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1、California—HistorySettledbysuccessivewavesofarrivalsduringthelast10,000years,Californiawasoneofthemostculturallyandlinguisticallydiverseareasinpre-ColumbianNorthAmerica;theareawasinhabitedbymorethan70distinctgroupsofNativeAmericans.Large,settledpopulationslivedonthecoastandhuntedseamammals,f
2、ishedforsalmon,andgatheredshellfish,whilegroupsintheinteriorhuntedterrestrialgameandgatherednuts,acorns,andberries.Californiagroupsalsowerediverseintheirpoliticalorganizationwithbands,tribes,villages,andontheresource-richcoasts,largechiefdoms,suchastheChumash,PomoandSalinan.Trade,intermarria
3、ge,andmilitaryalliancesfosteredmanysocialandeconomicrelationshipsamongthediversegroups.ThefirstEuropeantoexplorethecoastasfarnorthastheRussianRiverwasthePortugueseJoãoRodriguesCabrilho,in1542,sailingfortheSpanishEmpire.Some37yearslater,theEnglishexplorerFrancisDrakealsoexploredandclaimedanun
4、definedportionoftheCaliforniacoastin1579.SpanishtradersmadeunintendedvisitswiththeManilaGalleonsontheirreturntripsfromthePhilippinesbeginningin1565.SebastiánVizcaínoexploredandmappedthecoastofCaliforniain1602forNewSpain.Spanishmissionariesbegansettinguptwenty-oneCaliforniaMissionsalongthecoa
5、stofwhatbecameknownasAltaCalifornia(UpperCalifornia),togetherwithsmalltownsandpresidios.ThefirstmissioninAltaCaliforniawasestablishedatSanDiegoin1769.[9]In1821,theMexicanWarofIndependencegaveMexico(includingCalifornia),independencefromSpain;forthenexttwenty-fiveyears,AltaCaliforniaremainedar
6、emotenorthernprovinceofthenationofMexico.Cattleranches,orranchos,emergedasthedominantinstitutionsofMexicanCalifornia.AfterMexicanindependencefromSpain,thechainofmissionsbecamethepropertyoftheMexicangovernmentandweresecularizedby1832.TheranchosdevelopedunderownershipbyCalifornios(Spanish-spea
7、kingCalifornians)whohadreceivedlandgrantsandtradedcowhidesandtallowwithBostonmerchants.Beginninginthe1820s,trappersandsettlersfromtheUnitedStatesandCanadabegantoarriveinNorthernCalifornia,harbingersofthegreatchangesthatwouldlatersweeptheMexicanterr