2023年军队文职《英语》科目考试名师预测卷（二）附详解

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2023
ᦻὃ⚜ᔁ▬ஹᓫ⌱⚪1.HermanMeIviIleJssecondfamouswork,,wasnotpubIishedunti11924,33yearsafterhisdeath.AvPierreBvRedburnC\Moby-DickDஹBiIlyBuddEᫀGD᪆GIJK•᫥JMJN1819—1891,ᓝRSTUVᨬXᜧḄ[\]ஹᦣᦻ]_`abcdefgUVḄ“ijkl”஺opJN1852ஹrst឵N1849ஹvwN1851_xykᑭ•{sN1924|}~Ḅ஺2.ThepubIicationof""markedthebeginningofRomanticAge.AvDonJuanBvTheRimeoftheAncientMarinerC\TheLyricaIBaIladsDvQueenMabEᫀGC᪆G1789ᐻ_ᐳᑏḄᢔ᪗Ḅc1832Jᱯ•ᔜᱯḄ¢S£¤¥¦§Ḅ¨©஺

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2EᫀGA᪆GὃÑÒÓᜧÔ஺ÕÖ▾ÖᕒÙ§ᨬÚÛÜÝ56.TheseientificapproachtoaprobIemconsistsfirstofaIIcoIIectingampIemateriaI.AஹwithBஹofCஹinDvtoEᫀGC᪆GconsistinÞᙠà஺consistofᵫ...âᡂ஺7.EmpIoyerswhoretirepeopIewhoarewiIIingandabIetocontinueworkingshouIdreaIizethatchronologicalageisnotaneffectiveindeterminingwhetheranindividuaIiscapabIeofworking.AxbarrierBஹfactorCvcriterionDஹnormEᫀGC᪆Gcriterionæᑨ᪗è஺barrieréê஺factorëì஺normᐺcï஺8.TheteachergaveinstructionsforwritingthepaperonenvironmentaIprotection.AxexpIicit

3BஹformidabIeC\cruciaIDஹdaringEᫀGA᪆GexplicitðᨎḄcòóḄ஺formidableô᝿Ḅ,ö÷øḄ஺crucialùúឋḄcüᐵþ⌕Ḅ஺daringᜧḄᦢḄ஺9.Itwasgreat.Axhadtohave;hadtoBஹusedtohave;couIdnJtCxwouldhave;didn,thavetoDஹusedtohave;wouId$ᫀ&D'᪆&)*&Gary-./0Ḅᙢ2345678ᨵ:;<⚶ᡠᨵḄᕒ/78@ABC:Dᙠ▬GḄ5HIA:ᜩKLMN஺usedtodoOwoulddo7⊤QRSTUOVWឋḄY0Zannual[-\]^_`TUaḄbcdD⌱⚗gh஺10.ThesemantiereIationbetweenvegetabIeandcabbageis.AஹhyponymyBஹmeronymyCxantonymyDஹhomonymy$ᫀ&A

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5AxinanyrateBxatthatrateCatthisratexDஹatanyrate$ᫀ&D'᪆&atanyrate»¼᝞¾¿À஺atthatrateK᪵ḄÂ஺atthisrate§᪵ḄÂ஺14.isatypicaIfeatureofSwifswritings.AxElegantstyleBxCasuaInarrationCBittersatirexDஹpIicatedsentencestructure$ᫀ&C'᪆&ÆÇÈᱯ`ÊËᜧÌÊË:┐Î⊈஺Ð`^ḄᘀÊᓾÓ`◚ÕÖ⊤☢ḄØᾓsÚÛYÜ⁐ḄÞ☟y☢àáḼãäḄÊË஺15.OdetotheWestWind?waswrittenby.A.WilliamBIakeAxWiIIiamWordsworthBஹSamuelTaylorColeridgeCஹPercyDஹSheIIey$ᫀ&D

6'᪆&OdetotheWestWindêëìí⚚ïð`ñò℉ôõö÷vøCPercyB.SheIIeyêùì•úû1792—1822ðḄÿ⊤
஺16.AIIofhisfriendscameandhimonhissuccess.AxconcentratedBஹmeltCxcongratuIatedDஹmountedᫀC!᪆congratulate#$஺concentrate%&஺melt'ᓄ஺mount)*஺17.ForhimtheonIyIawis.AஹhisownwiIIBஹthenaturaIIawCஹtheBibleDxtheConstitutionᫀ:A!᪆12345ᑗ᜜89:;<=>?@ABḄDE;FGHᐸJKDE᤮MḄNOP᝱஺18.wrotesomeofthemostbeautifuIodesintheEngIishIanguage,whichhadtheeuIogyofbeautyastheirthemes.AxWiIIiamWordsworthBஹLordByronCxSheIIey

7DஹJohnKeatsᫀD!᪆Z[•\᠄(1795—1821)dᩲfḄghij
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{ᨵ}឵}⚚}⚚}⚚஺19.ThereareradicaldifferencesbetweenbinaryanddecimaI.AஹdivisionBஹdistributionCxmu11ipIicationDxnumeralionᫀD!᪆ᑴᦪᓝᑴᦪlᨵ᪷Ḅ஺numeration@;ᦪ஺divisionᑖ,◀஺distributionᑖ¡,ᑖ¢஺muItipIication£,¤¥஺20.Asfreshflowerswithereasily,theychoosesomeonetodecoratetheirhouse.AஹartificialBஹfaIseCஹunnaturaIDஹunreaIᫀ:A

8!᪆artificialᎷḄ,j⌼Ḅ஺false┯ªḄ;«¬Ḅ஺unnaturalJAᯠḄ஺unrealJx®Ḅ;«¯Ḅ஺21.Thecityofisnicknamed“SpaceCityofUSA”.AxLosAngelesBஹHoustonCxBostonDஹHonoluluᫀB!᪆Houston(³´µ)dvh¶·⃬´¹Ḅº5ᜧ¼;ᐰvhº¾ᜧ¼஺³´µ¿ÀÁÂÃSpaceCity“Äż”;ÆÃÇdZ[ÈÉÅÊËḄᡠᙠᙢ;ÏÐÑ=ÊËÒ?ᙠÓᙢ஺22.WhichofthefoIlowingpairsisnotaminimalpair?()Ax/sip//zip/Bஹ/fiI//Iif/G/keit//feit/Dv/sai//sei/ᫀB!᪆ὃÙÚÛÜ஺᪷ÝᨬßàáâḄãä;᝞æᨵçèé;Çê◀Hfëᙠì5íî*Ḅ5èÛ᜜;ᐸïÛð5᪵;òóôçèéõ᪀ᡂH5èᨬßàáâ23.HisanxietyandworryhimtorushintotheroomandinterruptourtaIk.AxshovedBxsaddened

9CxpromptedDxridiculedᫀc!᪆promptᦦù;ùú஺shoveû;üû;ýú஺saddenúþË஺ridicuIeᘀ
஺24.isoneofShakespeare5snarrativepoems.AxTheWinter,sTaIeBஹVenusandAdonisCxRomeoandJuIietDஹTheHouseofFame*ᫀ,B-᪆,/012345627(VenusandAdonis):;<=>?@ABCDEFGHF@:/IJKLMNO7(TheRapeofLucrece)o25.TherescuepIanrecentIyapprovedbytheAmericangovernmentofthecurrentAmericanfinanciaIstormremindsusoftheEmergencyBankingActpresentedbyPresidentRooseveItinhis.AxAmendmentV.BஹBiIIofRightsGMarshalIPIanDஹNewDeaI*ᫀ,D

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ᨵᦔᙢ:cdᑮaᦋᗐ஺26.IfeItsomewhatdisappointedandwasabouttoIeave,somethingoccurredwhichattractedmyattention.AxunIessBvwhenCஹuntiIDஹwhile*ᫀ,B-᪆:¥¦:§ᡃ©ᑮᨵª«¬ᜓ¯°±,²³ḄF´Bᔾ¶aᡃḄ·¦¸஺when¶¹±º»¼¥஺27.Hermotherisoneoftherepresentativesof()feminism.AvvitalBஹfundamentaICஹradicaIDஹbasic*ᫀ,c-᪆,ὃ¿ÀÁÂÃ᪆஺A⚗ᢣ“ÇᐵÉ⌕ḄG³ÊᦊᐵḄGᨵ̸Ḅ”
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D⚗ᢣ“ÎÏḄ;

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឵ஹஹJohnAdams•!"#$%&1797—1801஺ᡠ/012ᫀ4A⚗஺29.Britaindoesn1tshareanyIandborderwithanyothercountriesexcept.AஹtheRepubIicofIreIandBஹFranceCஹIcelandDxNorway2ᫀLAM᪆LOPQᜧSᑡUVW!XᓅZஹOᔡᑭZ]'_`ᱯZஹ᰿`ᐲZdᜧefᒹh!ijklᜧSᑡUVWḄ᰿`ᐲᐳdop஺

1230.Thoughmyauntpursuedwhatwas,inthosedays,anenIightenedpolicysheneveraIIowedherdomesticstafftoworkmorethaneighthoursaday,shewasextremeIydifficuIttopIease.AxfromwhichBஹinthatCxwithwhomDஹbywhat2ᫀLBM᪆LwxLyᯠᡃ||⍳~Ḅ!4᝛ᩭSᐕḄᕒᜩ!᝛஺inthat4!ᵫQ!ᯠ஺⊤ᐵ!¡ᐸ£⌱⚗Sᔠ〉஺31.TheUNputthe()forwardsoastobettercopewiththetensesituationintheMiddIeEast.AxconferenceBஹsummitCvrallyDஹseminar2ᫀLAM᪆Lὃ®¯°᪆஺ὶᔠ²³´µ¶!/·¸¹ᙢ»¼½¾ᙢ¿ḄÀÁÂÃ஺32.AustraIiacanbedividedintothreebigregions,whichofthefoIlowingisnotincIuded?()

13AxTheGreatDividingRangeBxTheMurrayCஹTheCentraILowIandsDஹTheWesternPIateau2ᫀLBM᪆LὃÉᜧᑭᙢᳮ஺ÉᜧᑭËᑖ4Íᜧ¿Î!ᑖÏ4A⚗TheGreatDividingRangeᜧᑖÐÑ!C⚗TheCentraILowIands½ÒÓᙢdD⚗TheWesternPIateaueÔÕÖ!B⚗TheMurray×ØÙSÚᔠ⚪x,ÜÝÉᜧᑭḄÞᩩÙà஺33.MysonfaiIedtoebackIastnight.ThismormingthepoIicecametoourhouseandmyworstfearsthathewasinjuredinacaraccident.AxadvocatedBஹconfirmedCxpromisedDஹinsured2ᫀLBM᪆Lὃ¯°᪆஺wxLᡃâã᧤åæçᩭ஺èᜩéêëìᩭᑮᡃî!ïðñᡃᨬóḄôõ!£ᙠ÷Ἢ½ùúñ஺advocate“²᎝”!confirm"ïð!1ÿ”
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14AஹByBஹForCஹOnDஹToRᫀTDU᪆TturntoWXY஺turnonZ[஺35.WhichofthefoIlowingwordsismadeupofboundmorphemesonIy?()AxHappinessBஹTelevisionCஹEcoIogyDஹTeacherRᫀTCU᪆TὃghḼjk஺⚪mnTop⌱⚗stpᓫvw)ᵫhḼjkboundmorphemes᪀ᡂḄ஺happiness)ᵫhappy{-ness᪀ᡂ
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15RᫀTAU᪆Tὃgj஺vj{vj)Ḅᡂᑖ
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1741.SyntaxreIationscanbeanaIysedintothreekinds,nameIy,positionaIreIations,reIationsofsubstitutabiIityandreIationsof.AஹcoherenceBஹunityCஹco-occurrenceDxreference0ᫀ2c3᪆256ᐵ8ᒹ:;<ᐵ8=>ᐵ8?@ABᐵ8஺42.We'IInevergettothestationontimewerunasfastaswecan.AxincaseBஹevenifCxprovidedthatDஹifonIy0ᫀ2B3᪆25H2ᓽJᡃLMNOPQR6STᑮVWX஺evenifᓽJ஺incaseᎷJ஺providedthat᝞[஺ifordy⌕]^_ᕀ,aᵨcdefgh,⊤VjḄlmno஺AஹCஹDpqr⌱⚗uᵨᩭwxᩩz{f|5}ᨵevenifwx{f|5஺ᡠ?}ᨵB⌱⚗ᔠ⚪H஺43.TheBritishmonarchistheHeadof.AஹParIiamentBஹGovernmentCஹState

