作插入语一般翻译为“…的是,…”这样的结构。Mostimportantofall,computerscreatewidecommunicationaroundtheworld.Isleptlateyesterdaymorning;worsestill,mybikewasoutoforder.Strangeenough,hedoesn'tknowthatfamouswriter.三、介词短语作插入语allinall(总而言之),asamatteroffact(事实上),asaresult(结果),atworst(在最坏的情况下),bytheway(顺便说一句),firstofall(首先),forexample(例如),inconclusion(总之,最后),infact(事实上),ineffect(实际上),inmyopinion(依我我看来,我认为),inotherwords(换句话说,换言之),inshort(简言之),tomydelight(让我高兴的是)toone'samazement(使某人惊讶的是)toone'sdeepregret(使某人深感遗憾的是),toone'srelief(使某人感到欣慰的是),toone'ssurprise(使某人感到吃惊而是)等。China,infact,hascaughtupwithandsurpassedtheworldadvancedlevelsinmanyrespects.Whathappentohim,bytheway?Allinall,herconditionisgreatlyimproved.四、不定式短语作插入结构sotospeak(可以这样说),lotellyouthetruth(老实对你说),tobefrank(说句实话),tobeginwilh(首先),tostartwith(首先),tobemoreexact(更确切地说),tosumup(总之,概括地说),toputitbriefly(筒单说来)toputitinanotherway(换句话说),tomakealongstoryshort(长话短说),tosaytheleastofit(至少可以这样说),needlesstosay(不用说),strangetosay(说来奇怪),toconclude(总之,最后),tobesure(可以肯定的说),tobespecific(具体说来),tobeprecise(准确地说),tospeakfrankly(坦白地说)等等。TolellyouIheirulh,Ihaven'tboughtanythingforayear.Itwasn'taverygooddinner,tosayiheleastofit.Themovie,tobefrank,movedmetotears.Shewrote,tobeexact,tennovelsinherlifetime.五、分词短语作插入结构considering...(考虑至U),allthingsconsidered(从整体来看),allowingfor...(考虑至lj),generallyspeaking(,般说来),judgingfrom...(从...来判断),puttingitanotherway(换句话说),roughlyspeaking(大体说来),takingaccountof...(考虑至lj),takingallthingsintoconsideration(全面看来),taking...asanexample(以...为例),talkingof…(说道),speakingof...(说道),strictlyspeaking(严格地说)等等。Judgingfromihehandwriling,itshouldbewrittenbyourteacher.Generallyspeaking,she'snotquitefitforthiskindofwork.Youmanagedtheprojectverywell,consideringyourinexperience.六、主谓结构作插入结构Ithink(我认为),Ihope(我希望),Iguess(我想),I'mafraid(恐怕),Ibelieve(我认为,我相信),Isuppose(我想,我认为),Iwonder(我想知道),yousee(你应该明白),youknow(你知道),don'tyouthink(难道你不认为),don'tyouknow(难道你不知道),Itellyou(我告诉你),itseems(似乎),itseemstome(在我看来,这似乎),itissaid(据说),itissuggested(看人认为)等等。Theman,Ithink,doesnotdeservetheprize.Theairisratherrefreshing,Isuppose.Honesty,Ibelieve,ishervirtue.

