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1、2.TheCommercialRevolutioninMedievalEuropeBeginninginthe1160s,theopeningofnewsilverminesinnorthernEuropeledtothemintingandcirculationofvastquantitiesofsilvercoins.Thewidespreaduseofcashgreatlyincreasedthevolumeofinternationaltrade.Businessprocedureschangedradically.Theindividualtravelingmerchantwhoal
2、onehandledvirtuallyallaspectsofexchangeevolvedintoanoperationinvoh/ingthreeseparatetypesofmerchants:thesedentarymerchantwhoranthe"homeoffice,"financingandorganizingthefirm’sentireexport-importtrade;thecarrierswhotransportedgoodsbylandandsea;andthecompanyagentsresidentincitiesabroadwho,ontheadviceoft
3、hehomeoffice,lookedaftersalesandprocurements.Commercialcorrespondence,unnecessarywhenonebusinesspersonoversaweverythingandmadedirectbargainswithbuyersandsellers,multiplied.Regularcourierserviceamongcommercialcitiesbegan.Commercialaccountingbecamemorecomplexwhenfirmshadtodealwithshareholders,manufact
4、urers,customers,branchoffices,employees,andcompetingfirms.Tollsonroadsbecamehighenoughtofinancewhathasbeencalledaroadrevolution,involvingnewsurfacesandbridges,newpassesthroughtheAlps,andnewinnsandhospicesfortravelers.Thegrowthofmutualtrustamongmerchantsfacilitatedthegrowthofsalesoncreditandledtonewd
5、evelopmentsinfinance,suchasthebillofexchange,adevicethatmadethelong,slow,andverydangerousshipmentofcoinsunnecessary.TheventuresoftheGermanHanseaticLeagueillustratetheseadvancements.TheHanseaticLeaguewasamercantileassociationofEuropeantownsdatingfrom1159.Theleaguegrewbytheendofthefourteenthcenturytoi
6、ncludeabout200citiesfromHollandtoPoland.Acrossregular,well-definedtraderoutesalongtheBalticandNorthseas,theshipsofleaguecitiescarriedfurs,wax,copper,fish,grain,timber,andwine.Thesegoodswereexchangedforfinishedproducts,mainlyclothandsalt,fromwesterncities.AtcitiessuchasBrugesandLondon,Hanseaticmercha
7、ntssecuredspecialtradingconcessions,exemptingthemfromalltollsandallowingthemtotradeatlocalfairs.Hanseaticmerchantsestablishedforeigntradingcenters,themostfamousofwhichwastheLondonSteelyard,awalledcomm
