林惠琴 B2016022305 定稿

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ContentsChineseAbstract2EnglishAbstract31.Introduction41.1OverviewofThisThesis41.2MeaningoftheResearch42.LiteratureReview52.1DomesticStudies52.2ForeignStudies63.TheChineseandAmericanTimeSystems73.1ChinesePolychronicTimeSystem83.2AmericanMonochronicTimeSystem84.TheDifferencesofTimeSystemsandCauses94.1TheDifferencesofTimeSystems104.2TheCausesofDifferentTimeSystems115.Conclusion13References1413

1跨文化视角下中美时间观中记时制度的差异分析摘要近年来，中国加快了对外开放的步伐，加强了与世界的联系。来自不同背景的人们在日常生活、学习和商业事务中的交流也变得不可避免。本文以爱德华·霍尔的单向记时制和多向记时制的理论为研究基础，从文化、历史、宗教等多个角度分析比较中美双方记时制度的差异和产生因素。时间观是人类在社会生活和劳动实践中逐渐形成的，中美作为东西方文化的典型代表，在记时制度上有着鲜明的特点，极具可比性。人们的思维和行动深受其不同的文化影响，而生活方式的不同，导致了对时间安排和分配的灵活性差异，从而形成单、多向的时间观和记时制度。在跨文化交际活动中，时间观作为非语言交际不可或缺的重要部分，对记时制度差异的研究有助于加深我们对文化差异的理解，从而更有效的进行国际交往。关键词：跨文化交际；时间观；记时制度13

2AnAnalysisontheDifferencesofTimeSystemsbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStatesfromthePerspectivesofInterculturalCommunicationAbstractInrecentyears,Chinahasacceleratedthepaceoftheopening-upandstrengthenedtieswiththeworld.Communicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsisalsoinevitableindailylife,studyandbusinessaffairs.BasedonHallEdward’smonochronicandpolychronictimetheory,thispaperanalyzesandcomparesthedifferencesandcausesofthetimesystemsbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStatesfromtheperspectivesofculture,historyandreligion.Thetimeperspectivesaregraduallyformedinthepracticeofsociallifeandlabor.AsatypicalrepresentativeofEasternandWesterncultures,ChinaandAmericahavedistinctcharacteristicsinthetimesystems,whichareverycomparable.People’sthinkingandactionsareinfluencedbytheirverydifferentcultures,anddifferentlifestyles,whichwillleadtotheflexibilitydisparityoftimearrangementanddistribution,thusformingmono-chronicandpoly-chronictimeperspectivesandtimingsystems.Incross-culturalcommunicationactivities,timeconceptisanindispensablepartofnon-verbalcommunication.Thestudyonthedifferencesoftimesystemsishelpfultodeepenourunderstandingofculturaldifferences,soastocarryoutinternationalcommunicationmoreeffectively.Keywords:interculturalcommunication;timeperspectives;timesystems13

31.IntroductionAstypicalrepresentativesoftwodifferencetypesofcultures,ChinaandAmericahavedistinctandcomparablecharacteristicsintermsoftimesystems.FurtherunderstandingthedifferentviewsoftimebetweenChinaandAmerica,canaidustomakeeffectiveinterculturalcommunicationsoastoachieveourgoals.1.1OverviewofThisThesisAfterChina’sjoinedtheWTO,opening-upsystemhasbecomemoreandmoremature,andcross-border,cross-ethnic,cross-culturalexchangesarealsoincreasedmorefrequently.Peoplefromdiversebackgroundsmutuallearningfromvariousaspects.Timeisanon-verbalculturethatcanconveyalotofinformationincross-culturalcommunication.Thetimeorientationderivedfromanthropology,sociologyandotherdisciplinesreferstothetimeregionaltrendinwhichpeopleemphasizeorchoosetheirviews,behaviors,attitudesandsoon(许谦,2012(11):126).Asanimportantaspectofthenon-verbalcross-culturalcommunication,thestudyoftimeperspectivescanhelpustounderstandtheculturaldifferencesandcarryouteffectiveinternationalexchange.Inallages,timeplaysasignificantroleinhumanactivities,butthepeople’sattitudesvarytowardstimeindifferentcultures.WiththeincreasingexchangesbetweenChinaandAmerica,therearemorechancestocommunicatewithAmericans.SoweneedtounderstandthedifferenttimeconceptbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStatestomakesurethatthecross-culturalcommunicationbetweenChinaandtheUSAnotfailduetothedifferencesinthetimeconcept.ThisthesisadoptsthemethodofcomparisonandanalysistostudythedifferencesonthebasisoftimeperspectivesbetweenChinaandAmerica,andusesEdward’stheorytobuildupthetheoreticalframeworks:monochronicandpolychronictimesystemstheories.Theauthoranalyzesandcomparesthedifferencesofthetimesystemsoftwocounties,aimingtoimprovepeople’scommunicationskillsandeliminatethemisunderstandingandconflictinthecross-culturalactivities.1.2MeaningoftheResearchTheconceptoftimebelongstothedeepstructureofculture.ChinaandtheUnitedStateshavedifferenttraditionsandculturebackgrounds,thereforepeoplefromdifferentculturalandtraditionalbackgroundshavedifferentconceptsoftime.Withtheincreasingfrequencyofcross-culturalcommunicationintoday’sworld,thecomparisonoftimesystemsbetweenChinaandAmericaisameaningfulstudy.LevineRobertoncesaidinhisbookGeographyofTime:“Timeisthewaynatureusestopreventthingsfrom13

4happeningatthesametime”(Robert,1998:68).Thisshowsthatthingsthemselveshavetheorderoftime.HallEdward,anAmericanculturalanthropologistandfounderofcross-culturalcommunication,oncepointedout:“Timecanspeak,itismorefrankthanvocallanguage,itsmessageisloudandclear,becauseitisneithercontrolledbyconsciousnessnormisleadingasvocallanguage,ittendstoexposeliesexpressedinwords”(Edward,1959:55).Itcanbeseenthattimecanbeusedasawayofnon-verbalcommunication,playingaveryhiddenbutimportantroleindeterminingthesuccessorfailureofcommunication.Peoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundshavedifferentviewsontime,whichbringobstaclestocross-culturalbusinesscommunication.Itisnodoubthelpfulforpeopleengagedincross-culturalbusinessactivitiestounderstandeachother’stimelanguage,eliminatecommunicationandunderstandingbarriers,andcarryoutcommunicationandbusinessactivitiessmoothly.2.LiteratureReviewUptonow,withnumerousresearchesontimeperspectives,therearemanywell-knowntheoriesandremarkableachievementsathomeandabroad.Basedonthosetheories,theauthorsumsupsomestudiesresultsandputsforwardanewviewpointofChinaandAmericantimesystemsfromtheperspectivesofinterculturalcommunication.2.1DomesticStudiesIntraditionalChinese,theword“time”wasnotverypopular,anditiswidelyknownafterHuShi’suseof“time”and“space”.Ageneraltreatiseonthehistoricalformoftimeanditschangesarerelativelyrare.TheSocialandCulturalHistoryofTime,writtenbyZhanXiaobai(2013),itistoinvestigatethechangesoftimesystemsandtimeconceptinmodernChina.Ithasnotonlybecomeacreativeacademicworkinthisfield,butalsothefirsthistoricalmonographtoexplorethetimeproblemofmodernChina.ThisbookstudiesChina’smodernviewoftime,thecoreofwhichispunctualityandefficiency.Inotherwords,thevalueoftimeisnolongerfocusedontheself-growthofindividuallife;it’smoreabouteconomicdevelopmentandsocialevolution.Theauthornotonlypaysattentiontorevealtheevolutionoftheconceptof“timevalue”ofordinarypeopleinthesociety,italsoinvolvesthehistoricalviewoftimewithevolutionasthemaincontent.ThereisnodoubtthatthesediscussionsinthatbookhavelaidanimportantacademicfoundationforthehistoricalstudyoftimeinmodernChina.AtthesameyearZhanXiaobai(2013)publishedanotherbooknamedTheSocialandCulturalHistoryofTime--StudyonTimeSystemandConceptChangeinModernChina.For13