18DஹCabinet0ᫀ2C3᪆2⚪ὃḄ]Ḅᑴ஺᝕]Ḅ✌ᾯ᝛Ḅᩗᜧᑖu}]¡¢H£¤Ḅ஺44.SinceGeorgewastheonIy,hereceivedaIargeamountofmoneywhenhisuncIedied.AxheirBvfoeCஹallyDஹopponent0ᫀ2A3᪆2heir¥¦j஺foe§¨஺ally©ªA©஺opponent«¬஺45.Thefifth-generationputers,withartificialinteIIigence,()andperfectednow.AஹdeveIopedBஹhavedeveIopedCxarebeingdeveIopedDxwiIIhavebeendeveIoped0ᫀ2C3᪆2ὃ°±²TḄ³´f᝱஺¶·ᜐ´¹ºᵨ³´f᝱✌ᐜ᣸◀AஹB¾⚗஺CஹD¾⚗Ḅ¿ÀᙠcT᝱ÂA᪷Ä5ÅḄnowÆǺ⌱ȱ²TÉÊC

19⚗ᔠ⌕Ë஺ᦑ⚪⌱c஺5H2jÍÎÏḄÐÑ>ÒÓÔÕÖ×ᙠ³ØÙÚÛᗐh஺46.AccordingtotheOfficiaILanguageofActofCanada,therearetwoofficiaIlanguagesinCanada,theyare()AxEnglishandSpanishBxEnglishandPortugueseCஹEnglishandFrenchDஹEnglishandCeltic0ᫀ2c3᪆2ὃ°âãᜧfä஺âãᜧfäåfÚ6f஺47.My()yourproposaIspeaksvoIumesformywill.AஹconsenttoBஹconsentwithCxhatredofDஹadmissionof0ᫀ2A3᪆2ὃ°èé¹+ë¹¹ì஺A⚗ᢣ“«……ḄðA”B⚗RÊòóC⚗ᢣ“«……Ḅôូ”D⚗ᢣ“¦ö”஺÷ør⌱⚗>ᐭ5hÆÇA⚗ᔠ5H஺ᦑ⚪⌱A஺5H2ᡃ«úûᫀḄöÆüýþᡃḄªᗐ஺48.hastheIargestIandareaofaIIthestates,andhasthesmaIIestIandarea.AxAlaska;Hawaii

20BஹAlaska;RhodelslandCxTexas;HawaiiDஹTexas;RhodeIsIandᫀB!᪆#$%&'()*ᑖ,-./☢1ᨬᜧ'ᨬ4Ḅ6஺49.Themachineheoriginatedandperfectedhasnomodernorancientprototype-AஹsuccessorBஹancestorCxforefatherDஹpredecessorᫀD!᪆predecessor?@A(CDEḄ)GᨵIᱥ஺successorK@ὅ஺ancestorἔᐜ஺forefatherἔᐜ஺50.WhichofthefoIIowingsoundsdoesnotbeIongtotheaIIomorphsoftheEngIishpIuraImorpheme?()Aஹ[s]Bஹ[iz]G[ai]Dஹ[is]ᫀc

21!᪆ὃZ[\]^_஺⚪abcᑡefghijk[lᦪ^_Ḅn᝱pA⚗rssxB⚗rizs'D⚗rissᙳuvwbk[lᦪḄ^_xyᨵC⚗raishzᔠᩩ}஺51.TheprofessorcouIdhardIyfindsufficientgroundshisargumentsinfavorofthenewtheory.AxonwhichtobaseBஹwhichtobaseonCஹtobaseonDஹtobebasedonᫀA!᪆ᦟᣴvᑮᐙḄᩭᡂᳮḄ஺Ḅᐜ^whichᙠwbaseonḄ[xᜐὃZḄ-^+^+which/whom+^h¡¢᪀Ḅ[஺52.IcouIdnotunderstandwhysheactedso.AஹdociIeIyBஹobstinatelyCxperverseIyDஹpliablelyᫀc!᪆perversely@ឋᙢ஺docilely§¨ᙢ஺obstinateIy©᡻ᙢx«©ᙢ஺pIiablely᧕ᙢ஺53.UnfortunateIy,heatthehospitaIbeforeI.

22Axhasdied;wentthereBxhaddied;arrivedCஹdied;hadbeenthereDஹwasdying;hadgoneᫀB!᪆ᡃ±ᦈᑮἔ᱄´µḄ¶·¸¹º»஺h¼Ḅ-ᙠᡃᑮ½¾▾À?¸Á»஺᪷⚪ıfÅÆᜐÇÈᵨÊÁËᡂÌx⊤ÎÊÁḄÊÁxᡠvB⚗ÐÑ஺54.ThesergeantisaImostmotherIytotheyoungrecruits,tothoseinfants.AxespeciaIIyBஹkindlyCxprotectiveIyDxgreatlyᫀA!᪆especiallyÒᐸ஺kindly'ᗐᙢ஺protectiveIyÕÖឋᙢ஺greatly᩽ᜧᙢ஺55.IfonIyshehadknownthatthewarshipswereconstructedofthepoorestmateriaIs,,thecannonwithoutgunpowder.AஹwhichwasbestBஹwhatwasworseCஹthatwasbetterDxasmentioned

23ᫀB!᪆᝞Ù᝛Û⍝ᡊ…-ᵨßàᩞᧇ⌼ᡂḄxväåæçḄ-xᜧèéᨵêëìíîïḄðñÈòóô஺ìõöᵨḄ-÷ᐭ[xù?☢ᵨßàᩞᧇ⌼ᡊ…úûüxyᨵB⚗zᔠ⚪஺56.TheauthorofthereportisweIIwiththeprobIemsinthehospitaIbecausehehasbeenworkingthereformanyyears.AஹenIightenedBஹinformedCxadvertisedDxacquaintedᫀD!᪆acquaintÿ...
៉ᡈ஺enlightenℳ஺inform஺advertise஺57.referstoreIationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,andthatdefineitasatext.AxAgreementBஹCohesionCxRecursivenessDஹEmbedding1ᫀ3B᪆35⚪ὃ8⊖:Ḅ<=஺⊖:>ᑴ@AB⊖:CDᢣFGHḄIJKᑖὶNOᩭḄHQᡂᑖ,SᡠU⊖:VWᢣH=ὶNFXYZ[ᙠH=]ὶNOᩭ஺

2458.CountIessdivorcedpoIiticianswouIdhavebeeneIectedoutofofficeyearsagohadtheyeventhoughtofadivorce,IetaIoneone.AxgettingBஹtogetCஹgottenDஹget
ᫀ:C᪆3Za3bᦪdeḄfghij᝞lmᑮdeVop⌱rs⌕uvḄde஺Ietalonew:xYyᑡḄᡂᑖ5Z{ḕᶍhad஺59.WhichofthefoIIowingisafeatureofBritisheducationasawhoIe?AஹEducationischaotic.BஹEducationisveryexpensive.CஹEducationishighIycentraIized.DxEducationisratherindependentandenjoysagreatdeaIoffreedom.
ᫀ:D᪆3ᦟᐹᨵᵫᓄḄᱯ{ᙠ᪥Ḅᙢᳮ஺⌱⚗D஺60.WhyaresomanypartymemberseIectedtoParIiamentineachEIectioninBritain?AxBecausepartymembersusuaIIyenjoybetterreputation.BஹBecausepartymembershavemoreexperienceinformingagovernment.CxBecausepartymembershavethebackingofnationwideorganizations.

25DஹBecausepeopIetrustpartymemberstoagreaterdegree.1ᫀ3D᪆3ᜧ⌱Wᢣ⌱£ᨬ¥¦§>᪀o©ᕒḄ⌱£«x¬ᑴᙠo©ᕒ{ᓰ®ᦪḄ¬Ḅ⚞⋀ᡂ±✌³஺⌱£᎛⌱µᜧKᑖW¶f¬Ḅᡂᕒᜧ®ᦪ⌱·᪷¹᎛⌱µḄ¬ºSsWᐸYµ¼½ᡈ¾¿ᩭᢗἠ⌱Â஺s<⚗⌱ÂÃÄᐳ40⚪Ç1.FiImhaspropertiesthatsetitapartfrompainting,scuIpture,noveIs,andpIays.Itisalso,initsmostpopuIarandpowerfuIform,astoryteIIingmediumthatsharesmanyeIementswiththeshortstoryandthenoveI.AndsincefiImpresentsitsstoriesindramaticform,ithasevenmoreinmonwiththestagepIay:BothpIaysandmoviesactoutordramatize,showratherthanteII,whathappens.UnIikethenoveI,shortstory,orpIay,however,fiImisnothandytostudy;itcannotbeeffectiveIyfrozenontheprintedpage.ThenoveIandshortstoryarerelativelyeasytostudybecausetheyarewrittentoberead.ThestageplayisslightIymoredifficuIttostudybecauseitiswrittentobeperformed.ButpIaysareprinted,andbecausetheyreIyheaviIyonthespokenword,imaginativereaderscanconjureupatIeastapaleimitationoftheexperiencetheymighthavebeenwatchingaperformanceonstage.ThiscannotbesaidofthescreenpIay,forafiImdependsgreatIyonvisuaIandothernonvisuaIeIementsthatarenoteasiIyexpressedinwriting.ThescreenpIayrequiressomuch“fillingin“byourimaginationthatwecannotreaIIyapproximatetheexperienceofafiImbyreadingascreenpIay,andreadingascreenpIayisworthwhiIeonIyifwehaveaIreadyseenthefiIm.Thus,mostscreenpIaysarepubIishednot

26toreadbutrathertoberemembered.StiII,fiImshouIdnotbeignoredbecausestudyingitrequiresextraeffort.AndthefactthatwedonotgeneraIIy"read"filmsdoesnotmeanweshouIdignoretheprincipIesofIiteraryordramaticanaIysiswhenweseeafiIm.LiteratureandfiImsdosharemanyeIementsandmunicatemanythingsinsimiIarways.PerceptivefiImanaIysisrestsontheprincipIesusedinIiteraryanalysis,andifweappIywhatwehaveIearnedinthestudyofIiteraturetoouranaIysisoffiIms,wewiIIbefaraheadofthosewhodonot.Therefore,beforeweturntotheuniqueeIementsoffiIm,weneedtoIookintotheeIementsthatfiImshareswithanygoodstory.DividingfiImintoitsvariouseIementsforanalysisisasomewhatartificiaIprocess,fortheeIementsofanyartformneverexistinisoIation.Itisimpossible,forexampIe,toisolatepIotfromcharacter:EventsinfIuencepeopIe,andpeopIeinfIuenceevents;thetwoareaIwayscIoseIyinterwoveninanyfictionaI,dramatic,orcinematicwork.NevertheIess,theanalyticalmethodusessuchafragmentingtechniqueforeaseandconvenience.ButitdoessowiththeassumptionthatwecanstudytheseeIementsinisoIationwithoutIosingsightoftheirinterdependenceortheirreIationshiptothewhoIe.FromthethirdparagraphweIearnthat.AxthemeansbywhichweanaIyzeaIiteraryworkcannotbeappIiedtofiImanalysisBஹagoodfiImandagoodstoryhavemanyeIementsinmonCஹweshouIdnotpayextraefforttostudyfiImsDஹusingtheprincipIesofIiteraryanaIysismakesnodifferenceinfiImanaIysi