33七、whatwecall句型作插入结构似的句型还有:whatweusedtocall,whatiscalled,whattheydescribedas,whatcanbecalled,whattheyregardedas,aswecallit,asweknowit等。通常翻译为“所谓的…”,可以按照英语原文顺序直接翻译。Heiswhatwecallawalkingdictionary.Mostofwhattheyregardedasgeniusesaresuccessfulonlybecausetheyhavemadeextraordinaryeffort.真题展示和分析:Unit1Accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,technologyisanoverlookedforceinexpandingthehorizonsofscientificknowledge.(71)Sciencemovesforward,iheysay,no>somuchthroughtheinsightsofgreatmenofgeniusasbecauseofmoreordinarythingslikeimprovedtechniquesandtools.(72)“Inshort”,aleaderofthenewschoolcontends,“thescientificrevolution,aswecallit,waslargelytheimprovementandinventionanduseofaseriesofinstrumentsthatexpandedthereachofscienceininnumerabledirections.”(73)Overlh/years,loolsandtechnologythemselvesasasourceoffundamentalinnovationhavelargelybeenignoredbyhistoriansandphilosophersofscience.ThemodernschoolthathailstechnologyarguesthatsuchmastersasGalileo,Newton,Maxwell,Einstein,andinventorssuchasEdisonattachedgreatimportanceto,andderivedgreatbenefitfrom,craftinformationandtechnologicaldevicesofdifferentkindsthatwereusableinscientificexperiments.Thecenterpieceoftheargumentofatechnologies,geniusnoadvocatewasananalysisofGalileo,sroleatthestartofthescientificrevolution.ThewisdomofthedaywasderivedfromPtolemy,anastronomerofthesecondcentury,whoseelaboratesystemoftheskyputEarthatthecenterofallheavenlymotions.(74)Galileo'sgreatestglorywasthatin1609hewasthefirstpersontoturnthenewlyinventedtelescopeontheheavenstoprovethattheplanetsrevolvearoundthesunratherthanaroundtheEarth.Buttherealheroofthestory,accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,wasthelongevolutionintheimprovementofmachineryformakingeyeglasses.Federalpolicyisnecessarilyinvolvedinthetechnologyvs.geniusdispute.(75)WhethertheGovernmentshouldincreasethefinancingofpurescienceattheexpenseoftechnologyorviceversa(反之)oftendependsontheissueofwhichisseenasthedrivingforce.Unit2Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees»andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andeveninCongress.(71)Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithillinformedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgrades,researchproductivity,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.(72)Howwelliheprcdiclionswillbevalidatedbylaterperfoimancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteand

34thatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror.Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquickobjectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhatapersonlearned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.(73)Whetherlousetests,otherkindsofinformation,bothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,uponiheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.(73)Ingenera)Ihetestsworkmosleffectivelywhenihequalitieslobemeasuredcanbemoslpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatislobemeasuredorpredicatedcannotbewelldefined.Properlyused,theyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.(75)Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances.Unit3Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.(71)Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself・accelerating.Some,however»arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotake,bypersonsinauthority,acttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.(72)ThistrendbeganduringthuSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredicted,however»thatfromtimetotime,questionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.(73)Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbulofpossibleconsequenceinihefulurc.Thiskindofsupport,likeallgovernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting"good"asopposedto"bad"science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.(74)However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunablelodealwithsomeoftheworldsmorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.(75)Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.Unit4Doanimalshaverights?Thisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeauseful,ground-clearingwaytostart.(71)AcluaHy,itisn't,becauseilassumesihal(hereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.

35Ononeviewofrights,tobesure,itnecessarilyfollowsthatanimalshavenone.72)Somephilosophersargueihalrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontract,aspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentillements.Therefore,animalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishingatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurd»forexactlythesamereason,soistheideathattigershaverights.However,thisisonlyoneaccount,andbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeople—forinstance,toinfants,thementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inaddition»itisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoit:howdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon'tlikethiscontract?”Thepointisthiswithoutagreementontherightsofpeople,arguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.(73)Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesaltheoutset:ilinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendlootherhumans,orwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanother,morefundamentalquestion:isthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall?Manydenyit.(74)Arguingfromtheviewthathumansacedifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespncl,extremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake—asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans.Thisview,whichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwood,mayseembravely“logical."Infactitissimplyshallow:Theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawl—istoweighothersinterestsagainstonesown.Thisinturnrequiressympathyandimagination:withoutwhichthereisnocapacityformoralthought.Toseeananima)inpainisenough,formost,toengagesympathy.(75)Whenthalhappens,ilisnolamistake:itismankind'sinstinctformoralreasoninginaction,aninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat.UnitsTheywerebyfar,thelargestandmostdistantobjectsthatscientistshadeverdetected:astripofenormouscosmiccloudssome15billionlightyearsfromearth.(73)Buievenmoreimportant,ilwasthefarthestthatscientistshadbeenablelolookintotheoasl,forwhattheywereseeingwerethepatternsandstructuresthatexisted15billionyearsago.Thatwasjustaboutthemomentthattheuniversewasborn.Whattheresearchersfoundwasatoncebothamazingandexpected:theUSNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministrationsCosmicBackgroundExplorersatellite—Cob-haddiscoveredlandmarkevidencethattheuniversedidinfactbeginwiththeprimevalexplosionthathasbecomeknownastheBigBang(thetheorythattheuniverseoriginatedinanexplosionfromasinglemassofenergy).(74)TheexistenceofthegiantcloudswasvirtuallyrequiredfortheBigBarg,firstputforwardinthe1920s,tomaintainitsreignasihedominantexplanationofthecosmos.Accordingtothetheory,theuniverseburstintobeingasasubmicroscopic,unimaginablydenseknotofpureenergythatflewoutwardinalldirections,emittingradiationasitwent,condensingintoparticlesandthenintoatomsofgas.Overbillionsofyears»thegaswascompressedbygravityintogalaxies,stars,plantsandeventually,evenhumans.Cobisdesignedtoseejustthebiggeststructures>butastronomerswouldliketoseemuchsmallerhotspotsaswell,theseedsoflocalobjectslikeclustersandsuperclustersofgalaxies.Theyshouldn'thavelongtowait.(73)AstrophysicistsworkingwilhgroundbaseddeleclorsaliheSoulhPoleandballoonborneinstrumentsareclosinginonsuchstructures,and

36mayreporttheirfindingssoon.(74)Ifthesmallhotspotslookasexpected,thatwillbeatriumphforyetanotherscientificidea,〉refinementnftheBigBangcallediheinflalionaryuniverseiheory.Inflationsaysthatveryearlyon,theuniverseexpandedinsizebymorethanatrillioninmuchlessthanasecond,propelledbyasortofantigravity.(75)Oddthoughitsounds,cosmicinflalionisascienlificallyplausibleconsequenceofsomerespectedideasinelemenlaryparticlephysics,andmanyastrophysicistshavebeenconvincedforthebetterpartofadecadethatitistrue.Unit6(71)While(herearealmoslasmanydefinilionshisloryas(herearehistorians,modempraclicemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesigni行canteventsofthepast.Caughtinthewebofitsowntimeandplace,eachgenerationofhistoriansdeterminesanewwhatissignificantforitinthepast.Inthissearchtheevidencefoundisalwaysincompleteandscattered;itisalsofrequentlypartialorpartisan.Theironyofthehistorianscraftisthatitspractitionersalwaysknowthattheireffortsarebutcontributionstoanunendingprocess.(72)Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasanintellectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.Whilehistoryoncerevereditsaffinitytoliteratureandphilosophy,theemergingsocialsciencesseemedtoaffordgreateropportunitiesforaskingnewquestionsandprovidingrewardingapproachestoanunderstandingofthepast.Socialsciencemethodologieshadtobeadaptedtoadisciplinegovernedbytheprimacyofhistoricalsourcesratherthantheimperativesofthecontemporaryworld.(73)Duringthistransfer,traditionalhistoricalmethodswereaugmentedbyadditionalmethodologiesdesignedlointerpretIhenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalsludy.Methodologyisatermthatremainsinherentlyambiguousinthehistoricalprofession.(74)Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiart。historicalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Historians,especiallythosesoblindedbytheirresearchintereststhattheyhavebeenaccusedof“tunnelmethod,''frequentlyfallvictimtothe^techniquesfallacy."Alsocommoninthenaturalsciences,thetechniquesfallacymistakenlyidentifiesthedisciplineasawholewithcertainpartsofitstechnicalimplementation.(75)Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsources.Andtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecifictechniques.Unit7Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.(71)Undermodemconditions,thisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcenlralizedconlrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomislsandoperalionalresearchexperts.(72)Furthermore,itisobviousthatthestrengthofacountryeconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricukureandindustry,andihalihisinlumrestsuponiheeffortsofscientistsandlechnologistsofallkinds.Ilalsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.For