5thefirsttime,thisbook,withthethemeof“time”,givesacompletepictureofthechangeofmoderntimesystemandtimeconceptfromtheperspectiveofsocialandculturalhistory.Thecontentsofthebookcanbedividedintothreeparts:firstly,itexploresthehistoricalsourcesofthechangeoftimesysteminmodernChina,anditsoverallchangingtrend.Secondly,itfocusesondepictingthepluralisticaspectsofmoderntimesocializationandtorevealitsmaterialbasisanddynamicmechanism.Thirdly,itmakesanin-depthinvestigationonthemoderntransformationoftheconceptoftime,whichincludesthemodernpeople’srationalcognitionofdailylifetime,historicaltime,andphilosophytimeandsoon.2.2ForeignStudies2.2.1Edward’sMonochronicandPolychronicTimeTheoryInthe1970s,HallEdward(1976)putforwardtheconceptsofmonochronicandpolychronictimeinthebookBeyondCultureforthefirsttimeaccordingtothehabitsofeachnationintheuseoftime.Edwarddividestheuseoftimeindiverseculturesintotwosystems:monochronictimeandpolychronictime.Theformerputmoreemphasisontheschedule;strictlyabidethetimetabletodoeverything.Theymustfinishalltasksontime,andcannotaffectthearrangementofthenextone.Monochronicpeoplepayattentiontopunctualityandstrictlyabidebydatingtime.Ifyouletapersonwithmonochronictimeconceptbackgroundwait,theywillthinkthatiswastingtheirlimitedtime,andeventhinkthatitisrudeanddisrespectfultothem.Thelatterpaysattentiontotheflexibilityoftimeuseandtendstomakelong-termplanningandtheyhabitofallowingmultiplethingstobedoneatatime.Polychronicdoesnothavethehabitofscheduling,norpaysattentiontoobservingtheschedule.Manydifferenttaskscanbedoneatthesametime.Thereforethemonochronicpeopleseemtobeinefficientandunplanned.Edwardoncepointedout:“Timebecomesaroomwhichsomepeopleareallowedtoenter,whileothersareexcluded”(Edward,1976:90).Mono-chronictimepeopleinfluencedbythisconcept,emphasizingoneforone,areusedtoconcentrateononethingatatime.Americanmostlybelongtomonochronictimesystem,wheretheybelievethattimecanneverbereplacedbyotherthings,advocatestodoonlyonethinginaspecifictimeperiod,andstressmoreimportancetotimeandschedule.CorrespondingtothisistheChineseviewofpolychronictimesystem,inwhichpeopleallowmultitaskingatatime.Chinesetendstoadoptpolychronictimevalue.Ethnicgroupsinthiscultureadvocatedoingalotofthingsinaperiodoftime.Theyarenotsimplycontrolledandlimitedbytimeorscheduleandithashighlyflexibility.Edwardbelievesthatthedefectofpolychronictimingsystemisthatpeopleattachtoomuchimportancetothesolutionoftheproblemandtherelationshipwithpeople,donotcareaboutthetimetable.Peoplewithmonochronictimingsystemareusuallycaringaboutthetimetable,but13

6seldomsolvemuchpracticalproblems.Edwardsaysthat:“ThetimemodelofwesterncountriessuchasEuropeandAmericaismonochronictimingsystemandpolychronictimingsystemcountriesisAsia,AfricaandLatinAmerica”(Edward,1959:64).2.2.2Edward’sHighContextandLowContextTheoryContextistheenvironmentinwhichlanguageisused,includingallsubjectiveandobjectivefactors.InthebookBeyondCulture,HallEdward(1976)proposedthatcultureiscontextual,anddivideditintoHighContextandLowContext.