271ᫀ3BÔÕ᪆3Ö×DÖ×Z3LiteratureandfiImsdosharemanyeIementsandmunicatemanythingsinsimilarwaysØ⊤ØᵯÛÜᦻÞ¼ᨵß®ᐳàᦻÞ¼Ḅᑖ᪆§áᵯÛᑖ᪆âᨵã<Ḅäå஺2.GotmiIk?Ifyoudo,takeamomenttoponderthetrueoddnessofbeingabIetodrinkmilkafteryouJreababy.Nootherspeciesbuthumanscan.Andmosthumanscan,teither.TheIongIistsoffoodaIIergiessomepeopIecIaimtohavecanmakeitseemasifthey'rejustfinickyeaterstryingtorationaIizeIikesanddisIikes.Notso.Eggs,peanuts,treenuts,fish,sheIIfishsoyandgIutenaIIcanwreakhavocontheimmunesystemofaIIergicindividuaIs,evencausingadeadIyreactioncaIIedanaphyIaxis.ButthoseaIIergicreactionsarereIativeIyrare,affectinganestimated4%ofaduIts.Milk,sdifferent.TherearepeopIewhohavetruemiIkailergiesthatcancausedeadIyreactions.ButmostpeopIewhohavebadreactionstomiIkaren'tactuaIIyaIIergictoit,inthatit'snottheirimmunesystemthat,srespondingtothemiIk.Instead,peopIewhoareIactoseintoIerantcanJtdigestthemainsugar—Iactoseãfoundinmilk.InnormaIhumans,theenzymethatdoessoãIactase—stopsbeingproducedwhenthepersonisbetweentwoandfiveyearsoId.TheundigestedsugarsendupinthecoIon,wheretheybegintoferment,producinggasthatcancausecramping,bloating,nausea,fIatuIenceanddiarrhea.Ifyou5reAmericanorEuropeanishardtoreaIizethis,butbeingabIetodigestmiIkasanaduItisoneweirdgeneticadaptation.It5snotnormaI.SomewhatIessthan40%ofpeopIeintheworIdretaintheabiIitytodigestIactoseafterchiIdhood.Thenumbersa

28reoftengivenascIosetoO%ofNativeAmericans,5%ofAsians,25%ofAfricanandCaribbeanpeopIes,50%ofMediterraneanpeopIesand90%ofnorthernEuropeans.SwedenhasoneoftheworId'shighestpercentagesofIactasetoIerantpeopIe.BeingabIetodigestmiIkissostrangethatscientistssayweshouIdn'treaIIyealilactoseintoIeranceadisease,becausethatpresumesit'sabnormaI,instead,theycaIIi11actasepersistence,indicatingwhat5sreaIIyweirdistheabiIitytocontinuetodrinkmiIk.There5sbeenaIotofresearchoverthepastdecadeIookingatthegeneticmutationthataIIowsthissubsetofhumanitytostaymiIkdrinkersintoaduIthood.AIong-heIdtheorywasthatthemutationshowedupfirstinNorthernEurope,wherepeopIegotIessvitaminDfromthesunandthereforedidbetteriftheycouIdaIsogetthecruciaIhormone(it'snotreaIIyavitaminataII)frommiIk.ButnowagroupatllniversityCoIIegeLondonhasshownthatthemutationactuaIIyappearedabout7,500yearsagoindairyfarmerswhoIivedinaregionbetweenthecentraIBaIkansandeentraIEurope,inwhatwasknownastheFunneIBeakercuIture.ThepaperwaspubIishedthisweekinPLOSputationaIBiology.TheresearchersusedaputertomodeIthespreadofIactasepersistence,dairyfarming,otherfoodgatheringpracticesandgenesinEurope.Today,thehighestproportionofpeoplewithlactasepersistenceIiveinNorthwestEurope,especiaIIytheNetherIands,IrelandandScandinavia.ButtheputermodeIsuggeststhatdairyfarmerscarryingthisgenevariantprobabIyoriginatedincentraIEuropeandthenspreadmorewideIyandrapidIythannon-dairyinggroups.AuthorMarkThomasofUniversityCoIIegeLondon'sdeptofGenetics,EvoIutionandEnvironmentsays,“InEurope,asingIegen

29eticchange...isstrongIyassociatedwithIactasepersistenceandappearstohavepeoplewithitabigsurvivaIadvantage.nTheEuropeanmutationisdifferentfromseveraIIactasepersistencegenesassociatedwithsmaIIpopuIationsofAfricanpeopIeswhohistoricaIIyhavebeencattIeherders.ResearchersatthellniversityofMaryIandidentifiedonesuchmutationamongNiIo-Saharan-speakingpeopIesinKenyaandTanzania.Thatmutationseemstohavearisenbetween2,700to6,80Oyearsago.TwoothermutationshavebeenfoundamongtheBejapeopIeofnortheasternSudanandtribesofthesameIanguagefamilyinnorthernKenya.AccordingtothethirdsentenceofParagraphs,whichofthefoIlowingiternsisINCORRECT?AஹAnaphyIaxismaycausepeopIetodie.BஹEggscandamageaIItheaIIergicindividuaIs5immunesystem.CஹOnewhoisaIIergictogIutencannoteat.DஹTunamaycauseapersonwhoisaIlergictofishtodie.1ᫀ3B᪆3Ö×DᨬJãZᢣðñòóôᱥö÷áiø½Ḅµ⌼ᡂúûẚýyþᨵuµµÿ᝞஺B⚗┯஺3.AcIoserobserverofthesmaIIscreenoncecaIledita“vastwasteIandofviolence,sadismandmurder,privateeyes,gangstersandmorevioIence-andcartoons.5,ThatishowNewtonMinow,allStelevisionreguIator,describeditin1961.SincethantelevisionlanguagehasbeemorecoIourfuI,violencemoreexpIicitandsexmoreprevaIent.?LadyChatterIey,sLoverhasmovedfromthebannedbooksheIftoacIassicBBCseriaI.ConcernoversuchchangingstandardshasshapedourviewofteIe

30vision
andmaskeditsbroaderinfIuenceindeveIopingcountries.ToiIIustrateitseffects,KennycitesthecaseofBraziI.WhentelevisiontherebegantoshowasteadydietofIocaIsoapsinthe1970s,BraziIianwomentypicaIIyhadfiveormorechiIdrenandweretrappedinpoverty.AsthepopuIarityofthesoapsgrew,birthratesfeIIAccordingtoresearchers,72%oftheIeadingfemaIecharactersinthemainsoapshadnochiIdrenandonIy7%hadmorethanone.OnestudycaIcuIatedthatsuchsoapshadthesameeffectonfertiIityratesaskeepinggirIsinschooIforfiveyearsmorethannormaI.Itisnotjustbirthratesthatareaffected.Kennynotes:"KidswhowatchTVoutofschooI,accordingtoaWorIdBanksurveyofyoungpeopIeintheshantytownsofFortaIezainBraziI,areconsiderabIyIessIikeIytoconsumedrugs.TelevisionappearstohavemorepowertoreduceyouthdrugusethanthestricturesofaneducatedmotherandBraziIiansoapspresentingeducatedurbanwomanrunningtheirownbusinessesarethoughttobepeIIingroIemodeIs.TeIevisioncanaIsoimproveheaIth,InGhanaasoapoperaIinethatwarnedmotherstheywerefeedingtheirchiIdrenumorethanjustriceniftheydidnotwashtheirhandsafterdefecatingwasfoIIowedbyaseemingIypermanentimprovementinpersonaIhygiene.Whydosuchchangeshappen?SimpIe,saysKenny:soapoperas,whetherIocaIversionsofllgIyBettyorvintageimportsofBaywatch,openupnewhorizons.uSomehourscouIdhebetterspoutpIantingtrees,heIpingoIdladiesacrosstheroadorpIayingcricket,hesaid.uButwatchingTVexposespeopIetonewideasanddifferentpeopIe.WiththatwiIIegreateropportunity,growingequaIityandabetterundersta

31ndingoftheworId.Notbad.,JWhatisthemeaningof“mask"inthethirdparagraph?AஹsuggestBஹcoverCஹdiscoverDxreveaI
ᫀ:BD᪆Fmask“GHIG⛲”ḄMN஺OPQMNRFSTUᓄḄ᪗XYZ[\]^ᵯ`ḄabIcdGH[ᐸ^fghijkḄlmnḄYZ஺4.StudentsofUnitedStateshistory,seekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovements,havethoroughIyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsociaIconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorians,however,haveanaIyzedIessfuIIythedeveIopmentofspecificalIyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.Furthermore,theideologicaloriginsoffeminisminthellnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecause,evenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithinthellnitedStates,theyfaiIedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatruIyinternationaImovementactuaIIycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas“solitary"anduindividuaItheorists“wereinreaIityconnectedtoamovementrutopiansociaIism-whichwasaIreadypopuIarizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthateachinnatedinthefirstwomen5srightsconferenceheIdatSenecaFaIIs,NewYor

32k,in1848.Thus,apIeteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddeveIopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicaIfocusbewidenedtoincIudeEuropeandthatthedetaiIedstudyaIreadymadeofsociaIconditionsbeexpandedtoincIudetheideologicaldeveIopmentoffeminism.TheearIiestandmostpopuIaroftheutopiansociaIistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificalIyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhas,however,beenIessstudiedthanthegroupJscontributiontoearIysociaIism.ThisisregrettabIeontwoaccounts.By1832feminismwasthecentraIconcernofSaint-SimonianismandentireIyabsorbeditsadherents5energy;hence,byignoringitsfeminism,EuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.Moreover,sincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-Simonianism,Europeanhistorians'appreciationofIaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedIimited.Saint-Simon'sfoIIowers,manyofwhomwerewomen,basedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizethegIobebyrepIacingbruteforcewiththeruIeofspirituaIpowers.ThenewworIdorderwouIdberuIedtogetherbyamaIe,torepresentrefIection,andafemaIe,torepresentsentimerit.ThispIementarityrefIectsthefactthat,whiIetheSaint-SimoniansdidnotrejectthebeIiefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,theynevertheIessforesawanequaIlyimportantsociaIandpoIiticalroleforbothsexesintheirlltopia.OnIyafewSaint-SimoniansopposedadefinitionofsexuaIequaIitybasedongenderdistinetion.ThisminoritybeIievedthatindividuaIsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacter,andtheyascribedmaIe-femaIedifferencestosocializationandeducation.

33TheenvisionedresuItofbothcurrentsofthought,however,wasthatwomenwouIdenterpubIiclifeinthenewageandthatsexuaIequaIitywouIdrewardmenasweIIaswomenwithanimprovedwayofIife.ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorbeIievesthatstudyofSaint-SimonianismisnecessaryforhistoriansofAmericanfeminismbecausesuchstudy.AxwouIdclarifytheideologicaloriginsofthosefeministideasthatinfIuencedAmericanfeminismBஹwouIdincreaseunderstandingofamovementthatdeeplyinfIuencedtheUtopiansociaIismofearIyAmericanfeministsCஹwouIdfocusattentiononthemostimportantaspectofSaint-Simonianthoughtbefore1832DஹpromisestoofferinsightintoamovementthatwasadirectoutgrowthoftheSenecaFalIsconferenceof1848uᫀFAD᪆FᵫᦻyOzQ{|I᝕ᩗSaint-SimonianismᡲḄr⌕ᑖIᡂR[YZj᝕ᩗḄM᝱Ḅᨬ⌕Ḅᩭ,⌕Ẇ᝕ᩗIᑣ^Saint-SimonianismᡲᨵḄẆ஺ᵫ¡A⌱⚗£¤஺B⌱⚗¥Ḅj᝕ᩗiḄᡲIS¦§¨ᙠᦻiª«¬ᑮ஺C,D⌱⚗®¯°ᑮ[ᐹ²Ḅ³⁚Iµ¶f¡஺5.WiththundercIoudsIoomingoverthetrans-AtIanticeconomy,itwaseasytomissabrightpieceofnewsIastweekendfromtheothercrucibIeofworIdtrade,thePacificRim.InHonolulu,whereBarackObamahostedasummitofAsia-PacificIeaders,

34Canada,JapanandMexicoexpressedinterestinjoiningninecountries(America,AustraIia,Brunei,ChiIe,Malaysia,NewZeaIand,Peru,SingaporeandVietnam)indiscussingafree-tradepact.AItogether,thepossibIemembersoftheTrans-PacificPartnership(TPP)produce40%ofworIdGDP——farmorethantheEuropeanllnion.Regiona11radedeaIsarenotaIwaysagoodidea.IftheydistractpoIicymakersfromgIobaItradeIiberaIization,theyaretobediscouraged.ButwiththeDoharoundofgIobaItradetaIksshowingnofIickerofIife,thereisIittIedangerthattheTPPwiIIderaiIabroaderagreement;andbycuttingbarriers,strengthening!nteIIectuaI-propertyprotectionsandgoingbeyondawebofexistingtradedeaIs,itshouIdboostworIdtrade.ThecreationofawiderTPPisstiIIsomewayoff.Forittoeintobeingitsarchitects
Mr.Obama,whofacesatougheIectionbattIenextyear,andJapan5sYoshihikoNoda,whofacescronypoIiticslacedwithpassionateprotectionism-needtoshowmoreIeadership.Mr.Noda5sannouncementonNovember11ththatJapanwasinterestedinjoiningtheTPPnegotiationswasanexceedingIyboIdmove.SigningupwouIdmeandramaticchangesinJapan,acountrywhichhas800%tariffsonriceandexports65vehicIestoAmericaforeveryonethatissenttoJapan.Mr.Noda,smovecouIdaIsotransformtheprospectsoftheTPP,mostobviousIybyunitingtwooftheworId'sIeadingthreeeconomiesbutaIsobygaIvanizingothers.UntiIheexpressedaninterest,CanadaandMexicohadaIsoremainedonthesideIines.UnwittingIyornot,Mr.NodahasthrustmercantiIistJapanintoacentraIpositiononatradetreatyinwhichfreemovementofeverythingexceptIaborisonthetabIe.ImmenseobstacIesIoomforMr.Noda.HecameintoofficeinSeptemberc

