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AirlineTransitionCourseATPChapter11,12,13ATPPerformance 2TakeoffPerformanceTermsClearwayPlaneofspacebeyondtheendofarunwaywhichdoesnotcontainobstructionsCanbeconsideredwhencalculatingtakeoffperformance1stsegmentoftakeoffisconsideredcompletewhenaheightof35’andV2isachieved.Maybeusedfortheclimbto35’. 3TakeoffPerformanceTermsStopwayAreadesignatedforuseindeceleratinganabortedtakeoffCannotbeusedaspartofthetakeoffdistanceCanbeconsideredaspartoftheaccelerate-stopdistance 4TakeoffPerformanceTermsMaximumTakeoffWeightMustbecomputedforeachtakeoffIfduringthetakeoffrunthecriticalenginefails:Aircraftmustbeabletostopontherunwayandstopwayorsafelycontinuethetakeoff(121.177,121.189). 5TakeoffPerformanceTermsMaximumTakeoffWeightFactorsdeterminingmaximumtakeoffweightare:runwaylengthwindflappositionrunwaybrakingactionpressurealtitudetemperature 6TakeoffPerformanceTermsThelowestofthefollowingthreeweightsmustbeobserved:MaximumStructuralTakeoffWeightRunwayLimitedTakeoffWeightClimb-LimitedTakeoffWeightIfaircraftweightisatorbelowthelowestofthethreeadequatetakeoffperformanceisassured 7TakeoffPerformanceTermsClimb-limitedTakeoffWeightEachtakeoffrequirescomputationofaclimb-limitedtakeoffweightthatguarantee’sacceptableclimbperformancewithanengineinoperative(121.181)Climb-limitedweightisdeterminedby:flappositionpressurealtitudetemperature 8TakeoffPerformanceTermsVspeedsV1-TakeoffDecisionSpeedTheaircraftcanexperiencethefailureofthecriticalengine&thepilotcanstillabortthetakeoffandcometoasafestopontherunwayandstopwayremaining…ORThepilotcancontinuethetakeoffsafelyIftheenginefailsataspeedlessthatV1,thepilotmustabortIfthefailureoccursataspeedaboveV1,pilotmustcontinuethetakeoff 9TakeoffPerformanceTermsVspeedsVR-RotationSpeedIASatwhichtheaircraftrotatestoitstakeoffattitudewithorwithoutanenginefailureVRisalwaysatorjustaboveV1 10TakeoffPerformanceTermsV2-TakeoffSafetySpeedEnsurestheairplanecanmaintainanacceptableclimbgradientwiththecriticalengineinoperativeVmu-MinimumUnstickSpeedMinimumspeedtheairplanemaybeflownofftherunwayw/oatailstrikeEstablishesminV1andVRspeedsVspeeds 11TakeoffPerformanceTermsWindChangestakeoffdistance(Head-Winddecreasesit;Tail-Windincreasesit)Affectsrunwaylimitedtakeoffweight.UsuallyhasnoeffectoncomputedV1speed.SomeperformancetablesincludesmallcorrectionsforV1inverystrongwinds 12TakeoffPerformanceTermsRunwaySlopeSameeffectontakeoffperformanceasawindUp-slopingrunwayincreasestakeoffdistanceDown-slopingrunwaywilldecreaseit 13TakeoffPerformanceTermsStoppingPerformanceAffectedby:runwaysurfaceconditionsanti-skidsystemoperationMayrequireanabortedtakeoffatalowerspeedMaylowerrunwaylimitedtakeoffweightandtheV1speedused 14Questions? 15FlightPlanning 16FlightPlanningAircraftmanufacturerspublishflightplanninggraphsortablesenablingflightcrewstoquicklyestimatethetimeandfuelrequiredtoflycertaintrips.Thesetablesorgraphsallowadjustmentsfor:aircraftweightwindaltitudecruisespeedothervariables 17FlightPlanningB-737FlightPlanning(Fig.61)Time&fuelrequiredAllowsfortripdistance,wind,flightaltitude,landingweight,andtemperature 18Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:TripDistance:2,000NMTW:50ktsPressureAltitude:27,000ftTemperature:ISA+10LandingWeight(x1000):70Determinetriptime&fuel 19QuestionstoCompleteHowFARisthistrip?HowmuchFUELwillittake?HowmuchTIMEwillittake? 20Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:TripDistance:2,000NMTW:50ktsPressureAltitude:27,000ftTemperature:ISA+10LandingWeight(x1000):70Determinetriptime&fuel1,800DISTANCE? 21Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:TripDistance:2,000NMTW:50ktsPressureAltitude:27,000ftTemperature:ISA+10LandingWeight(x1000):701,80026,000lbsFUEL? 22TIME?Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:TripDistance:2,000NMTW:50ktsPressureAltitude:27,000ftTemperature:ISA+10LandingWeight(x1000):703:55 23FlightPlanningDC-9AlternatePlanning 24FlightPlanningDC-9AlternatePlanning(Fig.52)PossiblediversiontoanalternateairportExample:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Weight:85,000lbsDistancetoAlternate:110NAMWind:15HWHoldingTime:15min.Time:29minutesFuel:3400lbsTAS:306OptimumAltitude:11,000ft(yieldsmostNAMperlboffuel) 25FlightPlanningREMEMBER:15minholdingisincludedinthefuelNOTinthetime29min+15min=44minExample:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Weight:85,000lbsDistancetoAlternate:110NAMWind:15HWHoldingTime:15min.DC-9AlternatePlanning 26FlightPlanningTypicalFlightLogsFlightlogsareusedtoplanthetimeandfuelrequiredforaflightThefollowingareallthestepsrequiredtocompleteaflightlog:Determinethemagneticcoursesforeachleganddeterminethelegdistances.Applyvariationstothewindsaloft.DeterminethetemperatureinrelationtoISA.DetermineMachnumberandconverttoTAS.Computegroundspeed. 27FlightPlanningTypicalFlightLogsCalculateandrecordthetimeforeachlegComputefuelflowComputetotalfuelDeterminethereservefuelComputefuelburntoalternateAddtheenroute,reserve,alternate,andmissedapproachfueltofindthetotalfuelrequiredfortheflight 28ComputingCruiseTemperature:OftenexpressedasadeviationfromISA(ex.ISA-2°).Canbecomputedbythefollowingprocedure:computeISAbymultiplyingthealtitudeinthousandsoffeettimes-2°andthenadding15°example:ISAat27,000feet=27x(-2°)+15=-39°applythedeviationfromISAISA-2°at27,000feet=(-39°)+(-2°)=-41° 29ComputingTASusingMachComputingTASusingMach:TrueAirspeed(TAS)canbecomputedfromMachnumberandOutsideAirTemperature(OAT)UsingtheCX-2computer,select"PlanMach#"fromthemenu,thenentertheOATandtheMachnumberattheappropriatepromptsUsinganE6-Bcomputer,followthesesteps:inthesmallwindowlabeled"AirspeedCorrection"or"TrueAirspeed,"alignthearrowlabeled"MachNumber"withtheOATonthescaleadjacentthewindowfindtheMachnumberontheinnerofthetwomainscalesandthenreadtheTASoppositeitontheouterscale 30FlightPlanningSpecificRange:SpecificrangeisthetermusedtodescribetherateoffuelburnpernauticalairmileflownItiscalculatedbyusingTASandfuelflowonlyWindhasnoeffectonspecificrangeTocalculatespecificrangeinnauticalairmilesper1,000pounds,usetheformula:NauticalAirMiles/1,000=TASx1,000/PPHTASshouldbecalculatedfromtheMachnumberPPHcanbetakendirectlyfromtheflightlog 31Questions? 32CalculatingPressureAltitude 33CalculatingPressureAltitude29.92-+ 34CalculatingPressureAltitude29.92-+AirportElev:1200AltSetting:29.45PressAlt:_____ 35CalculatingPressureAltitude29.92-+AirportElev:1200AltSetting:29.45PressAlt:167029.92–29.45=0047add“0”=470ft+1200=1670 36CalculatingVSpeeds 37B-727VSpeedsDeterminepressurealtitude(1610’)Enterthetable(fig.83)inrowmarked“1to3”.Goacrossuntilyoucometoacolumncontainingtheappropriatetemperaturerange(23oF)GodownthecolumnuntilyoufindtherowfortheflapsettingandgrossweightV1andVRare122knots.V2is137knots.Nofurtheradjustmentsarerequired.NotefortheB-727,V1andVRarealwaysthesamespeedExample1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(G-1,fig.81)FieldElevation:1,050ftAltimetersetting:29.36”Temperature:+23FAirCond.Engs1and3:OFFAnti-iceEng.2:ONGrossWeight:140,000lbs6thStageBleed:OFFFlapPosition:15CGStation:911.2 38Boeing737 39B-737VSpeedsDeterminepressurealtitude(500’).Enterthetable(fig.55)at“-1to1”.Goacrosstothefirstcolumn(50oF).Godownthefirstcolumntoflaps15oandagrossweightof90,000lbsV1is120knots.VRis121knots.V2is128knots.AdjustmentsforV1only:Wind-+1kt/20ktsHW&-1kt/5ktsTWSlope-+1kt/1%upslope&-1kt/1%downslopeV1isadjustedforthe1%upslopeto121ktsV1mustnotexceedVRExample2:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(R-1,fig.83)FieldElevation:100ftAltimetersetting:29.50”Temperature:+50FGrossWeight:90,000lbsFlapPosition:15WindComponent:5ktsHWRunwaySlope:1%upAirConditioning:ONEngineAnti-ice:OFFCGStation:635.7 