37example,theymayencourageresearchinvariousways*includingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducation,orinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymaycooperatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscience,economicsanyindustry,Inanycase,allsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds.(73)Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmasscommunications,peopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideas,whilegovernmentsareoftenforcedlointroducestillfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametime,thenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample,(74)intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization—withallthefarreachingchangesinsocialpatternsihalfollowed—wasspreadovernearlyacenlury,whereasnowadaysadevelopingnalionmayundergoIhesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.(75)AdditionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofiheDopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovemenls—themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodemmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactors,governmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.Unit8Inlessthan30yearstimetheStarTrekholodeckwillbeareality.Directlinksbetweenthebrainsnervoussystemandacomputerwillalsocreatefullsensoryvirtualenvironments,allowingvirtualvacationslikethoseinthefilmTotalRecall.(71)Therewillbetelevisionchatshowshostedbyrobots,andcarswilhpollulionmonitorsIhalwilldisablethemwhentheyoffend.(72)ChildrenwillplaywithdollsequiDpedwithperaonalitychips,computerswithin-builtpersonalitieswillberegardedasworkmatesratherthantools,relaxationwillbeinfrontofsmell-television,anddigitalagewillhavearrived.AccordingtoBTsfuturologist,IanPearson,theseareamongthedevelopmentsscheduledforthefirstfewdecadesofthenewmillennium(aperiodof1OOOyears),whensupercomputerswilldramaticallyaccelerateprogressinallareasoflife.(73)Pearsonhaspiecedtogelheriheworkofhundredsofresearchersaroundiheworldloproduceauniquemillenniumtechnologycalendarthatgivesthelatestdateswhenwecanexpecthundredsorkeybreakthroughsanddiscoverieslotakeplace.Someofthebiggestdevelopmentswillbeinmedicine,includinganextendedlifeexpectancyanddozensofartificialorganscomingintousebetweennowand2040.Pearsonalsopredictsabreakthroughincomputer-humanlinks.**Bylinkingdirectlytoournervoussystem,computerscouldpickupwhatwefeeland,hopefully,simulatefeelingtoosothatwecanstarttodevelopfullsensoryenvironments,ratherliketheholidaysinTotalRecallortheStarTrekholodeck>"hesays.(74)Butthat,Pearsonpointsout,isonlythestartofman・machineintegration:"Itwillbethebeginningofthelongprocessofintegrationthatwillultimatelyleadtoafullyelectronichumanbeforetheendofthenextcentury.”Throughhisresearch,Pearsonisabletoputdatestomostofthebreakthroughsthatcanbepredicted.However,therearestillnoforecastsforwhenfaster-that-lighttravelwillbeavailable,orwhenhumancloningwillbeperfected,orwhentimetravelwillbepossible.Buthedoesexpectsocialproblemsasaresultoftechnologicaladvances.Aboominneighborhood

38surveillancecameraswill,forexample,causeproblemsin2010,whilethearrivalofsyntheticlifelikerobotswillmeanpeoplemaynotbeabletodistinguishbetweentheirhumanfriendsandthedroids.(75)Andhomeapplianceswillalsobecomesosmartthatcontrollingandoperatingthemwillresultinthebreakoutofanewpsychologicaldisorder-kitchenrage.Unit9Almostallourmajorproblemsinvolvehumanbehavior,andtheycannotbesolvedbyphysicalandbiologicaltechnologyalone.Whatisneededisatechnologyofbehavior,butwehavebeenslowtodevelopthesciencefromwhichsuchatechnologymightbedrawn.61)Onedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon.Physicsandbiologyoncefollowedsimilarpracticesandadvancedonlywhentheydiscardedthem.62)Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.Theenvironmentisobviouslyimportant,butitsrolehasremainedobscure.ItdoesnotpushorpulLitselects,andthisfunctionisdifficulttodiscoverandanalyze.63)Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshapingandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningtoberecognizedandstudied.Astheinteractionbetweenorganismandenvironmenthascometobeunderstood,however,effectsonceassignedtostatesofmind,feelings,andtraitsarebeginningtobetracedtoaccessibleconditions,andatechnologyofbehaviormaythereforebecomeavailable.Itwillnotsolveourproblems,however,untilitreplacestraditionalpre-scientificviews,andthesearestronglyentrenched.Freedomanddignityillustratethedifficulty.64)Theyarethepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-governing)manofiraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhichapersonisheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencreditforhisachievements.Ascientificanalysisshiftsboththeresponsibilityandtheachievementtotheenvironment.Italsoraisesquestionsconcerning“values".Whowilluseatechnologyandtowhatends?65)Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinueloberejected,andwithitpossibly(heonlywaytosolveourproblems.Unit10Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreative,possessedofinsatiablecuriosity.(61)Furthermore,humanshavetheabilitytomodifyihrenvironmentinwhichtheylive,thussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.Therefore,itisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmanner,withthehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamoreharmoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth.“Anthropology“derivesfromtheGreenwordsanthrop“human“andlogos“thestudyof,.Byitsveryname,anthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind.Anthropologyisoneofthesocialsciences.(62)Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekslostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionatemannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeography,economics,politicalscience,psychology,andsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology.

39Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafieldstudyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.(63)Theemphasisondatagatheredfirsthand,combinedwithacrossculturalperspeclivebroughtlotheanalysisofcullurespaslandpresenl,makesihissludyauniqueanddislinctlyimporlanlsocialscience.Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor'sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.(64)Tylordefinedcultureas”...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbelief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety”.Thisinsight,soprofoundinitssimplicity,openedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor'sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearned,shared,andpatternedbehavior.(65)Thus,theanthiupologicalconceptof“culture”,liketheconceptof"set"inmalhematics,isaeabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.Unit11Therelationoflanguageandmindhasinterestedphilosophersformanycenturies.(61)TheGreeksassumedthatthestruclurcoflanguagehadsomeconneclionwithIheprocessofihoughlwhichlookroolinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagecouldbe.Onlyrecentlydidlinguistsbegintheseriousstudyoflanguagesthatwereverydifferentfromtheirown.Twoanthropologists—linguists,FranzBoasandEdwardSapir,werepioneersindescribingmanynativelanguagesofNorthandSouthAmericaduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.(62)Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanished,asihepeoplewhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlostiheirnativelanguages.Otherlinguistsintheearlierpartofthiscentury,however,whowerelesseagertodealwithbizarre(古怪的)datafrom"exotic(外来的)"language,werenotalwayssograteful.(63)ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.NativeAmericanlanguagesareindeeddifferent,somuchsoinfactthatNavajocouldbeusedbytheUSmilitaryasacodeduringWorldWarIItosandsecretmessages.Sapir'spupiLBenjaminLeeWhorf,continuedthestudyofAmericanIndianlanguages.(64)Beinginterestedintherelationshipofthelanguageandihought,Whorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureofthelanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtinasociety.Hereasonedthatbecauseitiseasiertoformulatecertainconceptsandnotothersinagivenlanguage,thespeakersofthatlanguagethinkalongonetrackandnotalonganother.(65)Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhich,initsstrongestfrom,statesthatlanguageimprisonsihemind,andihalIhegrammalicalDaltemsinalanguagecanproducefarreachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.Later,thisideabecametobeknownastheSapirWhorfhypothesis,butthistermissomewhatinappropriate.AlthoughbothSapirandWhorfemphasizedthediversityoflanguages,Sapirhimselfneverexplicitlysupportedthenotionoflinguisticdeterminism.Unit12ItisnoteasytotalkabouttheroleofthemassmediainthisoverwhelminglysignificantphaseinEuropeanhistory.