35astinghimseIfasaconciIiatorofJapan,swarringpoIiticaIfactions.ManyofthosegroupsareopposedtotheTPP.Farmco-operatives,whichfeathermanyapoIitician5snest,arguethatitwouIdrobJapanofitsriceheritage.DoctorswarnoftheriskstoJapan,scherishedheaIthsystem.SociaIistsseetheTPPasaWashington-1edsideswipeatChina,whichhadhopedtobuiIdanEastAsiantradeorbitincludingJapan.Mr.NorawiIIhavetocontendnotjustwithoppositionfromrivaIpartiesbutaIsowithaspIitontheissueinsidehisDemocraticPartyofJapan.SinceHonolulu,Mr.NodahasaIreadypanderedtoprotectionistsbywateringdownhismessage.HavingbeamednexttoMr.Obamainasummitphoto,hethenprotestedthattheWhiteHousehadoverstatedhisintentiontoputaIIgoodsandservicesupfornegotiation.PolIs,however,suggesttheJapanesearecryingoutforLeadershipontheissue,notpusiIlanimity.MoresupporttheideaofenteringTPPnegotiationsthanopposeit.OntheirbehaIfMr.NodashouIdIeadJapanforthrightIyintothediscussions,confidentthatthecountrycanbargainweIIenoughtogiveitssacredindustriessuchasfarmingandheaIthcaretimetoadjust.11isaIsoatestforMr.Obama'snewstrategyofcopingwithChina'sriseby“pivoting“AmericanforeignpoIicymoretowardsAsia.HemuststanduptotheunionsinthecarindustrywhichhaveIongbeIIyachedabouttheimbaIanceoftradewithJapan.HeshouIdenergeticaIIypromotethepotentiaIgainsforjobsofhispro-Asiastrategy-bothathomeandabroad.AmericashouIdaIsostressthattheTPPismeanttoengageandincorporateChina,ratherthanconstrainit.SuchstepswouIdheIpwinsupportinJapan,whiIecostingAmericaIittIe.AndinjoiningtheTPP,JapanwouIdbeforcedtoreformhideboundp

36artsofitseconomy,suchasservices,whichwouIdstimuIategrowth.ArevitaIizedJapanwouIdaddtothedynamismofamoreIiberaIizedAsia-Pacificregion.ThatissureIysomethingworthfightingfor.WhichofthefoIlowingmainmessageswasconveyedinthispassage?AxAninspiringideatoIiberaIizetranspacifictradehingesonthecourageofAmericaand,especiaIIy,Japan.BஹTPPismeanttoengageandincorporateChina,ratherthanconstrainit.CஹThefarmingandheaIthcareindustriesinJapanwouIdbesevereIyaffectedbytheTPP.DஹTPPasaWashington-1edsideswipeatChinawiIIwinsupportinJapanandaddtoamoreIiberaIizedAsia-Pacificregion.uᫀFAD᪆FÁ⚪IÃᐰᦻᩭaIÅᦻÁᙠ¥Æ⌕ÇÈTPP,jÉÊÅ◤⌕Ì͵ÎÏÐIᱯÒÊÅ஺ᦻyᙠÓᓫÕÖ[ᙠ×᝖ÙÙÚÛḄ"asummitofAsia-Pacificleaders"É“TPP”ḄÜÝÞßIᙠOPQ¬ᑮ⌕àÇ“awiderTPP”á◤⌕âḄã⌕ä,ÌRàÇὅIMr.ObamaÉYoshihikoNoda◤⌕⊤çÍlèḄ⚞êÐ஺ÞßᦻyᑖÒ▊ì[ÊÅÉj◤⌕ÌÍḄÏÐ஺í᝞Mr.Noda◤⌕îïðñÞòÉðᑁô^ñIõ°ö÷Ḅøùúá◤⌕ûüýòõþÿ
ᙛḄ"farmingandheaIthcareindustry"᦮஺◤⌕!"ᦋ$%&᝞(ᦻ*᎔ᦪ-./012%ᝍ456789ᑁ;<=>ὶᔠABCD
E᧕GHḄIឌ%KL⌕MTPPPQ"engageandincorporate),WXY“c

37onstrainit,J\]!BC
%44costingAmericaIittIenᵫa0b%A⌱oo⚗efghijkᙢmE᧕Ḅno%pqCஹsᐸ]
Ḅuv]wxḄ஺6.Thisisnotagoodtimetobeforeign.Anti-immigrantpartiesaregaininggroundinEurope.BritainhasbeenfrettingthisweekoverIapsesinitsbordercontroIs.InAmericaBarackObamahasfaiIedtodeIivertheimmigrationreformhepromised,andRepubIicanpresidentiaIcandidateswouIdrathereIectrifytheborderfencewithMexicothaneducatethechiIdrenofiIIegaIaIiens.AmericaeducatesforeignscientistsinitsuniversitiesandthenexpeIsthem,apoIicythemayorofNewYorkcaIIs“nationalsuicide”.ThisiIIiberaIturninattitudestomigrationisnosurprise.ItistheresuItofcycIicaIeconomiegIoombinedwithasecuIarriseinpressureonrichcountries,borders.ButgovernmentsnowweighingupwhetherornottotrytosIamthedoorshouIdconsideranotherfactor:thegrowingeconomicimportanceofDiasporas,andthecontributiontheycanmaketoacountry,seconomicgrowth.Diasporanetworks-ofHuguenots,Scots,Jewsandmanyothers-haveaIwaysbeenapotenteconomicforce,butthecheapnessandeaseofmoderntraveIhasmadethemIargerandmorenumerousthaneverbefore.Therearenow215mfirst-generationmigrantsaroundtheworId:that5s3%oftheworId'spopulation.Iftheywereanation,itwouIdbeaIittIeIargerthanBraziI.TherearemoreChinesepeopIeIivingoutsideChinathanthereareFrenchpeopIeinFrance.Some22mlndiansarescatteredaIIoverthegIobe.SmaIIconcentrationsofethnicandIinguisticgroupshaveaIwaysbeenfoundinsurprisingpIaces-LebaneseinWestAfrica,JapaneseinBraziIandWeIshinPatagonia,forinstance-buttheyhavebeenjoinedbynewerones,

38suchaswestAfricansinsouthernChina.ThesenetworksofkinshipandIanguagemakeiteasiertodobusinessacrossborders.TheyspeedthefIowofinformation.Trustmatters,especiaIIyinemergingmarketswheretheruIeofIawisweak.SodoesaknowIedgeoftheIocaIcuIture.AndmodernmunicationsmakethesenetworksanevenmorepowerfuItooIofbusiness.DiasporasaIsoheIpspreadideas.ManyoftheemergingworId'sbrightestmindsareeducatedatWesternuniversities.Anincreasingnumbergohome,takingwiththembothknowIedgeandcontacts.IndianputerscientistsinBangaIorebounceideasconstantIyofftheirIndianfriendsinSiIiconValley.China'stechnoIogyindustryisdominatedbyUseaturtIes”(ChinesewhohaveIivedabroadandreturned.Diasporasspreadmoney,too.MigrantsintorichcountriesnotonIysendcashtotheirfamiIies;theyaIsoheIppaniesintheirhostcountryoperateintheirhomecountry.AHarvardBusinessSchooIstudyshowsthat,AmericanpaniesthatempIoyIotsofethnicChinesepeopIefinditmucheasiertosetupinChinawithoutajointventurewithaIocaIfirm.SuchargumentsareunIikeIytomakemuchheadwayagainsthostiIitytowardsimmigrantsinrichcountries.FuryagainstforeignersisusuaIIybasedontwo(mutuaIlyinpatibIe)notions:thatbecausesomanymigrantscIaimweIfaretheyareadrainonthepubIicpurse;andthatbecausetheyarepreparedtoworkharderforIesspaytheywiIIdepressthewagesofthoseatthebottomofthepiIe.ThefirstisusuaIIynottrue(inBritain,forinstanee,immigrantscIaimbenefitsIessthanindigenouspeopIedo),andthesecondishardtoestabIisheitherway.SomestudiesdoindeedsuggestthatpetitionfromunskiIledimmigrantsdepressesthewagesofunskiIledIocaIs.Butothersfindthis

39effecttobesmaIIornon-existent.NorisitpossibIetoestabIishtheimpactofmigrationonoveraIIgrowth.ThesumsaresimpIytoodifficult.YettherearegoodreasonsforbeIievingthatitislikeIytobepositive.Migrantstendtobehard-workingandinnovative.Thatspursproductivityandpanyformation.ArecentstudycarriedoutbyDukellniversityshowedthat,whileimmigrantsmakeupaneighthofAmerica,spopuIation,theyfoundedaquarterofthecountry5stechnoIogyandengineeringfirms.And,byIinkingtheWestwithemergingmarkets,DiasporasheIprichcountriestopIugintofast-growingeconomies.RichcountriesarethusIikelytobenefitfromIooserimmigrationpoIicy;andfearsthatpoorcountrieswiIIsufferasaresultofaubraindrainnareoverbIown.TheprospectofworkingabroadspursmorepeopIetoacquirevaluableskiIIs,andnotaIIsubsequentIyemigrate.SkiIledmigrantssendmoneyhome,andtheyoftenreturntosetupnewbusinesses.OnestudyfoundthatunIesstheyIosemorethan20%oftheiruniversitygraduates,thebraindrainmakespoorcountriesricher.InwhichofthefoIIowingaspectcantheUseaturtIesnmakecontributionstotheirhomeIand?AஹTheyreturnhomewithknowIedgeandcontractstosetupnewbusinesses.BஹTheyheIppaniesintheirhomecountryoperateintheirhostcountry.CஹTheyworkharderforlesspay.DஹTheyheIptoachieveaIowerunempIoymentrate.ᫀ¡A¢᪆¡(ᦻ*-¤/W0b"Anincreasingnumbergohome,takingwiththembothknowIedgeandcontacts,,012A⌱⚗e¥¦§Ḽ"knowledge"D"contra

40cts”©]wxḄ஺B⌱⚗e¥¦ª«upaniesintheirhomecountryJ,ᙠ“theirhostcountry,J®>¯°-±/²³ª«upaniesintheirhostcountry,JᙠutheirhomecountryJ,®>¯w!´%ᡠ1B⚗GB஺ᙠ-¶/012ᑮ%C⚗W¸ᑮ¥¦uworkharderforlesspayJ,¹]º»¼½¦B¥¦ḄIឌ%°⚪¿WÀÁÂ᪵ÄqżÆÇÈᨵᐵË,ÌaC⚗┯Î஺D⚗ᙠᦻWÈᨵ¸ᑮ஺7.TheworIdisgoingthroughthebiggestwaveofmergersandacquisitionseverwitnessed.TheprocesssweepsfromhyperactiveAmericatoEuropeandreachestheemergingcountrieswithunsurpassedmight.ManyinthesecountriesareIookingatthisprocessandworrying:"Won'tthewaveofbusinessconcentrationturnintoanuncontroIIabIeanti-petitiveforce?,JThere1snoquestionthatthebigaregettingbiggerandmorepowerfuI.MultinationaIcorporationsaccountedforIessthar)20%ofinternationaItradein1982.Todaythefigureismorethan25%andgrowingrapidly.InternationaIaffiIiatesaccountforafast-growingsegmentofproductionineconomiesthatopenupandweIeforeigninvestment.InArgentina,forinstance,afterthereformsoftheearIy1990s,multinationaIswentfrom43%toaImost70%oftheindustriaIproductionofthe2001argestfirms.ThisphenomenonhascreatedseriousconcernsovertheroIeofsmaIIereconomicfirms,ofnationaIbusinessmenandovertheultimatestabiIity,oftheworIdeconomy.IbeIievethatthemostimportantforcesbehindthemassiveM&AwavearethesamethatunderIiethegIobaIizationprocess:faIIingtransportation,andmunicationcosts,IowertradeandinvestmentbarriersandenIargedmarketsthatrequireenIargedoperationscapabIeofmeetingcustomers,demands.AIIthesearebeneficial,notdetrimenta11