40B-737VSpeedsDeterminepressurealtitude(500’).Enterthetable(fig.55)at“-1to1”.Goacrosstothefirstcolumn(50oF).Godownthefirstcolumntoflaps15oandagrossweightof90,000lbsV1is120knots.VRis121knots.V2is128knots.AdjustmentsforV1only:Wind-+1kt/20ktsHW&-1kt/5ktsTWSlope-+1kt/1%upslope&-1kt/1%downslopeV1isadjustedforthe1%upslopeto121ktsV1mustnotexceedVRExample2:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(R-1,fig.83)FieldElevation:100ftAltimetersetting:29.50”Temperature:+50FGrossWeight:90,000lbsFlapPosition:15WindComponent:5ktsHWRunwaySlope:1%upAirConditioning:ONEngineAnti-ice:OFFCGStation:635.7 41DC-9 42DC-9VSpeedsDeterminepressurealtitude(3000’)FindbasicVspeeds(toptablefig47)V1is120.5knotsVRis123.5knotsNextaseriesofcorrectionsmustbeappliedfor:pressurealtitudetemperaturerunwayslopewindcomponentengineandwingiceprotectionEnterthegraphshowninfig.47Drawtwoverticallinesrepresentingthepressurealtitudeof3000’Drawahorizontallinethrough10oFintersectingeachoftheverticallinesExample3:Usingthefollowingconditions:(A-1,fig.45)FieldElevation:2500ftAltimetersetting:29.40”Temperature:+10FWeight:75,000lbsFlapPosition:20RunwaySlope:1%upWindComponent:10ktsHWIceProtection:BOTHCGStation:590.2CGIndexArm:--- 43DC-9VSpeedsDeterminepressurealtitude(3000’)FindbasicVspeeds(toptablefig47)V1is120.5knotsVRis123.5knotsNextaseriesofcorrectionsmustbeappliedfor:pressurealtitudetemperaturerunwayslopewindcomponentengineandwingiceprotectionEnterthegraphshowninfig.47Drawtwoverticallinesrepresentingthepressurealtitudeof3000’Drawahorizontallinethrough10oFintersectingeachoftheverticallinesExample3:Usingthefollowingconditions:(A-1,fig.45)FieldElevation:2500ftAltimetersetting:29.40”Temperature:+10FWeight:75,000lbsFlapPosition:20RunwaySlope:1%upWindComponent:10ktsHWIceProtection:BOTHCGStation:590.2CGIndexArm:--- 44CalculatingVSpeedsDC-9VSpeeds(cont.)Thelinesmeetinthe“zero”correctionareaforbothV1andVR.Setupthefollowingtable:V1VRTableValue120.5123.5PressureAlt&Temp00Slope(+1%)+1.5+.910ktHW+.30IceProtection+.8+.8CorrectedSpeeds123.1125.2 45CalculatingVSpeedsDC-9VSpeeds(cont.)IfV1exceedsVRsetV1equaltoVR. 46Questions? 47CalculatingTakeoffPower 48CalculatingTakeoffPowerEnginePressureRatio(EPR)Thrustindicationbasedon:PressurealtitudeTemperatureAirconditioningonoroffRatioofexhaustpressuretointakepressureEx:Ifexhaustpressureistwicetheintakepressure,EPRis2.00TakeoffEPRislimitedtothelowerof:TemperaturelimitEPRPressurelimitEPR 49The"airconditioning"correctionappliesonlytoEngines1and3andonlyiftheairconditioningisoffThelastofthepossiblecorrectionsisfor6thstagebleedairFieldelevationis1,050feetandthealtitudecorrectionis+500feet,Pressurealtitudeis1,550feetExample1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(G-1,fig.81)FieldElevation:1,050ftAltimetersetting:29.36”Temperature:+23FAirCond.Engs1and3:OFFAnti-iceEng.2:ONGrossWeight:140,000lbs6thStageBleed:OFFFlapPosition:15CGStation:911.2B-727TakeoffEPRAt1,000feetandanOATof23°F,theEPRforEngines1and3is2.15,forEngine2itis2.16At2,000feetthecorrespondingvaluesare2.21forEngines1and3,and2.22forEngine2Pressurealtitudeisroughlyhalfwaybetween1,000and2,000,thereforeEPRsettingshouldbehalfwayaswellTheEPRforEngines1and3is2.18andforEngine2itis2.19Eng.1&3Eng.2TableValue2.182.19A/COff+.04--Eng.Anti-IceOn---.036thStageBleed----TakeoffEPR2.222.16 