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1、PHOTOMULTIPLIERTUBESprinciples&applicationsRe-editedSeptember2002byS-OFlyckt*andCaroleMarmonier**,Photonis,Brive,France*Email:so.flyckt@photonis.com**Email:c.marmonier@photonis.comiFOREWORDFormorethansixtyyears,photomultipliershavebeenusedtodetectlow-energyphotonsinth
2、eUVtovisiblerange,high-energyphotons(X-raysandgammarays)andionizingparticlesusingscintillators.Today,thephotomultipliertuberemainsunequalledinlightdetectioninallbutafewspecializedareas.Thephotomultiplier'scontinuingsuperioritystemsfromthreemainfeatures:—largesensingar
3、ea—ultra-fastresponseandexcellenttimingperformance—highgainandlownoiseThelasttwogivethephotomultiplieranexceptionallyhighgainxbandwidthproduct.FordetectinglightfromUVtovisiblewavelengths,thephotomultiplierhassofarsuccessfullymetthechallengesofsolid-statelightdetectors
4、suchasthesiliconphotodiodeandthesiliconavalanchephotodiode.Fordetectinghigh-energyphotonsorionizingparticles,thephotomultiplierremainswidelypreferred.Andinlarge-areadetectors,theavailabilityofscintillatingfibresisagainfavouringtheuseofthephotomultiplierasanalternative
5、totheslowermulti-wireproportionalcounter.Tomeettoday'sincreasinglystringentdemandsinnuclearimaging,existingphotomultiplierdesignsareconstantlybeingrefined.Moreover,fortheanalyticalinstrumentsandphysicsmarkets,completelynewtechnologieshavebeendevelopedsuchasthefoildyno
6、de(plusitsderivativethemetaldynode)thatisthekeytothelow-crosstalkofmodernmulti-channelphotomultipliers.Andforlargedetectorsforphysicsresearch,themeshdynodehasbeendevelopedforoperationinmulti-teslaaxialfields.Recentdevelopmentsincludeverylargehemisphericalphotomultipli
7、erswithexcellenttimeresponseforcosmicrayexperiments,andultra-fasttubeswithatimejitteroflesshalfananosecond.Thisbookdescribestheoperatingprinciplesofthephotomultipliertubeandsurveysitsmanydiverseapplications,suchasmedicalimaging,nuclearandhigh-energyphysicsincludingthe
8、latestcosmic-rayresearchaimedatopeningnewwindowsontheuniverse.iiCONTENTSCHAPTER1OperatingprinciplesandconstructionCHAPTER2Fu
