Foucault 福柯

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MichelFoucault LifeBornon15th,October,1926,inPoitiers.AdmittedintoEcoleNormaleSuperiourein1945.TeacherofpsychologyinUniversityLillefrom1953-1954.Culturaldelegatefrom1954-1960.Attaineddoctoratein1961(“MadnessandInsanity:HistoryofMadnessintheClassicalAge”).ProfessorinUniversityofClermont-Ferrandfrom1960-1966.TeachinginUniversityofTunisfrom1966-1968.ElectedintotheCollegedeFrance,asProfessoroftheHistoryofSystemsofThoughtin1970.DiedofAIDSon25th,June,1984. WorksMadnessandCivilization(1961)TheBirthoftheClinic:AnArchaeologyofMedicalPerception(1963)TheOrderofThings(1966)TheArchaeologyofKnowledge(1969)DisciplineandPunish(1975)TheHistoryofSexuality(1984) KeyWordsArchaeologyGenealogyEpistemeDiscourseKnowledgePowerPanopticism/PanopticonDiscipline ArchaeologyTheprocessofworkingthroughthehistoricalarchivesofvarioussocietiestobringtolightthediscursiveformationandeventsthathaveproducedthefieldsofknowledgeanddiscursiveformationofdifferenthistoricalperiods. GenealogyAprocessofanalyzinganduncoveringthehistoricalrelationshipbetweentruth,knowledgeandpower.AccordingtoFoucault,whohasbeengreatlyinfluencedbyNietzsche,knowledgeandtruthareproducedbystrugglesbothbetweenandwithininstitutions,fieldsanddisciplinesandthenpresentedasiftheyareeternalanduniversal. Episteme“ThisbookfirstaroseoutofapassageinBorges……Thispassagequotesa‘certainChineseencyclopaedia’inwhichitiswrittenthat‘animalsaredividedinto:(a)belongingtotheEmperor,(b)embalmed,(c)tame,(d)suckingpigs……(g)straydogs,(h)includedinthepresentclassification……(m)havingjustbrokenthewaterpitcher,(n)thatfromalongwayofflooklikeflies’.Inthewondermentofthistaxonomy,thethingthat……isdemonstratedastheexoticcharmofanothersystemofthought,isthelimitationofourown,thestarkimpossibilityofthinkingthat.”(PrefacetoTheOrderofThings) FromtheBorgesstory,Foucaultcametotheideathatpeopleinanothertimeandplacemayhaveunderstoodthingsaltogetherdifferentlyfromus;andmoreover,theymaymakesenseoftheworldinwayswecouldn’tpossiblyimagine. EpistemeVSprogressivehistory:Ahistorywithoutcontinuity,progressandorigins,butconsistingofseparateperiodsoftime–epistemes,whichareorganizedaroundspecificworld-viewsorknowledges,appearanddisappearsuddenlyandarbitrarily. “Iwoulddefinetheepistemeretrospectivelyasthestrategicapparatuswhichpermitsofseparatingoutfromamongallthestatementswhicharepossiblethosethatwillbeacceptablewithin,Iwon’tsayascientifictheory,butafieldofscientificity,andwhichitispossibletosayaretrueorfalse.Theepistemeisthe‘apparatus’whichmakespossibletheseparation,notofthetruefromthefalse,butofwhatmayfromwhatmaynotbecharacterisedasscientific.”(Power/Knowledge) Epistemes:Periodsofhistoryorganizedaroundspecificworld-viewsanddiscourses;Theproductofcertainorganizingprincipleswhichrelatethingstooneanother(byclassifyingthingsandallocatingthemmeaningsandvalues),andwhich,asaresult,determinehowwemakesenseofthings,whatwecanknowandwhatwesay;Theriseandfallofepistemesdon’tcorrespondtoanynotionofnaturalcontinuity,developmentorprogress,butarerandomandcontingent. DiscourseAtypeoflanguageassociatedwithaninstitution,andincludestheideasandstatementswhichexpresstheinstitution’svaluesandallowustomakesenseofand“see”things. KnowledgeMadeupofperspectives,ideas,narratives,commentaries,rules,categories,laws,terms,explanationsanddefinitions…etc.Alloftheseareconstructedbydiscourses.Asmentionedbefore,discourseisassociatedwithaninstitution.Thusknowledgecanbeconsideredastheproductofcertaininstitutions. Knowledgeisnotabsolutebutproduced;Knowledgeistiedupwithpowerstruggles(Itisproducedbydominantdiscourses,whichhavetriumphedoverothersinpowerstruggles). Relationshipbetweendiscourse,knowledgeandpowerKnowledgeandtruthdon’tjustappearoutofnowheretofightforgoodness,justiceandprogress;butareproducedoutofpowerstruggles(betweendifferentfields,disciplinesandinstitutions)andareusedtoauthorizeandlegitimatetheworkingsofpower. “Philosophersoreven,moregenerally,intellectualsjustifyandmarkouttheiridentitybytryingtoestablishanalmostuncrossablelinebetweenthedomainofknowledge,seenasthatoftruthandfreedom,andthedomainoftheexerciseofpower.Whatstruckme……wasthatthedevelopmentofallthesebranchesofknowledgecaninnowaybedissociatedfromtheexerciseofpower……youwillalwaysfindpsychologicalorsociologicaltheoriesthatareindependentofpower.But,generallyspeaking,thefactthatsocietiescanbecometheobjectofscientificobservation,thathumanbehaviorbecame……aproblemtobeanalyzedandresolved,allthatisboundup……withmechanismsofpower……” “Sciencealsoexercisespower:itis,literally,apowerthatforcesyoutosaycertainthings,ifyouarenottobedisqualifiednotonlyasbeingwrong,but,moreseriouslythanthat,asbeingacharlatan.Sciencehasbecomeinstitutionalizedasapowerthroughauniversitysystemandthroughitsownconstrictingapparatusoflaboratoriesandexperiments.”