50The"airconditioning"correctionappliesonlytoEngines1and3andonlyiftheairconditioningisoffThelastofthepossiblecorrectionsisfor6thstagebleedairFieldelevationis1,050feetandthealtitudecorrectionis+500feet,Pressurealtitudeis1,550feetAt1,000feetandanOATof23°F,theEPRforEngines1and3is2.15,forEngine2itis2.16At2,000feetthecorrespondingvaluesare2.21forEngines1and3,and2.22forEngine2Pressurealtitudeisroughlyhalfwaybetween1,000and2,000,thereforeEPRsettingshouldbehalfwayaswellTheEPRforEngines1and3is2.18andforEngine2itis2.19Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(G-1,fig.81)FieldElevation:1,050ftAltimetersetting:29.36”Temperature:+23FAirCond.Engs1and3:OFFAnti-iceEng.2:ONGrossWeight:140,000lbs6thStageBleed:OFFFlapPosition:15CGStation:911.2 51B-727TakeoffEPR29.92–29.36=56(0)1050+560=1610Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(G-1,fig.81)FieldElevation:1,050ftAltimetersetting:29.36”Temperature:+23FAirCond.Engs1and3:OFFAnti-iceEng.2:ONGrossWeight:140,000lbs6thStageBleed:OFFFlapPosition:15CGStation:911.2 52Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:PressureAltitude:5,000ftTemperature:+50F 53B-737TakeoffEPRTemperature-limitedEPRis2.04Altitude-limitedEPRis2.27Onlypossiblecorrectionisforairconditioningbleedsoff(+.03)Nocorrectionforengineanti-iceUsingthefollowingoperatingconditions:PressureAltitude:5,000ftTemperature:+50F 54QuestionsWhatDidIdoNow? 55ClimbPerformance 56ClimbPerformanceBestRateofClimb(Vy)SpeedatwhichthereisthegreatestdifferencebetweenthepowerrequiredforlevelflightandthepoweravailableL/Dmaxspeedforanyairplaneistheonerequiringtheleastpowerforlevelflight.L/Dmaxisthebestrate-of-climbspeedBestAngleofClimb(Vx)Speedatwhichthereisthegreatestexcessthrust 57ClimbPerformanceDC-9(Fig.49&50)Time,fuelanddistancerequiredforaclimbtocruisingaltitudeFig.49HighSpeedClimbFig.50LongRangeClimb“Sub-tables"representdifferentinitialweights. 58DC-9:Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.50)ClimbfromS.L.to34,000ft.Initialweight:84,000lbsHeadwind:20ktsNocorrectionsrequired 59109.7NMflownin17.1minutes=384.9knots.20knotheadwindwillreducethisto364.9knotsComputetheaverage"nowind"groundspeed(GS)17.1minutesat364.9knots=104NM17.1minutes,2,570poundsoffuel,109.7NM 60ClimbPerformanceB-737(Fig.57&58)TimeandfuelrequiredforaclimbtocruisingaltitudeFig.57ISATemperaturesFig.58ISA+10°CIntersectionofbrakereleaseweightandcruisealtitudeshowstime,fuel,distance,andTASrequiredtoclimbfromS.L.tocruisealtitudewithcalmwinds. 61Example2:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.58)OAT:ISA+10CBrakeReleaseWeight:110,000lbsClimbto33,000ftHW:20kts26minutes,4,100lbsoffuel&154NMComputetheaverage"nowind"groundspeed154NMin26minutes=355.4ktsA20knotheadwindreducesGSto335.4kts26minutesat335.4knots=145.3NMB-737 62Corrections:DeparturefromanairportthatissignificantlyabovesealevelwillreducethefuelrequiredfortheclimbTheeffectontimeanddistanceflownisnegligibleB-737Example2:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.58)OAT:ISA+10CBrakeReleaseWeight:110,000lbsClimbto33,000ftHW:20kts 63ClimbPerformanceB-737MaxClimb/MaxContEPRSimilartotakeoffEPRTwoEPRvaluesarefound:onefortemperatureoneforaltitudeLowerofthetwoistheMaxClimb/MaxContinuousEPRExample3:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.60)Temperature:+10CPressureAltitude:10,000ftFindtheMaxContinuousEPRTemperature-limitedEPRis2.04Altitude-limitedEPRis2.30MaxEPRis2.04 64Questions? 65CruisePerformance 66CruisePerformanceVa-ManeuveringSpeedForanycombinationofweightandaltitudethereisarecommended“turbulentairpenetrationspeed”SuddenchangesinwinddirectionandspeedcanquicklychangeangleofattackincreasingloadfactorandstallspeedInsevereturbulence,itmaybeimpossibletomaintainaconstantairspeedoraltitudeSetthepowertomaintainthedesiredairspeed,maintainalevelflightattitude,acceptinglargevariationsinairspeedandaltitude 67ManeuveringSpeed(Va)Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.64)PressureAltitude:30,000ftWeight:110,000lbsTAT:-8CWhatisthe%N1RPM?B-73782.4%N1Corrections:RPMmustbechanged1.6%forevery10°CdeviationfromISAISATATislistedforeachaltitude15°warmerthanstandardAdd2.4%tothetablevalue 