“Anythingcanbecharacterizedashigh,mediumorlowcontext,”saysEdward(Edward,1976:34).Inahighcontextculture,themeaningofthespeaker’sspeechorbehaviorcomesfromorisinternalizedinthecontextinwhichthespeakerisspeaking;heoftenexpressesmorethanhesays.Low-contextthingsarejusttheopposite.Mostoftheinformationmustbeinthetransmittedinformationinordertomakeupforthemissingpartsofthecontext(internalcontextandexternalcontext).Inalow-contextculture,peopleemphasizethecontentofthecommunication,ratherthanthecontextofthetime.Healsodividedtheworldintohighcontextculturesandlow-contextculture.Theso-calledlowcontextmeansthateverythingneedstobeclearlyexplainedinlanguage,thatis,bothpartiesdonotshareacommoncontext.Highcontextmeansthatmanymeaningsareincludedinthecontext,anditisnotnecessarytoexpresseverypointclearly.Inalow-contextculture,communicativeinformationismainlyconveyedbywords,inahigh-contextculture,communicatorsmainlyrelyoncontexttoconveyinformation.Edward’sinsightsincontextinthedimensionofculturalvalues,broadensthehorizonandchannelsofcontextresearchwithveryimportantguidingsignificance.2.2.3OtherRelatedStudiesAmericancontemporarynewculturehistorianLynnHunt(2008),inhisbookMeasuringTime,MakingHistory,emphasizesonthediscussionofthenatureoftime.HewasconcernedabouthowWesternChristiancivilizationdevelopedauniquewayofdating,andhowdoesitaffectWesternhistoricalconcepts.Italsogivesabriefperspectiveonhowtheconceptsof“modernity”enteredandinfluencedthehistoryoftheWest.JacquesGoff(1982),theoutstandingrepresentativeofthethirdgenerationoftheFrenchAnnalsSchool,isalsorenownedforherexcellentstudyofthe“medievaltime”inEurope,andleftamodelwork.HisbookTime,WorkandCultureinthemiddleAgeshaslongbeenaclassicinthisfield.2.TheChineseandAmericanTimeSystems13

7Asrepresentativesofdifferentcultures,ChinaandtheUnitedStatesaretotallydifferentintermsoftimesystems.Thestudyofdifferenttimesystemswillhelpustobeinafavorablepositionincross-culturalcommunication.Wecanalsoavoidmakingsomemistakescausedbytimesystemsdifferences.3.1ChinesePolychronicTimeSystemTheconceptofpolychronictimeholdsthattimeisscattered,arbitrary.Thewaysfortimecalculateisnotsoaccurate,multipletaskscanbedonetogether,andtendtomakelong-termandeffectiveplanning.Chinaisatypicalcountrywithpolychronictime-orientation.Peoplewhoarepolychronicareusedtodealingwithafewthingsatatime,withmorerandomtime.Theydon’thavethehabitofschedulingtheschedule,donotcareaboutthetimetable,anddonotpayattentiontomeetingthedateoftheappointment.It’scommonforChinesepeopletobelate.Forindividuals,theirexperienceoftimeisthatithasbeginningandend;however,forhumanbeingasawhole,thetimeisacycleaswellasaneternaloperation(胡文仲,1998).ThePoly-chronicpersonappearstohavealowefficiencyandnoplan.Thepolychronictimesystemhastheadvantagesofbeingflexible,butitalsohasneglectoftimearrangement,whichiseasytoinfluencethework.Tosomeextent,Chinabelongstopoly-chronicculturalmodel.TheChinesehaveamoretolerantattitudetowardssuddenvisits,lateness,brokenappointments,mistimingandsoon.Relativesandfriendscanvisitatanytimeandanywherewithoutmakinganappointmentinadvance.Themultidimensionaltime-orientedcultureholdsthattimeisinfinite;thereforeit’seasytochangescheduleanddeadline,whichisverycommoninChinesepeople’severydaylife.Becauseoftheweaktimesense,thenationdoesnotpaymuchattentiontopunctualityininterpersonalcommunication,andactsmorecasuallyandhumanely.Chinesealwaysdirectlypayavisittoeachother’shomewithoutappointmentinadvance.Ifthehostisidle,theywillbeaccommodatedimmediately,onthecontrary,theyhavetowait.IntheeyesoftheWesterner,thisisaverywastefulactoftime.WiththerapiddevelopmentstepofChina’smodernization,weareabsorbingtheforeigncultureallthetime.Thedifferentconceptoftimeisalsograduallychanging.Withtheaccelerationofthepaceoflife,theconceptoftimeinChinahaschangedintentionallyorunintentionallyfrompolychronictimesystemtomonochronictimesystem.Meanwhile,Westerners’understandingandacceptanceofthetraditionalconceptoftimeinChineseculturearealsoincreasing.Withtheincreasingexchangebetweenvariousculturesthephenomenonofculturalintegrationisgraduallybecomeup-and-up,andtheoriginaltraditionalconceptoftimebetweenChinaandtheWestisalsochangingandintegrating.3.2AmericanMonochronicTimeSystem13

8Theconceptofmonochronictimeholdsthattimeisdivisible,straight-line,likeabeltorroadextendingbackwardintothepastandforwardintothefuture.Monochronictimepeopleattachimportancetoschedule,thestageandaccuracyoftime,emphasizespecialtimeandspeed,canonlydoonethinginacertaintime,andtendtomakeshort-termplanning(时静,2014(07):67).PeoplewithmonochronictimeorientationaremainlyfromNorthAmerica,NorthernEuropeandothercountries(Edward,1959).Americantimesystembelongstomonochronictime,inwhichtheyemphasizesplanningandfocusonhighefficiency.Atwork,amonochronicpersonpaysattentiontopreparationinadvance.Inordertoimproveefficiencyandmaketimeusemoreefficient,Americanswilldrawupplansandpreparethemwell.Americanmonochronictimesystemstressesscheduling,doonlyonetaskatatime,strictlyfollowingthetimetable.Attheendoftheday,whetherthingscompletedornotitmuststop,anditcan’taffectthenextarrangement.Inhighlyindustrializedwesterncountries,peoplethinkthattimeislimited,whichcanbequantifiedasgoods;timeisendowedwithsupremevalueandveryprecious.Theconceptthattimeismoneyisdeeplyrootedintheheartsofthepeople(陈春卿,2008(04):41).Duringmostoftheirlives,timeandmoneyarethemostscarceandpreciouselementsoftheirlives,andtheonlythingthatpeoplealwaysfeelmostinfluentialandvaluablecomparabletotheotherthings.Timedetermineseverythinginpeople’sdailylifeandpractice,anditisdifficultforanyonetoescapetheironhandcontroloftime.Americansevencallthemselves“slavetonothingbutclock”(Edward,1976:53).Americansprefertobuildshort-termrelationshipsbecauselong-termrelationshipshavemoreuncontrollablefactors,andshort-termrelationshipscanavoidunnecessaryinterruptionsanddothingsmoreefficiently.Monochronictimeobjectivelymanipulatessociallifeandcloselyweavespeople’slifenetwork.Therefore,westernershavelearnedtotaketimeandcherishtimeseriouslyfromanearlyage,andpaidmuchattentiontoappointmentandpunctualityasthecodeofconductofthewholesociety.Thelast-minutenoticewasdistastefulbecauseitwoulddisrupttheoriginalplanandsurprisepeople.Theadvantageofmonochronictimingsystemisthatitisveryefficient:itallowspeopletomakeaplanbeforehand,andstrictlyfollowthisschedule.Theymustfulfillonlyonetaskatatimewithoutanypostpone.Butitalsohastheweakness--thelackofflexibility.So,theAmericansareinfluencedbythissingle-timeculturalmodel.2.TheDifferencesofTimeSystemsandCausesEdwardsaid:“IntheWesternworld,noonecanescapetheironbowlcontroloftime.Infact,socialandcommerciallifeandevensexuallifearemanipulatedbytime.Time,completely13