41oconsumers.Asproductivitygrows,theworId'sweaIthiincreases.ExampIesofbenefitsorcostsofthecurrentconcentration-wavearescanty.YetitishardtoimaginethatthemergeofafewoiIfirmstodaycouIdrecreatethesamethreatstopetitionthatwerefearednearIyacenturyagointheU.S.,whentheStandardOiItrustwasbrokenup.ThemergersofteIepanies,suchasWorIdCorn,hardIyseemtobringhigherpricesforconsumersorareductioninthepaceoftechnicaIprogress.Onthecontrary,thepriceofmunicationsisingdownfast.Inears,too,concentrationisincreasing—witnessDaimIerandChrysIer,RenauItandNissan—butitdoesnotappearthatconsumersambeinghurt.Yetthefactremainsthatthemergermovementmustbewatched.Afewweeksago,AIanGreenspanwarnedagainstthemegamergersinthebankingindustry.Whoisgoingtosupervise,reguIateandoperate,asIenderofIastresortwiththegiganticbanksthatarebeingcreated?won5tmu11inationaIsshiftproductionfromonepIacetoanotherwhenanationgetstoostrictaboutinfringementstofaircornpetition?AndshouIdonecountrytakeuponitseIftheroIeof“defendingpetition“onissuesthataffectmanyothernations,asintheU.S.Towardthenewbusinesswave,thewriter5sattitudecanbesaidtobe.AxoptimisticBxobjectiveCஹpessimisticDஹbiasedᫀ¡B

42¢᪆¡(ᐰᦻᑁÖ2%ὅᑖ᪆ÙÚÛᖪ>ÝÞḄᑭà%ÚÛᐰ☢ᑖ᪆âãÙὅäåḄæçឋ஺8.Whenweconsidergreatpaintersofthepast,thestudyofartandthestudyofiIlusioncannotaIwaysbeseparated.ByiIIusionImeanthosecontrivancesofcoIor,Iine,shape,andforththatIeadustoseemarksonafIatsurfaceasdepictingthree-dimensionaIobjectsinspace.ImustemphasizethatIamnotmakingaplea,disguisedorotherwise,fortheexerciseofiIIusionisttricksinpaintingtoday,aIthoughIam,infactrathercriticalofcertaintheoriesofnon-representationalart.ButtoargueoverthesetheorieswouIdbetomissthepoint.ThatthediscoveriesandeffectsofrepresentationthatweretheprideofearIierartistshavebeetriviaItodayIwouIdnotdenyforamoment.YetIbeIievethatweareinreaIdangerofIosingcontactwithpastmastersifweacceptthefashionabIedoctrinethatsuchmattersneverhadanythingtodowithart.TheveryreasonwhytherepresentationofnaturecannowbeconsideredsomethingmonpIaceshouIdbeofthegreatestinteresttoarthistorians.NeverbeforehastherebeenanagewhenthevisuaIimagewassocheapineverysenseoftheword.WearesurroundedandassaiIedbypostersandadvertisements,icsandmagazineiIIustrations.WeseeaspectsofreaIityrepresentedonteIevision,postagestamps,andfoodpackages.PaintingistaughtinschooIandpracticedasapastime,andmanymodestamateurshavemasteredtricksthatwouIdhaveIookedIikesheermagictothel4th?centurypainterGiotto.EventhecrudecoIoredrenderingsonacereaIboxmighthavemadeGiotto'scontemporariesgasp.PerhapstherearepeopIewhoconcIudedfromthisthatthecereaIboxissuperiortoaGiot

43to;Idonot.ButIthinkthatthevictoryandvuIgarizationofrepresentationaIskiIIscreateaprobIemforbotharthistoriansandcritics.InthisconnectionitisinstructivetoremembertheGreeksayingthattomarveIisthebeginningofknowIedgeandifweceasetomarveIwemaybeindangerofceasingtoknow.IbeIievewemustrestoreoursenseofwonderatthecapacitytoconjureupbyforms,Iines,shades,orcoIorsthosemysteriousphantomsofvisuaIreaIitywecaII“pictures.5,Evenicsandadvertisements,rightIyviewed,providefoodforthought.JustasthestudyofpoetryremainsinpIetewithoutanawarenessoftheIanguageofprose,so,IbeIieve,thestudyofartwiIIbeincreasingIysuppIementedbyinquiryintothe”linguistics“ofthevisuaIimage.ThewaytheIanguageofartreferstothevisibIeworIdisbothsoobviousandsomysteriousthatitisstiIIIargeIyunknownexcepttoartistswhouseitasweuseaIIIanguage—withoutneedingtoknowitsgrammarandsemantics.WhichofthefoIlowingbeststatesthatauthorJsattitudetowardics,asexpressedinthepassage?AஹTheyconstituteaninnovativeartfrom.BஹTheycanbeaworthwhiIesubjectforstudy.CxTheyarecriticallyimportanttoanunderstandingofmodernart.DxTheirvisuaIstructureismorepIexthanthatofmedievaIart.ᫀ¡B¢᪆¡ὅéÄ¡JustasthestudyofpoetryremainsinpIetewithoutanawarenessoftheIanguageofprose,so,IbeIieve,thestudyofartwiIIbeincreasingIysuppIementedbyinquiryintothe"linguistics"ofthevisuaIimage,êëÈᨵᦣᦻ

44ḄíîPïêðñòóôõö᪵%÷øẆúûüQëḄ“íîò”AB!ᐵýþ⚞Ḅ⊡ᐙ஺Ḅ᪵ẆḄ஺9.HormonesintheBodyllptothebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,thenervoussystemwasthoughttocontroIaIImunicationwithinthebodyandtheresuItingintegrationofbehavior.Scientistshaddeterminedthatnervesran,essentiaIIy,oneIectricaIimpuIses.TheseimpuIseswerethoughttobetheengineforthought,emotion,movement,andinternaIprocessessuchasdigestion.However,experimeritsbyWiIIiamBayIissandErnestStarIingonthechemicaIsecretin,whichisproducedinthesmaIIintestinewhenfoodentersthestomach,eventuaIIychaIIengedthatview.FromthesmaIIintestine,secretintraveIsthroughthebIoodstreamtothepancreas.There,itstimuIatesthereIeaseofdigestivechemicaIs.Inthisfashion,theintestinalcelIsthatproducesecretinu11imateIyreguIatetheproductionofdifferentchemicaIsinadifferentorgan,thepancreas.SuchacoordinationofprocesseshadbeenthoughttorequirecontroIbythenervoussystem;BayIissandStarIingshowedthatitcouIdoccurthroughchemicaIsaIone.ThisdiscoveryspurredStartingtocointhetermhormonetorefertosecretin,takingitfromtheGreekwordhormon,meaning“toexcite“orutosetinmotion.AhormoneisachemicaIproducedbyonetissuetomakethingshappeneIsewhere.Asmorehormoneswerediscovered,theywerecategorized,primariIyaccordingtotheprocessbywhichtheyoperatedonthebody.SomegIands(whichmakeuptheendocrinesystem)secretehormonesdirectIyintothebIoodstream.SuchgIandsincIudethethyroidandthepituitary.TheexocrinesystemconsistsoforgansandgIandsthatproducesubstancest

45hatareusedoutsidethebIoodstream,primariIyfordigestion.Thepancreasisonesuchorgan,aIthoughitsecretessomechemicaIsintothebIoodandthusisaIsopartoftheendocrinesystem.MuchhasbeenIearnedabouthormonessincetheirdiscovery.SomepIaysuchkeyroIesinreguIatingbodiIyprocessesorbehaviorthattheirabsencewouIdcauseimmediatedeath.ThemostabundanthormoneshaveeffectsthatareIessobviousIyurgentbutcanbemorefar-reachinganddifficuIttotrack:Theymodifymoodsandaffecthumanbehavior,evensomebehaviorwenormaIIythinkofasvoIuntary.HormonaIsystemsareveryintricate.EvenminuteamountsoftherightchemicaIscansuppressappetite,caImaggression,andchangetheattitudeofaparenttowardachiId.CertainhormonesacceIeratethedeveIopmentofthebody,reguIatinggrowthandform;othersmayevendefineanindividuaI'spersonaIitycharacteristics.Thequantitiesandproportionsofhormonesproducechangewithage,soscientistshavegivenagreatdeaIofstudytoshiftsintheendocrinesystemovertimeinthehopesofaIleviatingaiImentsassociatedwithaging.Infact,somehormonetherapiesareaIreadyverymon.Abinationofestrogenandprogesteronehasbeenprescribedfordecadestowomenwhowanttoreducemoodswings,suddenchangesinbodytemperature,andotherdisfortscausedbyIowernaturaIIeveIsofthosehormonesastheyentermiddIeage.KnownashormonerepIacementtherapy(HRT),thetreatmentwasaIsobeIievedtopreventweakeningofthebones.AtIeastonestudyhasIinkedHRTwithaheightenedriskofheartdiseaseandcertaintypesofcancer.HRTmayaIsoincreasetheIikeIihoodthatbIoodcIots——dangerousbecausetheycouIdtraveIthroughthebIoodstreamandbIockmajorbIoodvesseIs—wiIIfor

46m.SomeproponentsofHRThavetemperedtheirenthusiasminthefaceofthisnewevidence,remendingitonIytopatientswhosesymptomsinterferewiththeirabiIitiestoIivenormaIIives.HumangrowthhormonemayaIsobegiventopatientswhoaresecretingabnormaIlyIowamountsontheirown.BecauseofthepIicatedeffectsgrowthhormonehasonthebody,suchtreatmentsaregeneraIIyrestrictedtochiIdrenwhowouIdbepathologicalIysmaIIinstaturewithoutit.GrowthhormoneaffectsnotjustphysicalsizebutaIsothedigestionoffoodandtheagingprocess.ResearchersandfamiIyphysicianstendtoagreethatitisfooIhardytodispenseitincasesinwhichtherisksarenotcIearIyoutweighedbythebenefits.WhichofthesentencesbeIowbestexpressestheessentiaIinformationinthehighIightedsentenceinthepassage?AxMostmoodsandactionsarenotvoIuntarybecausetheyareactuaIIyproducedbytheproductionofhormonesinthebody.BxBecausetheeffectsofhormonesaredifficulttomeasure,scientistsremainunsurehowfar-reachingtheireffectsonmoodsandactionsare.CஹWhenthebodyisnotproducingenoughhormones,urgenttreatmentmaybenecessarytoavoidpsychologicaldamage.DxTheinfIuenceofmanyhormonesisnoteasytomeasure,buttheycanaffectbothpeopIe5spsychoIogyandactionsextensiveIy.TᫀVDW᪆VYᦻ[\ᜐḄ^_VᨬabḄ₹dℳḄfghij℉ḄlᓾnopqrstuvVwxytᦋ{|}fg~Ḅfgᩭ

47Ḅ஺A⌱⚗^Ḅᙠ|}lᦻḄḄᑣ₹dℳᐸᵨA⌱⚗┯஺B⌱⚗ᑮḄ¢£¤ᙠ¥i¦§₹dℳḄfgḄop¨©ª«¬ᐵ®¯஺C⌱⚗Ḅurgenttreatmentª«¬ᐵ®¯஺D⌱⚗Ḅ^_V₹dℳḄfgst⊝±l²xytfg~Ḅ³ᳮµ஺¶·஺10.AcIoserobserverofthesmaIIscreenoncecaIledita“vastwasteIandofvioIenee,sadismandmurder,privateeyes,gangstersandmorevioIence-andcartoons.nThatishowNewtonMinow,allStelevisionreguIator,describeditin1961.SincethantelevisionlanguagehasbeemorecoIourfuI,vioIencemoreexpIicitandsexmoreprevaIent.?LadyChatterIeyJsLoverhasmovedfromthebannedbooksheIftoacIassicBBCseriaI.ConcernoversuchchangingstandardshasshapedourviewofteIevision—andmaskeditsbroaderinfIuenceindeveIopingcountries.ToiIIustrateitseffects,KennycitesthecaseofBraziI.WhentelevisiontherebegantoshowasteadydietofIocaIsoapsinthel970s,BraziIianwomentypicaIIyhadfiveormorechiIdrenandweretrappedinpoverty.AsthepopuIarityofthesoapsgrew,birthratesfeIIAccordingtoresearchers,72%oftheIeadingfemaIecharactersinthemainsoapshadnochiIdrenandonIy7%hadmorethanone.OnestudycaIcuIatedthatsuchsoapshadthesameeffectonfertiIityratesaskeepinggirIsinschooIforfiveyearsmorethannormaI.Itisnotjustbirthratesthatareaffected.Kennynotes:"KidswhowatchTVoutofschooI,accordingtoaWorIdBanksurveyofyoungpeopIeintheshantytownsofFortaIezainBraziI,areconsiderabIyIessIikeIytoconsumedrugTelevisionappearstohavemorepowertoreduceyouthdrugusethanthestrict