68CruisePerformanceTurbojetengineshaveastrongpreferenceforoperationsathighaltitudesandairspeedsHigheraltitudesincreaseengineefficiencybyrequiringalowerfuelflowforagiventhrustBesidesincreasedengineefficiency,liftanddragbothdecreaseathigheraltitudes,solessthrustisrequired 69CruisePerformanceTurbineenginesaremoreefficientattheupperendoftheirRPMrangeOptimumcruisealtitudeHighestaltitudeatwhichitispossibletomaintaintheoptimumaerodynamicconditions(bestangleofattack)atmaximumcontinuouspowerDeterminedmainlybytheaircraft'sgrossweightatthebeginningofcruise. 70CruisePerformanceAsanaircraftburnsfuelandbecomeslighter,optimumaltitudeincreasesandthespeedthatyieldstheoptimumcruiseperformanceslowlydecreasesItiscommonproceduretomaintainaconstantMachcruiseataflightlevelclosetooptimumAsfuelisburned,thrustisreducedtomaintaintheconstantMachnumber 71Questions? 72HoldingB-727HoldingTable(Fig.85)HoldingEPR,IASandFF/engineforvariousweightsandaltitudesInterpolateforconditionsbetweenlistedweightsandaltitudesExample1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.85)Altitude:24,000ftWeight:195,000lbsWhatistheEPR,IAS&FF? 73HoldingAt25,000ft/200,000lbs-EPRis1.85At25,000ft/190,000lbs-EPRis1.81Interpolate-EPRis1.83Samecalculationfor20,000ftyieldsanEPRof1.675Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.85)Altitude:24,000ftWeight:195,000lbsWhatistheEPR,IAS&FF?B-727HoldingTable 74Holding24,000ftisnothalfwaybetweenthetwotablevaluesCalculatetheamountofEPRchangeper1,000ftofaltitudeDeterminethedifferencebetweenEPRvalues(1.83-1.675=.155)Divideby5(.155¸5=.031)Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.85)Altitude:24,000ftWeight:195,000lbsWhatistheEPR,IAS&FF?B-727HoldingTable 75HoldingEPRvariationper1,000feetis.031Subtract.031fromtheEPRfor25,000ft(1.83-.031=1.799)HoldingIASof264ktsFFof3,508lbs/hr/engineExample1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.85)Altitude:24,000ftWeight:195,000lbsWhatistheEPR,IAS&FF?B-727HoldingTable 76DescentPerformanceDescentPerformance(Fig.87)Time,fuel&distancerequiredtodescendfromcruisealtitudeDifferenttablesrepresentdifferentspeedschedules(Topleft)DescendatMach.80untilinterceptinganIASof250kts(Bottomright)DescentatMach.80untilintercepting350kts.At10,000ftslowto250knots 77DescentPerformance26minutesFuelburnis1,570lbsDistanceinairmiles(NAM)is125.5Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.87)DescentSchedule:.80M/250KIASDescentFrom:FL370Weight:130,000lbsWhatisthetime,fuel&distancetodescend?DescentPerformanceBesuretousethecorrecttablefortheplannedschedule 78DescentPerformance26minutesFuelburnis1,570lbsDistanceinairmiles(NAM)is125.5Example1:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:(fig.87)DescentSchedule:.80M/250KIASDescentFrom:FL370Weight:130,000lbsWhatisthetime,fuel&distancetodescend?DescentPerformanceBesuretousethecorrecttablefortheplannedschedule 79LandingConsiderations 80LandingConsiderationsVsstallingspeedortheminimumsteadyflightspeedatwhichtheairplaneiscontrollable.Vsostallingspeedortheminimumsteadyflightspeedinthelandingconfiguration.Vrefreferencespeed.Itisnormally1.3xVSO 81LandingConsiderationsTypicalaircarrierairplaneshaveahighapproachspeedandalonglandingrollNormallyflownat1.3timestheVSOspeedfortheaircraft'sweight1.3timesVSOisanindicatedairspeedGroundspeedwillvarydependingonwind,altitudeandtemperatureHightemperatureorhighaltitudeapproachwillincreaseanaircraft'sgroundspeedforanygivenapproachspeed 82LandingConsiderationsUpontouchdown,thereare3waysofslowinganaircrafttoastop:aerodynamicbrakingwheelbrakesreversethrustAerodynamicbraking:notveryeffectiveinslowinglargejetaircraft;generallynotusedtoagreatextentReversethrust:effectivemainlyathigherairspeedsWheelbrakes:effectiveatallspeeds;primarymeansofstoppingtheaircraft 