9weavesthenetworkofpeople’slives”(Edward,1982:43).Differencesoftimesystemsarereflectedinmanyaspects,suchaslifestyle,timemanagementandbusinessaffairs.Atthesametime,thecausesofdifferenttimesystemsarealsovaried.4.1TheDifferencesofTimeSystems2.1.1LifeStyleThetimeperspectivedirectlyaffectspeople’sconceptandlifestyle.Americansfollowtheideaoftimeandmoney.FormostAmericans,timeandmoneyarethemostscarceandpreciousfactorinthebasicproblemofhumansurvivalformostofthetime.Theycherishandvaluetime,andtimeevenefficiencyasameasureofone’sability.Thistimeconceptresultsinafast-pacedlife.Thegreatestbenefitforpeoplewiththiskindoflifestyleisthehigherworkefficiency.Inordertomaketheirlimitedtimemoreeffectivetouse,theyfocusontime-basedarrangementstopayattentiontodateanddurationofwork.Peoplearetryingtodoasmuchasthingsinalimitedtime.Ontheotherhand,Chinesepeoplehaveamoreflexibleviewoftimeandleisurelifestyle.TherearemanysuchproverbsinChineselanguage:“EathotTofuslowly”.Itmeansnottoworryaboutanything,andtomorrowisnotdonetoday(崔可,2009(35):607).Chinesesocietyismoretolerantofbeinglate.Evenwhenitcomestomeetingtime,peopleareoftenlate,andpeopleusuallywaitforeveryonetoarrivebeforetheystarttheiractivities.ItisasmallmatterfortheChinesetobefive-minutelate.What’smore,itisregardedthatimportantpeopleorpeoplewithhighstatusshouldcomealittlelate,andcomingontimewilldegradetheirstatus.InChina,timelimitsareoftenseenasareminderthattheyareclosetothedeadline,andeveryoneknowsthatthereisstillsometimeafterthedeadlineasanotherdeadline.OneChineseteacherwhowasabouttoleavetheUnitedStatesinvitedhisAmericanfriendstodinnerthedaybefore,butwasrefusedbyhisfriends:“Oh,I’msorry,Ihaveplanstomorrow.”Naturally,theChineseteacherfeltveryuncomfortableandthinkthattheAmericansweretooinflexible.Infact,thisisduetotheAmericanconceptoftime,thepre-agreedtimecannotbechangedatwill,priorappointmentmustbescheduledontime,aftertheappointmentcanonlybearrangedseparately.Theaboveexampleshowsthatdifferentcultureshavespecificvaluesandtimeorientations.Incross-culturalcommunicationactivities,bothpartiesshouldconsiderpayingattentiontoeachother’slifestyleandusingspecificcommunicationmethods.2.1.2BusinessAffairsAsweallknow,therearegreatdifferencesbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStatesintheirwaysofdoingbusiness.BeingpunctualisasignificantpointintheAmericantimeconcept.Itisnecessaryforapersontostartandendontime,whetheritisameetingoradate.Americanstendtohaveastrongsenseoftimeandwell-planned.PunctualityisanimportantsymbolofrespectforothersandalsoforAmericans,whoregardcherishingtimeasanobleandnecessaryvirtue.13

10Andmeetingthedateanddeliveringtasksbeforethedeadlineisconsideredtobeapersonwithgoodcredit.Americanswithastrongsenseoftimemaintainthehabitoffuturearrangement.Theyregardmanagingtimeasaskillthatcanbelearnedinmanagementclasses,andscientifictimemanagementcanplayanimportantroleinachievinggoalseffectively.Especiallyinthemoderneracalledtechnologicalera,theconceptoftime,whichrepresentsthecharacteristicsofthetimes,isacombinationofrefinedmeasuretimeandlineartime(吴国盛,1999).Chinesecultureisvagueabouttheconceptoftimeandtimingsystems,andthetimecalculationsystemisalsonotsoaccurateastoday.Therefore,duringdailyinterpersonalcommunicationpeopleignoretostressappointmentandpunctuality.AlsoinbusinessaffairsChinesepeopleusuallycanhandlemultipletransactionssimultaneously.Forexample,whenacompanymanagerconvenesadepartmentmeeting,hecanhaveotherappointmentsduringthattime;orhissubordinatescanentertoaskhimtosignfiles,evenaskhimtoanswerthephone.4.2TheCausesofDifferentTimeSystems4.2.1CulturalFactorsChinawasanagriculturalcountryfromancienttimes.FarmingcultureistherootofChineseancientinhabitants.Foragriculturalreasons,landbecomesthelifebloodoffarmers,whohadlivedinaself-sufficientagriculturalsocietyforthousandsofyears,creatingmanysimilarvillagesandtownswithlittlecommercialactivities.Evennow,afterdecadesofeconomicdevelopment,agriculturestillaccountsforalargeproportionandhighlypositioninnationaleconomy.Inaddition,farmersmakeupthemajorityofChina’spopulation.FarmingculturebringsChinesepeoplealeisurelyattitudeandwayoflife,whichmakespeople’stimeconsciousnessweakerandweaker.Therelativelyweaksenseoftimemakespeoplenothaveadeepunderstandingofappointment,punctuality,dailyintercourseandvisit.Peoplejustcareaboutwhetheraffairsarefinishedornot,ratherthanthelengthofcompletiontime.Farmershavebeenonthesamelandforeverygeneration.Therefore,Chinese,influencedbyagriculturalculture,regardtimeasmultidimensional.Onthecontrary,peopleliveinanindustrializedculturebackgroundalwayspayconstantattentiontowatchesandclocks.Everyonehastodothingsaccordingtothescheduleandfinishthemwithinthedeadline.Inaddition,theproductionlineisthesymbolofindustrialsociety.Onceithaspassed,itwillnotcomeback.IfAmericanslosetheirclocks,theywillbeamess.Inshort,Americanshaveanacutesenseoftimefortheyhavebeeninfluencedbyindustrialcultureforalongtime,whichmakesitpossibleforpeopletograsptheexacttime.4.2.2HistoricalFactorsAfterthousandsofyearshistory,influencedbylong-termhistoricalfactors.Chinese13

11polychronictimingsystemhasamorecommontimeinequality.TheChinesearegoodatbuildingallkindsofrelationshipsandaremoreconcernedaboutitratherthanwork,suchassuperiorleaders,mentorsandteachers,thosewhowithhighlyeconomicstatusandauthority.Therefore,throughalongperiodofagriculturallife,Chinesearesubjecttotheinfluenceofthecycleoftheday,andthetimeconceptofthepolychronictimesystemisformed.ZengJianpingbelievesthat:“Theethnicgroupswithexcessivetraditionalburdenpayattentiontohistoryandthepast,whichisgenerallythetimeorientationofthepast.Andtheethnicgroupswithashorthistorytendtobetheorientationofthepresentorthefuture”(曾剑平,廖晓明,2007(03):56).Chinaisunderthepolychronictimingsystem,whichstressestemporaryuseoftime.Mostofpeopledonothavedetailedplansofdailythings,theviewoftimeisalsorelativelyloose,andthepaceoflifeisslowandleisurely.Fromahistoricalpointofview,theoriginoftheAmericanconceptofmonochronictimecantracebacktothecolonialperiodbeforethefoundingoftheUnitedStates.Inordertoimprovetheefficiencyandextractmorebenefitsfromtheworkers,theownersinthesouthrealizedthattheyshouldnotonlyincreasetheworkingtime,butalsoemphasizetheoutputandefficiencyoftheworkersintheunittime.ThisideawaslaterreinforcedbyBenjaminFranklin’sfamoussaying,“timeismoney”.Since1840,homealarmclockshadbecomeamust.MostAmericansliketoliveandworkaccordingtotheirownscheduleanddonotwelcomeuninvitedguests.Ifyouwanttovisitothers,makinganappointmentisthebestway,andvisitontimeaccordingtoyourappointment.Moreover,Americansareconcernedaboutdeadlines.Thetaskorworkmustbecompletedwithinafixedtimerange.4.2.3ReligiousOriginsThelong-termaccumulatedimpactofculturebackgroundhasformeddifferentconceptsoftime.TheformationoftheconceptoftimeinpolychronictimesysteminChinaisinseparablefromTaoistthought.Taoismisoneoftraditionalandwell-knownreligionsinChina.Taoismadvocates,humanreincarnationandreturnstonature.Taoistthoughtholdsthateverylifehaslifeanddeath,butthedefinitionofdeathisnotabsolute,itisonlyalinkintheprocessoflifecycleintheuniverse.LouisGadibelievethat:“Respect,praiseandworshipfortheancestors,andeventhelongdead,haveastructuralimpactonthepsychologyoftheChinesepeople”(路易·加迪,1988:97).Taoistthoughtthatalllifehaslifeanddeath,itisonlyalinkintheprocessoflifecycleintheuniverse(李涛,2016(04):382).Therearemanyreasonsfortheformationofthetimesystems,themostimportantofwhichistheinfluenceofConfucianismforthousandsofyears.Confucianculturehasalwaysadvocatedtakinghistoryasamirrortoguidethepresentandthefuturebystudyingthepast.ThisiswhyChinesepeopleareusedtofollowingtraditionalideasandmethodsofdoingthings,people13

12worshipancestors,respecttheelderly,attachimportancetoexperience(王秀琴,2011(15):142).TheconceptofmonochronictimesystemintheUnitedStatesiscloselyrelatedtoitsChristianandbiblicalculture,whichadvocatestheevilhumannaturewithitsoriginalsin.InChristianculture,AdamandEve,theancestorofhumanbeing,stoletheforbiddenfruit,committedtheoriginalsin,andwereexpelledfromparadiseforeveranddemotedtotheworldtosuffer.Paradisecannotgoback,onlybyhardwork,canChristianachievethelasttrial.ThisisthereligiousoriginoftheAmericantimesystem.Underthelong-termimpactofthisconcept,Americansseldomabidebytherules,lookforwardandalwaysfocusonthefuturetime,focusingtheirenergyandeffortsonachievingtheirimmediategoals.Theybelievethatonlybytryingtomoveforwardandconstantlytranscend.Tosumup,theChineseandAmericanviewoftimeisinfluencedbymanyfactors,whichcanalsochangetheformationanddevelopmentofthetimesystems.Therefore,theChinesebelongtopolychronictimesystem,usedtotakehistoryasawarningandlikereviewthepast.AndtheUnitedStateshasdevelopedintomonochronictimingsystem,cherishingtimeandfocusingonworkefficiency.Bothtimesystemshaveitsmeritsandmeaning,andwemustrespectthedifferences.5.ConclusionChinaandtheUnitedStatesareonbehalfoftwodifferentcultures,andtheexchangesbetweenthesetwocountriesbelongtothecategoryofcross-culturalcommunication.Thispapercomparesandanalyzesthedifferencesandcausesoftimesystemsbetweentwocountriesinordertoimprovepeople’scommunicationskills.Throughthestudyofthedifferencestimesystems,theauthorrecognizedthat,intheprocessofcross-culturalcommunication,participantsnotonlyneedtounderstandeachother’sculturalcharacteristics,alsorespectfortimesystemdifferences.Whenconductingculturalexchangeswithothercountries,itisnecessarytoknowthelocalculturalsysteminadvanceanddoastheRomansdo,soastoavoidculturalconflicts.Theveryimportantprinciplethatweshouldalwayskeepinmindisthat:weshouldeliminateofculturalsuperiority,culturalcentralism,biasanddetermination,andtakeatolerantattitudetothetimeperspectiveofothers.Thenwecanbetterunderstandthedifferencesintimesystems.Onlyinthiswaycanbothsideshaveequalandsincerecommunicationsoastocontinuouslydiscoverandsolveproblems. 13

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