48uresofaneducatedmotherandBraziIiansoapspresentingeducatedurbanwomanrunningtheirownbusinessesarethoughttobepeIIingroIemodeIs.TeIevisioncanaIsoimproveheaIth,InGhanaasoapoperaIinethatwarnedmotherstheywerefeedingtheirchiIdrenUmorethanjustrice"iftheydidnotwashtheirhandsafterdefecatingwasfoIIowedbyaseemingIypermanentimprovementinpersonaIhygiene.Whydosuchchangeshappen?SimpIe,saysKenny:soapoperas,whetherIocaIversionsofUgIyBettyorvintageimportsofBaywatch,openupnewhorizons.uSomehourscouIdhebetterspoutpIantingtrees,heIpingoIdIadiesacrosstheroadorpIayingcricket,hesaid.uButwatchingTVexposespeopIetonewideasanddifferentpeopIe.WiththatwiIIegreateropportunity,growingequaIityandabetterunderstandingoftheworId.Notbad.WhichofthefoIlowingisNOTmentionedastheeffectsofTV?AxLowerbirthrate.BxLesspooryoungpeopIe.CஹLessdrugusers.DஹBettersanitationhabits.TᫀVBW᪆VᵫÅÆÇᨬÈuAsthepopuIarityofthesoapsgrew,birthratesfeII”yÊËḂᒓḄÎÏÐÑ᳛ÓÔA⚗¶·஺ᵫÅÕÇ“Televisionappearstohavemorepowertoreduceyouthdruguse”yÊᵯ×Ø«ÙÚ☘ÚÜᔾÞ¤ßàᨵᦔ,C⚗¶·஺ᵫ᎔ᦪÅåÇuTeIevisioncanaIsoimproveheaIthnyÊᵯ×æ[~xḄᏉèéêD⚗¶·஺B⚗ëᨵ஺

4911.AustraIia,sfrogsarehavingtroublefindingIove.Traffienoiseandothersoundsofcitylife,suchasairconditionersandconstructionnoise,aredrowningoutthematingcaIIsofmaIefrogsinurbanareas,1eadingtoasharpdropinfrogpopuIations.But,inthefirststudyofitskind,Parris,ascientistatthellniversityofMeIbournehasfoundthatsomefrogshavefiguredoutawaytopensateforhumaninterferenceintheirIoveIives.AmaIesouthernbrowntreefrogsendsoutamatingcaIIwhenheJsIookingforadate.11ismusictotheearsofafemaIesouthernbrowntreefrog.But,addthesoundsofnearbytrafficandthemessagejustisnotgoingout.ParrisspentsevenyearsstudyingfrogsaroundMeIbourne.ShesayssomefrogshaveeupwithaninterestingstrategyformakingthemseIvesheard.uWefoundthatit'schangingthepitchofitscaII,sogoinghigherup,upthefrequencyspectrum,beinghigherandsqueakier,furtherawayfromthetraffienoiseandthisincreasesthedistanceoverwhichitcanbeforheard,nParrissaid.TheoIdcaIIisIowerinpitch.Thenewoneishigherinpitch.Now,thatmaysoundIikeaprettysimpIesoIution.But,changingtheircaIIstocopewithanoisyenvironmentisactuaIIyquiteextraordinaryforfrogs.AndwhiIethemaIeshavefiguredouthowtomakethemseIvesheardabovethenoise,ParrissaysitmaynotbewhatthefemaIesareIookingfor.uWhenfemaIeshaveachoicebetweentwomaIescaIIing,theytendtoseIecttheonethatcaIIsataIowerfrequencybecause,infrogs,thefrequencyofacaIIisreIatedtobodysize.So,thebiggerfrogstendtocaIIIower,5,sheexpIained."AndsotheyaIsotendtobetheoIderfrogs,theguysperhapswithmoreexperience,theyknowhatthey5redoingandthewomenareattractedtothose.nFrogpopuIationsinMe

50IbournehavedroppedconsiderabIysinceParrisbeganherresearch,butitisnotjustbecauseofnoise.MuchofAustraIiahasbeenIockedina10-yeardrought,IeavingfrogsfewerandfewerpondstogoIookingforthatspeciaIsomeone.WhydosomefrogschangethepitchofitscaIIs?AxTobedifferentfromothers.BxToattractafemaIefrog.CஹTotendoutmessages.DஹTogoagainsttraffienoises.TᫀVDW᪆VᵫÅíÇu"Bfurtherawayfromthetraffienoiseandthisincreasesthedistanceoverwhichitcanbeforheard,"Ê☘îᦋ{ï[ðñòïó᡾஺12.Whenweconsidergreatpaintersofthepast,thestudyofartandthestudyofiIIusioncannotaIwaysbeseparated.ByiIlusionlmeanthosecontrivancesofcoIor,Iine,shape,andforththatIeadustoseemarksonafIatsurfaceasdepictingthree-dimensionaIobjectsinspace.ImustemphasizethatIamnotmakingapIea,disguisedorotherwise,fortheexerciseofillusion!sttricksinpaintingtoday,aIthoughIam,infactrathercriticaIofeertaintheoriesofnon-representationaIartButtoargueoverthesetheorieswouIdbetomissthepoint.ThatthediscoveriesandeffectsofrepresentationthatweretheprideofearIierartistshavebeetriviaItodayIwouIdnotdenyforamoment.YetIbeIievethatweareinreaIdangerofIosingcontactwithpastmastersifweacceptthefashionabIedoctrinethatsuchmattersneverhadanythingtodowithart.Theveryreasonwhytherepresentationofnatur

51ecannowbeconsideredsomethingmonpIaceshouIdbeofthegreatestinteresttoarthistorians.NeverbeforehastherebeenanagewhenthevisuaIimagewassocheapineverysenseoftheword.WearesurroundedandassaiIedbypostersandadvertisements,icsandmagazineiIIustrations.WeseeaspectsofreaIityrepresentedontelevision,postagestamps,andfoodpackages.PaintingistaughtinschooIandpracticedasapastime,andmanymodestamateurshavemasteredtricksthatwouIdhaveIookedIikesheermagictothel4th?centurypainterGiotto.EventhecrudecoIoredrenderingsonacereaIboxmighthavemadeGiotto'scontemporariesgasp.PerhapstherearepeopIewhoconcIudedfromthisthatthecereaIboxissuperiortoaGiotto;Idonot.ButIthinkthatthevictoryandvuIgarizationofrepresentationaIskiIIscreateaprobIemforbotharthistoriansandcritics.InthisconnectionitisinstructivetoremembertheGreeksayingthattomarveIisthebeginningofknowIedgeandifweceasetomarveIwemaybeindangerofceasingtoknow.IbeIievewemustrestoreoursenseofwonderatthecapacitytoconjureupbyforms,Iines,shades,orcoIorsthosemysteriousphantomsofvisuaIreaIitywecaII“pictures.5,Evenicsandadvertisements,rightIyviewed,providefoodforthought.JustasthestudyofpoetryremainsinpIetewithoutanawarenessoftheIanguageofprose,so,IbeIieve,thestudyofartwiIIbeincreasingIysuppIementedbyinquiryintothe”linguistics“ofthevisuaIimage.ThewaytheIanguageofartreferstothevisibIeworIdisbothsoobviousandsomysteriousthatitisstiIIIargeIyunknownexcepttoartistswhouseitasweuseaIIIanguage——withoutneedingtoknowitsgrammarandsem

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56஺13.FortheexecutiveproducerofanetworknightIynewsprogramme,theworkdayoftenbeginsatmidnightasminedidduringsevenyearswithABC5seveningnewscast.ThefirstorderofbusinesswasacaIItotheassignmentdeskforapre-bedtime?rundownofIatestdeveIopments.Theassignmentdeskoperates24hoursaday,staffedbyeditorswhomovecrews,correspondentsandequipmenttothesceneofevents.Assignment-deskeditorsateIogisticsexperts;theyhavetoknowpIanescheduIes,sateIIiteavaiIabiIity,andwhomtogetintouchwithatIocaIstationsandoverseasbroadcastingsystems.Theyarerequiredtoassessstoriesastheybreakonthewireservices—sometimesevenbeforetheydo-andtodecidehowmuchefforttomake

53tocoverthosestories.WhenthellnitedStateswasgoingtoappeaItoarmsagainstIraq,thenumberofcorrespondentsandcrewswasconstantIyevaIuated.BasedonreportsfromthefieIdandaIsoupontheskiIIedjudgmentsofdeskeditorsinNewYorkCity,therightnumberofpersonneIwaskeptontheaIert.TherestwereaIIowedtocontinueworkingthroughouttheworId,inAmericaandIraqreadytomovebutnottieddownbyfaIseaIarms.ThestudiostaffofABCJsuWorIdNewsTonightnassembIesat9a.m.toprepareforthe6:30"air"p.m.deadIine.OvernightdispatchesfromoutIyingbureausandpressservicesareread.Therearephoneconversationswiththebroadcast5sstaffproducersindomesticbureausandwiththeLondonbureauseniorproducer,whocoordinatesoverseascoverage.Apatternemergesfortheday'snews,apatternoutIinedintheexecutiveproducer5sfirstIineup.TheIineupteIIsthestaffwhatstoriesarescheduIed;whattheprioritiesareforprocessingfiImofeditingtape;whatscriptsneedtobewritten;whatmerciaIsatescheduled;howlongstoriesshouIdrunandinwhatorder.Withoutalineup,therewouldbechaos.EachstoryJsreIativevaIueindoIIarsandcentsmustbecontinuaIIyassessedbytheexecutiveproducer.CuttingbacksateIIitebookingtosavemoneymightmeanthatanexpIanationdeIiveredbyananchorpersonwiIIrepIaceactuaIphotosofanevent.AdecIineinIivecoveragecouIdsendviewersawayanddriveratingsdown,butthereisnotenoughmoneytodoeverything.SodecisionsmustbemadeandmaderapidIy—becausedeIaycanmeanamissedconnectionforshippingtapeoraccesstoasateIIitebIockedbyapetitor.ThebroadcaststhemseIvesrequirepacingandstyIe.TheaudiencehastobeaIIowedtobreathebetweenperiodsofintenseexcit

54ement.AvividpictoriaIreportfoIIowedbyIessexactingmateriaIsaIIowstheviewertorefIectoninformationthathasjustfIashedby.FrequentswitchesfromoneanchortoanotherorfromonefiImortapereporttoanothercreateasenseofforwardmovement.Ideally,IeadingandIagstostoriesareworkedoutwithfieIdoorrespondents,enabIingthemtofittheirreportsintotheprogramme,snarrativefIowsotheaudienceJsattentiondoesnotwanderandmoresubstanceisabsorbed.ScriptsareconstantIyrewrittentobIendweIIwithiningpictures.Goodcopyiscrisp,informative.OurruIe:thefewerwordsthebetter.Ifapicturecandothework,Ietit.AlIthefoIlowingcanbeempIoyedtomakethereportmoreeffectiveEXCEPT_AஹprovidingmorevividpicturesanddetaiIsBஹchangingthestyIetocaterfortheaudienceJsappetiteCஹmoreIivecoveragetorepIacetheIinguisticexpIanationDxintervaIshiftsofthemateriaIsofthecoverage
ᫀ:Bu᪆wx⚪ᵨ᣸◀஺᎔ᦪ~~ᑮ"AvividpictoriaIreportfolIowedbyIessexactiᐭᱏ&ᨵᦔḄ᣸◀A⚗஺~~ᑮ“AdecIineinIivecoveragecouIdsendviewersawayanddriveratingsdown"⍝Ḅ"ᦈ᳛☢⍝¡¢&£ᜮu¥-ᨵᦔᦑ᣸◀B⚗஺᎔ᦪ~~§ᑮ"FrequentswitchesfromoneanchortoanotherorfromonefiImortapereporttoanothercreateasenseofforwardm