83LandingConsiderationsTypicaltechniqueforstoppinganaircraft:Applyreversethrust(orpropreverse)immediatelyupontouchdown-takesmaximumadvantageofreversethrustShortlyaftertouchdown:deploythespoilersAstheaircraftslows:mainwheelbrakesareappliedtobringaircrafttotaxispeedBrakesaremosteffectivewhenlifthasbeenreduced(byspoilersandlowairspeed)andmoreoftheaircraft'sweightiscarriedbythelandinggear 84LandingConsiderationsHydroplaningwateronarunwaywillincreasethelandingrollout.reducedcoefficientoffrictionmakesthewheelbrakeslesseffective.particularlytrueathighgroundspeeds.wheelbrakesarealmosttotallyineffective.greatlyincreasesthelandingrollout.possibilityoflosingdirectionalcontrolonslidingoffthesideoftherunway. 85LandingConsiderations 86TypesofHydroplaning 87LandingConsiderationsThreetypesofHydroplaningDynamichydroplaningoccurswhenatirerollsthroughstandingwater,formsabowwave,andthenrollsupontopofthewave,losingallcontactwiththerunwayminimumspeedatwhichdynamichydroplaningcanstartisrelatedtotirepressureruleofthumb:speedsofgreaterthanninetimesthesquarerootofthetirepressure(lbs.....persq.in.)nosewheelcanhydroplaneatalowerspeedthanthemainsbecauseofitslowerpressureOncedynamichydroplaninghasstarted,itcancontinuetomuchlowerspeeds 88EXTREMEEXAMPLEOFHYDROPLANING 89LandingConsiderationsViscoushydroplaningoccurswhenthereisathinfilmofwatercoveringasmoothsurfacesuchasapaintedorrubber-coatedportionoftherunwayViscoushydroplaningcanoccuratmuchlowerspeedsthandynamichydroplaningRevertedrubberhydroplaningoccursduringalockedwheelskidwatertrappedbetweenthetireandtherunwayisheatedbyfriction,andthetireridesalongapocketofsteam 90LandingConsiderationsWater-coveredrunway:flytheapproachascloseto"onspeed"aspossible.LandingatahigherthanrecommendedspeedgreatlyincreasesthepotentialforhydroplaningAftertouchdown,useaerodynamicbrakingandreversethrusttomaximumpossibleextentSavetheuseofwheelbrakesuntilthespeedislowenoughtominimizethepossibilityofhydroplaning 91LandingConsiderationsRegulations(14CFR§121.195)iftherunwayiswetorslipperyit’slengthmustbe115%ofwhat’srequiredunderdryconditionsSincerunwayscannotbelengthened,theeffectofthisruleistolowerthemaximumlandingweightofaircraftonwetrunwaysfordispatchpurposes 92Questions? 93EngineOutProcedures 94EngineOutProceduresVmc--minimumcontrolspeedwiththecriticalengineinoperative.Vxse--bestsingleengineangle-of-climbspeed.Vyse--bestsingleenginerate-of-climbspeed. 95EngineOutProceduresReviewLossofoneengineonatwo-engineaircraftwillresultin:Lossof50%powerLossofclimbperformanceofaprox.80%Climbperformance:determinedbyamountofpoweravailableinexcessofthatrequiredforlevelflightRemainingenginemaydeveloplittleornoexcesspowerthatwouldallowforaclimb 96EngineOutProceduresReviewEnginefailureincruiseflight:Pilotshouldslowtheaircrafttoitsbestsingle-enginerate-of-climbspeed(Vyse)ApplymaximumcontinuouspowerontheremainingengineNote:TheairplanemayormaynotbeabletoclimbIfunabletoclimb,descentwillbeattheminimumpossiblerateofsinkFueldumpingmaybenecessarytoimprovethealtitudecapabilityoftheaircraft. 97EngineOutProceduresReviewMulti-engineairplaneshouldnotbeflownbelowVmcBelowVmc,withanenginefailure,directionalcontrolmaybeimpossiblewiththeotherengineoperatingatfullpowerVmcwillvarywith:DensityAltitudeWeightGearC.G.locationPropellerBankangleFlaps 98EngineOutProceduresFerryingrequirementsMorethantwoenginesAirplanemodelmusthavebeentestflowntoshowthatsuchanoperationissafeFlightmanualmustcontainperformancedataforsuchanoperationOperatingweightmustbelimitedtotheminimumrequiredforflightplusanyrequiredreservefuelTakeoffsareusuallylimitedtodryrunways 99EngineOutProceduresFerryingrequirementsTakeoffperformancemustbewithinacceptablelimitsInitialclimbcannotbeoverthickly-populatedareasOnlyrequiredflightcrewmembersWeatheratthedeparture&destinationmustbeVFR 