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1、350BCPOSTERIORANALYTICSbyAristotletranslatedbyG.R.G.MureBookI1ALLinstructiongivenorreceivedbywayofargumentproceedsfrompre-existentknowledge.Thisbecomesevidentuponasurveyofallthespeciesofsuchinstruction.Themathematicalsciencesandallotherspeculativediscip
2、linesareacquiredinthisway,andsoarethetwoformsofdialecticalreasoning,syllogisticandinductive;foreachoftheselattermakeuseofoldknowledgetoimpartnew,thesyllogismassuminganaudiencethatacceptsitspremisses,inductionexhibitingtheuniversalasimplicitintheclearlyk
3、nownparticular.Again,thepersuasionexertedbyrhetoricalargumentsisinprinciplethesame,sincetheyuseeitherexample,akindofinduction,orenthymeme,aformofsyllogism.Thepre-existentknowledgerequiredisoftwokinds.Insomecasesadmissionofthefactmustbeassumed,inothersco
4、mprehensionofthemeaningofthetermused,andsometimesbothassumptionsareessential.Thus,weassumethateverypredicatecanbeeithertrulyaffirmedortrulydeniedofanysubject,andthat'triangle'meanssoandso;asregards'unit'wehavetomakethedoubleassumptionofthemeaningofthewo
5、rdandtheexistenceofthething.Thereasonisthattheseseveralobjectsarenotequallyobvioustous.Recognitionofatruthmayinsomecasescontainasfactorsbothpreviousknowledgeandalsoknowledgeacquiredsimultaneouslywiththatrecognition-knowledge,thislatter,oftheparticularsa
6、ctuallyfallingundertheuniversalandthereinalreadyvirtuallyknown.Forexample,thestudentknewbeforehandthattheanglesofeverytriangleareequaltotworightangles;butitwasonlyattheactualmomentatwhichhewasbeingledontorecognizethisastrueintheinstancebeforehimthatheca
7、metoknow'thisfigureinscribedinthesemicircle'tobeatriangle.Forsomethings(viz.thesingularsfinallyreachedwhicharenotpredicableofanythingelseassubject)areonlylearntinthisway,i.e.thereisherenorecognitionthroughamiddleofaminortermassubjecttoamajor.Beforehewas
8、ledontorecognitionorbeforeheactuallydrewaconclusion,weshouldperhapssaythatinamannerheknew,inamannernot.Ifhedidnotinanunqualifiedsenseofthetermknowtheexistenceofthistriangle,howcouldheknowwithoutqualificationthatitsangleswereequal