55ovement."⚣©ᙢ«⁚®ᑮ¯«°±²“³ᔣµ”Ḅ·¸஺☢⍝¹º◞Ḅ¼½&¾⌕Ḅ⌱⚗D᣸◀஺ᡠ⌱B஺14.JoyandsadnessareexperiencedbypeopIeinaIIcuIturesaroundtheworId,buthowcanweteIIwhenotherpeopIearehappyor?despondent??ItturnsoutthattheexpressionofmanyemotionsmaybeuniversaI,SmiIingisapparentIyauniversaIsignoffriendIinessandapprovaI.Baringtheteethin?ahostiIeway,asnotedbyCharIesDarwininthenineteenthcentury,maybeauniversesignofanger.AstheoriginatorofthetheoryofevoIution,DarwinbeIievedthattheuniversaIrecognitionoffaciaIexpressionswouIdhavesurvivalvalue.ForexampIe,faciaIexpressionscouIdsignaItheapproachofenemies(orfriends)intheabsenceofIanguage.Mostinvestigators?concur?thatcertainfaciaIexpressionssuggestthesameemotionsinapeopIe.Moreover,peopIeindiversecuIturesrecognizetheemotionsmanifestedbythefaciaIexpressions.IncIassicresearchPauIEkmantookphotographsofpeopIeexhibitingtheemotionsofanger,disgust,fear,happiness,andsadness.HethenaskedpeopIearoundtheworIdtoindicatewhatemotionswerebeingdepictedinthem.ThosequeriedrangedfromEuropeancoIIegestudentstomembersoftheFore,atribethatdweIIsintheNewGuineahighIands.AIIgroupsincIudingtheFore,whohadaImostnocontactwithWesterncuIture,agreedontheportrayedemotions.TheForeaIsodispIayedfamiIiarfaciaIexpressionswhenaskedhowtheywouIdrespondiftheywerethecharactersinstoriesthatcaIIedforbasicemotionaIresponses.EkmanandhiscoIIeaguesmorerecentIyobtainedsimiIarresuItsinastudyoftencuIturesinwhichparticipantswerepermittedtoreportthatmuItipleemot

56ionswereshownbyfaciaIexpressions.TheparticipantsgeneraIIyagreedonwhichtwoemotionswerebeingshownandwhichemotionwasmoreintense.PsychologicalresearchersgeneraIIyrecognizethatfaciaIexpressionsrefIectemotionaIstates.Infact,variousemotionaIstatesgiverisetocertainpatternsofeIectricaIactivityinthefaciaImuseIesandinthebrain.ThefaciaI-feedbackhypothesisargues,however,thatthecausaIreIationshipbetweenemotionsandfaciaIexpressionscanaIsoworkintheoppositedirection.Accordingtothishypothesis,signaIsfromthefaciaImuseIes("feedback")aresentbacktoemotioncentersofthebrain,andsoaperson,sfaciaIexpressioncaninfIuencethatperson,semotionaIstate.ConsiderDarwin5swords:uThefreeexpressionbyoutwardsignsofanemotionintensifiesit.Ontheotherhand,therepression,asfaraspossibIe,ofaIIoutwardsignssoftensouremotions.5,CansmiIinggiverisetofeeIingsofgoodwill,forexampIe,andfrowningtoanger?PsychologicalresearchhasgivenrisetosomeinterestingfindingsconcerningthefaciaI-feedbackhypothesis.CausingparticipantsinexperimentstosmiIe,forexampIe,IeadsthemtoreportmorepositivefeeIingsandtoratecartoons(humorousdrawingsofpeopIeorsituations)asbeingmorehumorous.Whentheyarecausedtofrown,theyratecartoonsasbeingmoreaggressive.WhatarethepossibIeIinksbetweenfaciaIexpressionsandemotion?0neIinkisarousaI,whichistheIeveIofactivityorpreparednessforactivityinanorganism.IntensecontractionoffaciaImuseIes,suchasthoseusedinsignifyingfear,heightensarousaI.SeIf-perceptionofheightenedarousaIthenIeadstoheightenedemotionaIactivity.OtherIinksmayinvoIvechangesinbraintemp

57eratureandthereIeaseofneurotransmitters(substancesthattransmitnerveimpuIses.)ThecontractionoffaciaImuseIesbothinfIuencestheinternaIemotionaIstateandrefIectsit.Ekmanhasfoundthattheso-caIIedDuchennesmiIe,whichischaracterizedby"crow'sfeetnwrinkIesaroundtheeyesandasubtIedropintheeyecoverfoIdsothattheskinabovetheeyemovesdownsIightIytowardtheeyeball,canIeadtopIeasantfeeIings.Ekman5sobservationmaybereIevanttotheBritishexpression<4keepastiffupperIip“asaremendationforhandIingstress.Itmightbethata“stiffnIipsuppressesemotionaIresponse-asIongastheIipisnotquiveringwithfearortension.ButwhentheemotionthatIeadstostiffeningtheIipismoreintense,andinvoIvesstrongmuscIetension,faciaIfeedbackmayheightenemotionaIresponse.Accordingtothepassage,whatdidDarwinbeIievewouIdhappentohumanemotionsthatwerenotexpressed?AxTheywouIdbeeIessintense.BxTheywouIdIastIongerthanusuaI.CஹTheywouIdcauseprobIemsIater.DஹTheywouIdbeemorenegative.ÇᫀwAÉÊ᪆w~u"'Thefreeexpressionbyoutwardsignsofanemotionintensifiesit.Ontheotherhand,therepression,asfaraspossibIe,ofaIIoutwardsignssoftensouremotions.”ËÌᦻÎÏÐᑴḄÒ·ᐸ⊤ËÔᩭÖ—ØḄÒ·஺

5815.FortheexecutiveproducerofanetworknightIynewsprogramme,theworkdayoftenbeginsatmidnightasminedidduringsevenyearswithABC5seveningnewscast.ThefirstorderofbusinesswasacaIItotheassignmentdeskforapre-bedtime?rundownofIatestdeveIopments.Theassignmentdeskoperates24hoursaday,staffedbyeditorswhomovecrews,correspondentsandequipmenttothesceneofevents.Assignment-deskeditorsatelogisticsexperts;theyhavetoknowpIanescheduIes,sateIIiteavailabiIity,andwhomtogetintouchwithatIocaIstationsandoverseasbroadcastingsystems.Theyarerequiredtoassessstoriesastheybreakonthewireservices—sometimesevenbeforetheydo-andtodecidehowmuchefforttomaketocoverthosestories.WhenthellnitedStateswasgoingtoappeaItoarmsagainstIraq,thenumberofcorrespondentsanderewswasconstantIyevaIuated.BasedonreportsfromthefieIdandaIsoupontheskiIIedjudgmentsofdeskeditorsinNewYorkCity,therightnumberofpersonneIwaskeptontheaIert.TherestwereaIIowedtocontinueworkingthroughouttheworId,inAmericaandIraqreadytomovebutnottieddownbyfaIseaIarms.ThestudiostaffofABCJsuWorIdNewsTonight5JassembIesat9a.m.toprepareforthe6:30"airnp.m.deadIine.OvernightdispatchesfromoutIyingbureausandpressservicesareread.Therearephoneconversationswiththebroadcast5sstaffproducersindomestiebureausandwiththeLondonbureauseniorproducer,whocoordinatesoverseascoverage.Apatternemergesfortheday'snews,apatternoutIinedintheexecutiveproducerJsfirstIineup.TheIineupteIIsthestaffwhatstoriesarescheduIed;whattheprioritiesareforprocessingfiImofeditingtape;whatscriptsneedtobewritten;whatmerciaIsateschedu

59Ied;howlongstoriesshouIdrunandinwhatorder.WithoutaIineup,therewouIdbechaos.Eachstory5sreIativevaIueindoIIarsandcentsmustbecontinuaIIyassessedbytheexecutiveproducer.CuttingbacksateIIitebookingtosavemoneymightmeanthatanexpIanationdeIiveredbyananchorpersonwiIIrepIaceactuaIphotosofanevent.AdecIineinIivecoveragecouIdsendviewersawayanddriveratingsdown,butthereisnotenoughmoneytodoeverything.SodecisionsmustbemadeandmaderapidIy■—becausedeIaycanmeanamissedconnectionforshippingtapeoraccesstoasateIIitebIockedbyapetitor.ThebroadcaststhemseIvesrequirepacingandstyIe.TheaudiencehastobeaIIowedtobreathebetweenperiodsofintenseexcitement.AvividpictoriaIreportfoIIowedbyIessexactingmateriaIsaIIowstheviewertorefIectoninformationthathasjustfIashedby.FrequentswitchesfromoneanchortoanotherorfromonefiImortapereporttoanothercreateasenseofforwardmovement.Ideally,leadingandlagstostoriesareworkedoutwithfieldcorrespondents,enabIingthemtofittheirreportsintotheprogrammeJsnarrativefIowsotheaudienceJsattentiondoesnotwanderandmoresubstanceisabsorbed.ScriptsareconstantIyrewrittentobIendweIIwithiningpictures.Goodcopyiscrisp,informative.OurruIe:thefewerwordsthebetter.Ifapicturecandothework,Ietit.Whatisthefunctionofthethirdparagraph?AஹToiIlustratetheimportantroleandfunctionoftheassignmentdesk.BஹTogiveusabriefintroductionoftheirworkingconditions.CஹToexempIifythecooperationofaIIsectionsinthepany.DxToemphasizethemissionofthecorrespondents.

60ÇᫀwAu᪆wᦻ¹~ÚassignmentdeskḄ5ᵨÛAssignment-deskeditors⌕ÜḄÝ~ÞßàḄáâᩭã⌱⚗Aäå஺16.IIiveintheIandofDisney,HoIIywoodandyear-roundsun.YoumaythinkpeopIeinsuchagIamorous,fun-fiIIedpIacearehappierthanothers.Ifso,youhavesomemistakenideasaboutthenatureofhappiness.ManyinteIIigentpeopIestiIIequatehappinesswithfun.ThetruthisthatfunandhappinesshaveIittIeornothinginmon.Funiswhatweexperienceduringanact.Happinessiswhatweexperienceafteranact.11isadeepermoreabidingemotion.GoingtoanamusementparkorbaIIgame,watchingamovieortelevision,arefunactivitiesthatheIpusreIax,temporariIyforgetourprobIemsandmaybeevenIaugh.Buttheydonotbringhappiness,becausetheirpositiveeffectsendwhenthefunends.IhaveoftenthoughtthatifHoIIywoodstarshavearoIetopIay,itistoteachusthathappinesshasnothingtodowithfan.Theserich,beautifuIindividuaIshaveconstantaccesstogIamorousparties,fancycars,expensivehomes,everythingthatspeIIs“happiness”.Butinmemoiraftermemoir,ceIebritiesreveaItheunhappinesshiddenbeneathaIItheirfun:depression,alcoholism,drugaddiction,brokenmarriages,troubIedchiIdrenandprofoundIoneIiness.AskabacheIorwhyheresistsmarriageeventhoughhefindsdatingtobeIessandIesssatisfying.Iᓟhe'shonest,hewiIIteIIyouthatheisafraidofmakingamitment.FormitmentisintactquitepainfuI.ThesingleIifeisfiIledwithfun,adventureandexcitement.Marriagehassuchmoments,buttheyarenotitsmostdistinguishingfeatures.Similarly,coupIesthatchoosenottohave

61chiIdrenaredecidinginfavorofpainIessfunoverpainfuIhappiness.TheycandineoutevertheywantandsIeepasIateastheywant.CoupIeswithinfantchiIdrenareIuckytogetawhoIenightJssIeeporathree-dayvacation.Idon,tknowanyparentwhowouIdchoosethewordfuntodescriberaisingchiIdren.UnderstandingandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunisoneofthemostIiberatingreaIizationswecanevereto.ItIiberatestime:nowwecandevotemorehourstoactivitiesthatcangenuinelyincreaseourhappiness.ItIiberatesmoney:buyingthatnewcarorthosefancycIothesthatwiIIdonothingtoincreaseourhappinessnowseemspointIess.AnditIiberatesusfromenvy:wenowunderstandthataIIthoserichandgIamorouspeopIeweweresosurearehappybecausetheyareaIwayshavingsomuchfunactuaIIymaynotbehappyataII.Intheauthor5sopinion,marriage.AxaffordsgreaterfunBஹIeadstoraisingchiIdrenCஹindicatesmitmentDஹendsinpainÇᫀwCu᪆wᵫᦻè~³éwê«ᓫìíîïðᩭðñòóᓾõᯠ÷øùú஺᝞û&«üýḄþÿ
᝿஺ᓽᙠὅᕡḼ஺17.IngeneraI,oursocietyisbeingoneofgiantenterprisesdirectedbyabureaucraticmanagementinwhichmanbeesasmaII,weII-oiIedcoginthemachinery.TheoiIingisdonewithhigherwages,weII-ventiIatedfactoriesandpipedmusic,andby