100EngineOutProceduresB-737EngineOutDeterminesthemaximumaltitudeaBoeing737canmaintainwithoneofitsenginesinoperativeEnginebleedconfigurationdetermineswhichtabletouseUppertableisforallanti-iceoffMiddletableisforengineanti-iceonlyLowertableisforengineandwinganti-iceon 101EngineOutProceduresB-737EngineOutFindtheaircraftweightontheleftMoveacrosstotheappropriateISAtemperatureAdjustments:Withaircraftbelow17,000ft&airconditioningoff,increaselevel-offaltitudeby800ft 102B-737EngineOutExample:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:AircraftWeight:100,000lbsEngineanti-ice:ONTemperature:ISAFindthetimerequiredtoreachanaircraftweightof144,500lbsLevel-offaltitudeis19,400ft 103Questions? AirlineTransitionCourseWeightandBalance 105WeightandBalanceTermsandDefinitionsBasicOperatingWeight(BOW)theemptyweightoftheaircraftplustheweightoftherequiredcrew,theirbaggageandotherstandarditemssuchasmealsandpotablewater.Thefirststepinanyweightandbalanceproblemisthecalculationofthetotalweightoftheaircraft(grossweight)andthetotalmoment.AllweightandbalanceproblemsontheATP-121testuseamomentindexratherthantheactualmoment.Themomentindexistheactualmomentdividedby1,000. 106WeightandBalanceTermsandDefinitionsReferenceDatum:ImaginaryverticalplanefromwhichallhorizontaldistancesaremeasuresforbalancepurposesLocationofthisreferencepointisentirelyarbitrary,howeverallmeasurementsmustbereferencedfromthesamereferencedatum 107WeightandBalanceTermsandDefinitionsCenterofGravity(CG):thepointatwhichanairplanewouldbalance(atanyattitude)ifsuspended.determinethelocationofthe(CG)fromareferencepointbysumminguptheindividualmomentsaboutanyonereferencepointanddividingthissumbythetotalweight.BasicOperatingIndex:theBasicOperatingIndexistheTotalMoment(basedontheBOW)dividedby1,000. 108WeightandBalanceBalanceandtheLawoftheLeverAsimpleleverconsistsofahorizontalbeamandafulcrumorpivotpoint.Ifaweightisplacedalongthehorizontalbeamofthelever,amomentisproduced.Moment:Amomentistheforcethatcausesortriestocauseanobjecttorotateorpivotaboutapoint.Themagnitudeofthemomentmaybecalculatedbymultiplyingtheforce(causingtherotation)timesthedistancethatforceisfromthecenterofrotation(arm). 109WeightandBalanceBalanceandtheLawoftheLever(cont.)Ex.:ReferenceDatumLocatedatthe200lb.weightWeightArmMoment20000100-757500TotalWeight300TotalMoment7500CG=TotalMoment/TotalWeight=25inchesaftdatum 110WeightandBalanceCalculatingCGB-727TheBOWis105,500lbsandtheBasicOperatingIndexis92.837Beforestarting,setupthefollowingtable:Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbs 111WeightandBalanceExample:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbsWeightMoment/1,000BOW18PAXFWD95PAXAFTFWDCargoAFTCargoFuelTank1FuelTank3FuelTank2Total 112Determinetheweightofpassengers:FwdComp:18x170lbs=3,060lbsAftComp:95x170lbs=16,150lbsMoment/1000:WeightxArm/1,000=MOM/1,0003,060x.582=1,78116,150x1.028=16,602Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbsCalculatingCGB-727 113Determinethecargomoment/1000:WeightxArm/1,000=MOM/1,0001,500x.680=1,0202,500x1.166=2,915Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbsCalculatingCGB-727 114Fueltanks1and3arethewingtanksFueltank2isthecenterfuselagetankNoticethearmvarieswiththefuelloadineachtankTank1Moment/1000=10,451Tank3Moment/1000=10,451Tank2Moment/1000=25,589Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbsCalculatingCGB-727 115ObtainthetotalweightandtotalMoment/1000Let’sseewhatourtableshouldlooklike:Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:Passengers:FwdCompt:18AftCompt:95Cargo:FwdHold:1,500lbsAftHold:2,500lbsFuel:Tanks1&3(each):10,500lbsTank2:28,000lbsCalculatingCGB-727 