40Historyandnewsbecomeconfused,andone'simpressionstendtobeamixtureofskepticismandoptimism.(46)TelevisionisoneofIhemeansbywhichIhesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyedandperhapsneverbeforehasilservedtomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.TheEuropethatisnowformingcannotbeanythingotherthanitspeoples,theirculturesandnationalidentities.WiththisinmindwecanbegintoanalyzetheEuropeantelevisionscene.(47)InEurope,aselsewhere,multimediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessfulgroupswhichbringlogclhcriclcvision,radio,newspapers,magazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.OneItalianexamplewouldbetheBerlusconigroupwhileabroadMaxwellandMurdochcometomind.Clearly,onlythebiggestandmostflexibletelevisioncompaniesaregoingtobeabletocompeteinsucharichandhotlycontestedmarket.(48)ThisalonedemonslralesIhatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein,afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworks,nolessthan50%tookalossin1989.Moreover,theintegrationoftheEuropeancommunitywillobligetelevisioncompaniestocooperatemorecloselyintermsofbothproductionanddistribution.(49)Creatinga"Europeanidentity“thatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconneclingfabricIhcoldconlinenlisnoeasylaskanddemandsaslrategicchoicethatofproducingprogramsinEuropeforEurope.ThisentailsreducingourdependenceontheNorthAmericanmarket,whoseprogramsrelatetoexperiencesandculturaltraditionswhicharedifferentfromourown.Inordertoachievetheseobjectives,wemustconcentratemoreonco-productions,theexchangeofnews,documentaryservicesandtraining.ThisalsoinvolvestheagreementsbetweenEuropeancountriesforthecreationofaEuropeanbankwillhandlethefinancesnecessaryforproductioncosts.(50)Indealingwithachallnageonsuchascale,ilisnoexaggerationlosay“Unitywestand,dividedwefall“andifIhadtochooseasloganitwouldbe“Unityinourdiversity.^^Aunityofobjectivesthatnonethelessrespectthevariedpeculiaritiesofeachcountry.Unit13IsittruethattheAmericanintellectualisrejectedandconsideredofnoaccountinhissociety?Iamgoingtosuggestthatitisnottrue.FatherBruckbergentoldpartofthestorywhenheobservedthatitistheintellectualswhohaverejectedAmericans.Buttheyhavedonemorethanthat.Theyhavegrowndissatisfiedwiththeroleofintellectual.Itisthey,notAmericans,whohavebecomeanti-intellectual.First,theobjectofourstudypleadsfordefinition.Whatisanintellectual?(46)IshalldefinehimasarindividualwhohaselectedashisprimarydutyandpleasureinlifetheactivityofthinkinginSocratic(苏格拉底)wayaboutmoralproblems.Heexploressuchproblemconsciously,articulately,andfrankly,firstbyaskingfactualquestions,thenbyaskingmoralquestions,finallybysuggestingactionwhichseemsappropriateinthelightofthefactualandmoralinformationwhichhehasobtained.(47)Hisfunctionisanalogoustothatnfajudge,whomustacceplIheobligationofrevealinginasobviousamaileraspossibleihecourseofreasoningwhichledhimlohisdecision.Thisdefinitionexcludesmanyindividualsusuallyreferredtoasintellectuals--theaveragescientistforone48)Ihaveexcludedhimbecause,whilehisaccomplishmentsmaycontributetothesolutionofmoralproblems,hehasnolbeenchargedwithihelaskofapproachinganybulihet'aclualaspeclsofIhoseproblems.Likeotherhumanbeings,heencountersmoralissuesevenineverydayperformanceofhisroutineduties.■--heisnotsupposedtocookhisexperiments,manufactureevidence,ordoctorhisreports.(49)Buthisprimarytaskisnortothinkaboutthemoralcode,whichgovernshisactivity,anymorethanabusinessmanisexpectedtodedicatehisenergiestoanexploralionofrulesofconduclinbusiness.Duringmostofhiswalkinglifehewilllakehiscodeforgranted,asthebusinessmantakeshisethics.Thedefinitionalsoexcludesthemajorityoffactors,despitethefactthatteachinghastraditionallybeenthemethodwherebymanyintellectualsearntheirliving(50)Theymayteachverywellandmo】ethanearntheirsalaries,bulmo$lofihemmakelillleornoindepcndenlreflectionsonhumanproblemswhichinvolvemoraliudgmenl.Thisdescriptionevenfitsthemajorityeminentscholars/'Beinglearnedinsomebranchofhumanknowledgeinonething,livinginpublicandindustriousthoughts,MasEmersonwouldsayJissomethingelse.**

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