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1、CivilEngineeringCivilengineering,theoldestoftheengineeringspecialties,istheplanning,design,construction,andmanagementofthebuiltenvironment.Thisenvironmentincludesallstructuresbuiltaccordingtoscientificprinciples,fromirrigationanddrainagesystemstorocket-launc
2、hingfacilities.Civilengineersbuildroads,bridges,tunnels,dams,harbors,powerplants,waterandsewagesystems,hospitals,schools,masstransit,andotherpublicfacilitiesessentialtomodernsocietyandlargepopulationconcentrations.Theyalsobuildprivatelyownedfacilitiessuchasa
3、irports,railroads,pipelines,skyscrapers,andotherlargestructuresdesignedforindustrial,commercial,orresidentialuse.Inaddition,civilengineersplan,design,andbuildcompletecitiesandtowns,andmorerecentlyhavebeenplanninganddesigningspaceplatformstohouseself-containe
4、dcommunities.ThewordcivilderivesfromtheLatinforcitizen.In1782,EnglishmanJohnSmeatonusedthetermtodifferentiatehisnonmilitaryengineeringworkfromthatofthemilitaryengineerswhopredominatedatthetime.Sincethen,thetermcivilengineeringhasoftenbeenusedtorefertoenginee
5、rswhobuildpublicfacilities,althoughthefieldismuchbroaderScope.Becauseitissobroad,civilengineeringissubdividedintoanumberoftechnicalspecialties.Dependingonthetypeofproject,theskillsofmanykindsofcivilengineerspecialistsmaybeneeded.Whenaprojectbegins,thesiteiss
6、urveyedandmappedbycivilengineerswholocateutilityplacement—water,sewer,andpowerlines.Geotechnicalspecialistsperformsoilexperimentstodetermineiftheearthcanbeartheweightoftheproject.Environmentalspecialistsstudytheproject’simpactonthelocalarea:thepotentialforai
7、randgroundwaterpollution,theproject’simpactonlocalanimalandplantlife,andhowtheprojectcanbedesignedtomeetgovernmentrequirementsaimedatprotectingtheenvironment. Transportationspecialistsdeterminewhatkindoffacilitiesareneededtoeasetheburdenonlocalroadsandothert
8、ransportationnetworksthatwillresultfromthecompletedproject.Meanwhile,structuralspecialistsusepreliminarydatatomakedetaileddesigns,plans,andspecificationsfortheproject.Supervisingandcoordinatingt