116WeightandBalanceCalculatingCGB-727WeightMoment/1,000BOW105,50092,83718PAXFWD3,0601,78195PAXAFT16,15016,602FWDCargo1,5001,020AFTCargo2,5002,915FuelTank110,50010,451FuelTank310,50010,451FuelTank2+28,000+25,589Total177,710161,646 117WeightandBalanceCalculatingCGfortheB-727(cont.)theCenterofGravity(CG)ninchesaftoftheDatumlinecanbedeterminedbyusingtheformula:CG=TotalMoment/TotalWeightthesequestionsuseaMomentIndexinsteadofMoment.itisnecessarytomodifythisformulabymultiplyingthe(TotalMoment/TotalWeight)bythereductionfactor(1,000).theformulathenbecomes:CG=(TotalMomentIndex/TotalWeight)x1,000 118WeightandBalanceCalculatingCGfortheB-727(cont.)UsingtheweightandMoment/1,000wecalculatedabove:CG=(161,646/177,710)x1,000=909.6inches 119WeightandBalanceMoreTermsandDefinitionsMeanAerodynamicChord(MAC)TheCenterofGravityofaproperlyloadedairplanemustalwaysfallsomewherealongthemeanaerodynamicchord.TheMACcanbethoughtofasthechorddrawnthroughthegeographiccenteroftheplanareaofthewingTheCGisoftenexpressedasapercentofMAC. 120WeightandBalanceMoreTermsandDefinitionsLeadingEdgeMeanAerodynamicChord(LEMAC)thefrontedgeoftheMAC.Usuallytheleadingedgeofthewing.thelocationoftheLeadingEdgeoftheMAC(LEMAC),isaspecifiednumberofinchesfromthedatumiftheCGwasatLEMAC,itwouldbeat0%ofMAC. 121WeightandBalanceMoreTermsandDefinitionsTrailingEdgeMeanAerodynamicChord(TEMAC)theaftedgeofMAC.Usuallythetrailingedgeofthewing.ifCGwereattheTrailingEdgeofMAC(TEMAC),itwouldbeat100%ofMAC. 122WeightandBalanceCGas%MACDistancefromthedatumtoLEMACUsingtheCGcalculatedearlier:CG(in.aftofLEMAC):909.6in-860.5in=49.1inDivideCGininchesaftofLEMACbythelengthofMACCG(%ofMAC):(49.1"÷180.9")x100%=27.1% 123WeightandBalanceStabilizerTrimSettingthecorrecthorizontalstabilizertrimsettingisverycriticalforpropertakeoffperformanceofjetaircraft.themaindeterminantsaretheCGlocationandpossiblytheflapsetting.theDC-9,havetheirstabilizertrimindicatorscalibratedinpercentofMAC,soitisnecessarytocalculatetheCGtoknowthetrimsetting.theB-737andB-727havetheirtrimindicatorsmarkedoffinunitsofnoseuptrim. 124WeightandBalanceStabilizerTrimSettingB-737andB-727refertothetrimtabletodeterminethepropersettingforagivenCGCGlocationin%MACisusedtodeterminethesettingB727B737 125WeightandBalanceChangingLoadConditionsC.G.locationwillchangewhenweightiseitheraddedorsubtractedfromanairplaneWorkbackwards,performtheweightchangeandcomputethenewC.G.location 126WeightandBalanceConvertC.G.%MACtoCGinchesaftofdatumCG(in.aftofLEMAC)=(CG%ofMAC÷100%)xMAC(22.5%÷100%)x141.5in.=31.84in.AddCGin.aftofLEMACtodistancefromdatumtoLEMAC549.13"+31.84"=580.97in.Example:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:LoadedWeight:90,000lbsLoadedCG:22.5%MACWeightChange:-2,500lbsFwd.ComptStation:352.1MAC:141.5in.LEMAC:STA549.13ChangingLoadConditions 127WeightandBalanceCalculatetheoriginalMoment/1,000Fillinthefollowingtable:WeightIndexArmMoment/1,000OriginalWeight90,000580.9752,287.3WeightChange-2,500352.1-880.25NewWeight87,50051,406.83ChangingLoadConditions 128WeightandBalanceDeterminethenewCG:CG=(51,406.83÷87,500)x1,000=587.51inchesConvertCGtopercentofMAC:CG(inchesaftofLEMAC)=587.51"-549.13"=38.38"CG(%ofMAC)=(38.38"÷141.5")x100%=27.1%ChangingLoadConditions 129WeightandBalanceWeightShiftCGwillalwaysfollowtheweight.Threenumbersmustbeknown:theweightshiftedthedistancetheweightwasmovedthetotalweightoftheaircraftChangeinCG=WeightShiftedDistanceShiftedTotalWeightChangeinCG=(WeightShifted)(DistanceShifted)TotalWeightChangingLoadConditions 130WeightandBalanceDistanceshifted:differencebetweenthefwdcompartmentcentroid&aftcompartmentcentroidCentroidsaredistancesaftoftheDatumline724.9-352.1=372.8inchesChangeinCG=(2,500lbs.x372.8in.)=10.4"90,000lbsExample:Usingthefollowingoperatingconditions:LoadedWeight:90,000lbsWeightChange:2,500lbsFwd.ComptStation:352.1AftComptStation:724.9ChangingLoadConditions 131Questions? 132END