(OnPower) Knowledgeisusedtoregulateandnormalizedindividuals,andinthisway,justifiesandlegitimatestheexercisingofpower. PowerAcomplexflowandasetofrelationsbetweendifferentgroupsandareasofsociety;Notsolelynegative,butalsohighlyproductive. Powerisn’tathingthatiseitherheldby,orbelongsto,anybody……butitfunctionsintermsoftherelationsbetweendifferentfields,institutionsandothergroupswithinastate.Itmovesaroundandthroughdifferentgroups,events,institutionsandindividuals,butnobodyownsit. “Onedoesn’thavehereapowerwhichiswhollyinthehandsofonepersonwhocanexerciseitaloneandtotallyoverothers.It’samachineinwhicheveryoneiscaught,thosewhoexercisepowerjustasmuchasthoseoverwhomitisexercised……Powerisnolongersubstantiallyidentifiedwithanindividualwhopossessesorexercisesitbyrightofbirth;itbecomesamachinerythatnooneowns.”(TheEyeofPower)Poweractsoneveryone—thedominantaswellasthedominated. Powerbecomesamechanism. Panopticism/Panopticon“Aperimeterbuildingintheformofaring.Atthecenterofthis,atower,piercedbylargewindowsopeningontotheinnerfaceofthering.Theouterbuildingisdividedintocellseachofwhichtraversesthewholethicknessofthebuilding.Thesecellshavetwowindows,oneopeningontotheinside,facingthewindowsofthecentraltower,theother,outeroneallowingdaylighttopassthroughthewholecell.”(TheEyeofPower) Thebestwayofmanagingprisonerswastomakethemthepotentialtargetsoftheauthority’sgazeateverymomentoftheday. Gaze:“……eachperson……iswatchedbyallorcertainoftheothers……”“Aninspectinggaze,agazewhicheachindividualunderitsweightwillendbyinteriorizingtothepointthatheishisownoverseer,eachindividualthusexercisingthissurveillanceover,andagainst,himself.”(TheEyeofPower) Thislogicofgaze…wasnotconfinedtotheprison,butmovedthroughoutthevariousinstitutionalspacesinsociety.Wecanseethisinthewayinwhichauthoritieswatchoverusandmonitorourbehaviors…Surveillancetechniqueshavebecomethefundamentalpartoflifeinmodernsocieties. DisciplineThenotionofpunishmentandcoercion;Thenotionofsetsofskillsandknowledgeswhichmustbemasteredinordertoachievesuccessinparticularfields. “Letustaketheidealfigureofthesoldierasitwasstillseenintheearlyseventeenthcentury…heborecertainsigns:thenaturalsignsofhisstrengthandhiscourage,themarks,too,ofhispride…anerecthead,atautstomach,broadshoulders,longarms,strongfingers…Bythelateeighteenthcentury,thesoldierhasbecomesomethingthatcanbemade;outofaformlessclay,aninaptbody,themachinerequiredcanbeconstructed…”(DisciplineandPunish) Nooneisborntobutmadeintotheonewhoheis. Eg.Peopleusuallydon’tbothertothinkabouthowtheyshouldsit—theyhavealreadybeeninstructedsincechildhoodintheappropriatebehaviorformenandwomenrespectively,andthesesocialrules,whichhadbeen“written”onpeople’sbodies,effectivelydeterminedtheirbodilyactions. Biopower:Thepracticeofmodernstatesandtheirregulationoftheirsubjectsthrough"anexplosionofnumerousanddiversetechniquesforachievingthesubjugationsofbodiesandthecontrolofpopulations."(TheHistoryofSexuality)Thebasicideaofbiopoweristoproduceself-regulatingsubjects. Powerisproductive:“Ingeneralterms,Iwouldsaythattheinterdiction,therefusal,theprohibition,farfrombeingessentialformsofpower,areonlyitslimits……Therelationsofpowerare,aboveall,productive.”(PowerandSex) Powerisnotusedtodestroylifebutrathertoconstructbodies.Powerproducesacategoryofabnormal,pervertedandsuperstitiousetc.whiledefiningwhatisnormal,healthyandscientific. 对以下40道题，如果感到“常常是”，划√号；“偶尔是”，划△号；“完全没有”，划×号。1.经常做恶梦，惊恐不安，早晨醒来就感到倦怠无力、焦虑烦躁。遇到不称心的事情便较长时间地沉默少言。感到很多事情不称心，无端发火。4.经常与人争吵发火，过后又后悔不已。5.喜欢跟自己年幼或能力不如自己的人一起玩或比赛。6.发现别人在窃窃私语，便怀疑是在背后议论自己。7.经常怀疑自己接触的东西不干净，反复洗手或换衣服，对清洁极端注意。8.对特定的事物、交通工具（电车、公共汽车等）、尖状物及白色墙壁等稍微奇怪的东西有恐怖倾向。9.对某个异性伙伴的每一个细微行为都很注意。10.感到内心痛苦无法解脱，只能自伤或自杀……测评方法：√得2分，△得1分，×得0分。评价参考：1)0-8分。心理非常健康，请你放心。2)9-16分。大致还属于健康的范围，但应有所注意，也可以找老师或同学聊聊。3)17-30分。你在心理方面有了一些障碍，应采取适当的方法进行调适，或找心理辅导老师帮助你。4)31-40分。是黄牌警告，有可能患了某些心理疾病，应找专门的心理医生进行检查治疗。5)41分以上。有较严重的心理障碍，应及时找专门的心理医生治疗。 Thankyou!