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1、IntheUnitedStates,thoseattitudesbegantosoftenduringthecourseofthenineteenthcenturywhencorporationsinAmericansocietyfirstbegantoblossomandtheirpotentialtodoharmfirstbecamesignificant.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,astheIndustrialRevolutionfundamentallyalteredtheroleoflargecorporationsinAmericanlife,t
2、heneedforsomemechanismofregulatingandpunishingcorporatemalfeasancebecameallthemoreclear.MosthistoriesofAmericancorporatecriminalliabilitystartthere—theIndustrialRevolution,theriseoftheregulatorystate,andtheSupremeCourt’slandmark1909decisioninNewYorkCentral&HudsonRiverRailroadv.UnitedStates.InNewYork
3、Central,theCourtupheldtheconstitutionalityoftheElkinsAct,afederalstatuteregulatingrailwayratesthatimposedcriminalliabilityoncorporationsthatviolatedthestatute’smandates.Insweepinglanguage,theCourtrejectedthecorporation’scontentionthat,asanentity,itcouldnotcommitacrime,findingCongresshadexpansivepowe
4、rtoregulateinterstatecommercethatincludedtheauthoritytoimposecriminalsanctions.TheCourtwasuntroubledbythelegalfictionthatanentitycouldneithertakecriminalactionnorpossesscriminalintent.Instead,theCourtadoptedthecivillawdoctrineofrespondeatsuperior,holdingthatacorporationcouldconstitutionallybeconvict
5、edofacrimewhenoneofitsagentshadcommittedacriminalact(1)withinthescopeofhisorheremployment,and(2)forthebenefitofthecorporation.Thatstandardremainsgoodlawtothisday.BeginningthehistoryofAmericanentityliabilitywithNewYorkCentraliscertainlylogicalbecausethecaseestablishedtheauthorityofCongresstocriminali
6、zecorporateconduct.ButdoingsooverlooksaveryimportantmovementthatwasafootwellbeforeNewYorkCentral,onethatiscriticaltounderstandinghowandwhyentityliabilityexpandedsorapidlyinitswake.WhileNewYorkCentralinvolvedastatutethatexplicitlyextendedcriminalliabilitytocorporations,forsomefiftyyearsbeforeCongress
7、passedtheElkinsAct,prosecutorsacrossthecountryhadbeencreativelypursuingcriminalsanctionsagainstcorporationsbyapplyinggeneralcriminallaws—lawsthat,bytheirterms,didnotextendtocorporationsasentities—toco