62psychoIogistsand“human-reIations“experts;yetaIIthisoiIingdoesnota11erthefactthatmanhasbeepowerIess,thathedoesnotwhoIeheartedIyparticipateinhisworkandthatheisboredwithit.Infact,thebIue-andwhite-coIIarworkershavebeeeconomicpuppetswhodancetothetuneofautomatedmachinesandbureaucraticmanagement.TheworkerandempIoyeeareanxious,notonIybecausetheymightfindthemseIvesoutofajob;theyareanxiousaIsobecausetheyareunabIetoacquireanyreaIsatisfactionorinterestinIife.TheyIiveanddiewithouteverhavingconfrontedthefundamentaIreaIitiesofhumanexistenceasemotionaIIyandinteIIectuaIIyindependentandproductivehumanbeings.ThosehigheruponthesociaIIadderarenoIessanxious.TheirIivesarenoIessemptythanthoseoftheirsubordinates.Theyareevenmoreinsecureinsomerespects.TheyareinahighIypetitiverace.TobepromotedortofaIIbehindisnotamatterofsaIarybutevenmoreamatterofseIf-respect.WhentheyappIyfortheirfirstjob,theyaretestedforinteIIigenceasweIIasfortherightmixtureofsubmissivenessandindependence.Fromthatmomentontheyaretestedagainandagain--bythepsychoIogists,forwhomtestingisabigbusiness,andbytheirsuperiorswhojudgetheirbehavior,sociabiIity,capacitytogetaIong,etc.ThisconstantneedtoprovethatoneisasgoodasorbetterthanoneJsfeIIow-petitorcreatesconstantanxietyandstress,theverycausesofunhappinessandiIIness.AmIsuggestingthatweshouIdreturntothepreindustriaImodeofproductionortonineteenth-centuryufreeenterprise“capitaIism?CertainIynot.ProbIemsareneversoIvedbyreturningtoastagewhichonehasaIreadyoutgrown.IsuggesttransformingoursociaIsystemfromabureaucrati

63caIIymanagedindustriaIisminwhichmaximaIproductionandconsumptionareendsinthemseIvesintoahumanistindustriaIisminwhichmanandfuIIdeveIopmentofhispotentiaIities
thoseofIoveandofreason—aretheaimsofaIIsociaIarrangements.ProductionandconsumptionshouIdserveonIyasmeanstothisend,andshouIdbepreventedfromruIingman.TosoIvethepresentsociaIprobIemstheauthorsuggeststhatweshouId.AஹresorttotheproductionmodeofourancestorsBஹofferhigherwagestotheworkersandempIoyeesCxenabIemantofuIIydeveIophispotentiaIitiesDxtakethefundamentaIreaIitiesforgrantedEᫀGCH᪆GJ⁚⚪஺ᨬNOPQRSTὅUVWXᙠḄZ[\ᑴ^_ᡂOabcdᐙᑖgᢵᐸjkḄlmZ[\ᑴ஺ᡠo⌱qc⚗஺18.ScientistsseemingtocureandpreventinsuIir)-dependentdiabeteshavediscoveredwhatgoeswronginthebodiesofaspeciaIbreedofmicepronetotheaffIictionand,usingthatknowIedge,havedeveIopedawaytopreventthediseaseintheRoberts.BecausemousediabetesisaImostidenticaItohumantypeldiabetes(aIsocaIIedinsuIin-dependentorjuveniIe-onsetdiabetes),theresearcherssaytheymaybereadytotesttheirtechniquesonhumansinfiveyearsandthatatreatmentforpatientsintheearIystagesofthediseasecouIdbereadytotestintwoyears.Infindings—pubIishedinIastweek,sissueofNature--wereobtainedbytworesearchgroupsworkingindependentIy.OnewasIedbyDanieIL.Kaufaman,amoIecularbi

64ologistatthellniversityofCaIiforniaatLosAngeIes,andtheotherbyHughO.MedevitofStanfordllniversity."There'sgreatexcitementattheprospectsforthisresearchJ,saidJamesGavin,adiabetesspeciaIistandpresidentoftheAmericanDiabetesAssociation.uThesearestudiesyouhavetocaIIconvincing.TheyarecIearlyIikeIytohavehumanappIications.nTypeldiabeteshasIongbeenknowntobeanautoimmunedisease—anaiImentinwhichtheimmunesystem,insteadofdefendingthebodyagainstinvadingmicrobes,mistakenIyattackspartofthebody.Indiabetes,itkiIIsthespeciaIceIIsinthepancreasthatmakeinsuIin.WithoutinsuIin,ceIIscannottakeinsugar.ThebodyisdeprivedofsugarenergyanditsaccumuIationinthebIoodstreamdamagesnervesandotherissues.ThepotentiaInewtreatmentswouIdeitherstoptheimmunesystemfrommakingamistakeorsuppressanexistingerroneousresponse.RodentsintheIastsentenceofthefirstparagraphreferstoaspeciesofanimaIsincIudingaIIthefoIIowingEXCEPT.AxratsBஹrabbitsCvcatsDஹsquirreIsEᫀGCH᪆Grodentᢣᱥ஺⌱⚗Tᨵcatᱥᱥ஺ᦑ⌱C஺19.Whenweeatmaybejustasimportantaswhatweeat.AnewstudyshowsthatmicethateatwhentheyshouIdbesIeepinggainmoreweightthanmicethateatatnormaIhour

65s.AnotherstudyshedsIightonwhywepackonthepoundsinthefirstpIace.WhetherthesestudiestransIateintotherapiesthatheIphumansbeatobesityremainstobeseen,buttheygivescientistscIuesaboutthemyriadfactorsthattheymusttakeintoaccount.ObservationsofovernightworkershaveshownthateatingatnightdisruptsmetaboIismandthehormonesthatsignaIwe'resated.ButnoonehaddonecontroIIedstudiesonthisconnectionuntiInow.BiologistFredTurekofNorthwesternllniversityinEvanston,Illinois,andgraduatestudentDeannaArbIeexaminedtheIinkbetweenahigh-fatdietandwhattimeofdaymiceeat.AcontroIgroupofsixnocturnaImiceatetheirpeIIets(60%fatbycaIories,mostIyIard)duringthenight.AnothergroupofsixatethesamemeaIduringtheday,Tureksays,whichdisruptstheircireadianrhythm
thebody,snorma124-hourcycIe.After6weeks,theoff-scheduIemiceweighedaImost20%morethanthecontroIs,TurekandArbIereporttodayin?0besity,supportingtheideathatconsumingcaIorieswhenyoushouIdbesIeepingisharmfuI.TurekandArbIeacknowIedgethatthedisruptedmiceateatadmoreandwereatadmoresIuggish,butthedifferencescouIdnotaccountforaIIoftheweightgain.Inthesecondstudy,adifferentteamofresearchersinvestigatedtheIinkbetweenweightandtheimmunesystem.HundredsofgenesseemtoaffeettheaccumuIationoffat,butonethatheIpsprotectusfrominfectionmightheIpusIoseweightwithIittIeeffort,biochemistAIanSaItielofthellniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,andcoIIeaguessuggesttodayin?CeII.Theresearcherstestedmeweight-addingabiIitiesofaproteincaIIedIKKG,whichisIinkedwithobesity,diabetes,andchronic,Iow-1eveIinfIammation.For3months,theteamfedsixmic

66emissinglKKEgenesadietofhigh-fatchow.BecauseIKKE'smainjobisimmunedefense,SaltieTsteamdidn'texpecttofindweightdifferencesbetweenknockoutmiceandcontroIs.ButtheknockoutmicedidgainsignificantIyIess.BestofaII,thegirththeanimaIsdidaddwasIessharmfuItotheiroveraIIheaIth."Theknockoutmicedon,tgainasmuchweightbutaIsodon,tgetdiabetes,don5tgetinsuIinresistance,anddon,tgetaccumuIationofIipidsontheIiver,Saltielsays,aIIofwhichcontributetothesuiteofheaIthprobIemsassociatedwithbeingoverweight.SaltielcalIsIKK^uanespeciaIIyappeaIingdrugtargetforthetreatmentofmetabolicdisease.nTomManiatis,amoIecuIarbioIogistatHarvardllniversitypraisesthestudybutremainsskepticaIaboutanydrugthatwouIdinhibitIKKG.HeheIpeddeveIopthemiceusedintheexperimentandnotesthattheyarevuInerabIetothefIu.HesuspectsthatsuppressingIKKEmayheIppeopIewithdiabetesorobesity,UbutthefirsttimetheswinefIuesaIong,that'sit."ResearchersareaIsoenthusiasticaboutthecireadianrhythmpaperFrankScheet,aneuroscientistatHarvardwhostudiessIeep,wasstruckthatUyoucouIdseesomethinghappening[tothedisruptedmice]inthefirstweekaIready.That'sconsistentwithhumanstudieswherewefoundchangesinjust3days.nTogether,thepaperssuggestthatthere1snosimpIeanswertowhypeopIegainweight.SaysTurek,"It'scIearIynotjustcaIoriesinversuscaIoriesout.WhichofthefoIIowingisthebestti11eforthispassage?AxIKKEanappeaIingdrugtargetforIosingweight.BxTeachyouhowtoIoseweight.

67CxNewresearchesaboutIosingweight.DxCaloriesinversuscaIoriesout.EᫀGCH᪆Gᦻ¡¢£¤\¥¦§¨©ª«¬®¯°±Ḅᐵ®³´ᨬlḄµ¡ᩭ·¸OaᨵᦔḄº»¼½஺C⌱⚗ᨬា¿஺A⌱⚗ÀÁᦻ¢£¤IKKG,ÃÄÅÂOaᨵᦔḄº»Æ஺Bា¿ᦻÂÇᨵᦟdÉ᝞˺»ḄÌͤÎÏ\¥ḄO´Ð஺D⌱⚗ᦻTÇᨵÑ«஺20.Tobefair,thisobservationisaIsofrequentIymadeofCanadaandCanadians,andshouIdbestbeconsideredNorthAmerican.Thereare,ofcourse,exceptions.SmaIl-mindedofficiaIs,rudewaiters,andiIl-manneredtaxidriversarehardIyunknowninthellS.YetitisanobservationmadesofrequentIythatitdeservesment.ForaIongperiodoftimeandinmanypartsofthecountry,atraveIerwasaweIebreakinanotherwiseduIIexistence.DuIInessandIoneIinessweremonprobIemsofthefamiIieswhogeneraIlyIiveddistantfromoneanother.StrangersandtraveIerswereweIesourcesofdiversion,andbroughtnewsoftheoutsideworId.TheharshreaIitiesofthefrontieraIsoshapedthistraditionofhospitaIity.SomeonetraveIingalone,ifhungry,injured,oriII,oftenhadnowheretoturnexcepttothenearestcabinorsettIement.ItwasnotamatterofchoiceforthetraveIerormereIyacharitabIeimpuIseonthepartofthesettIers.ItrefIectedtheharshnessofdailylife:ifyoudidn'ttakeinthestrangerandtakecareofhim,therewasnooneeIsewhowouId.Andsomeday,remember,youmightbeinthesamesituation.Todaytherearemany

68charitabIeorganizationswhichspeciaIizeinheIpingthewearytraveIer.Yet,theoIdtraditionofhospitaIitytostrangersisstiIIverystronginthelJS,especiaIIyinthesmaIIereitiesandtownsawayfromthebusytouristtraiIs.uIwasjusttraveIingthrough,gottaIkingwiththisAmerican,andprettysoonheinvitedmehomefordinner■—amazing."SuchobservationsreportedbyvisitorstotheUSarenotunmon,butarenotaIwaysunderstoodproperIy.ThecasuaIfriendIinessofmanyAmericansshouIdbeinterpretedneitherassuperficiaInorasartificial,butastheresuItofahistoricaIIydeveIopedcuIturaItradition.AsistrueofanydeveIopedsociety,inAmericaapIexsetofeuIturaIsignaIs,assumptions,andconventionsunderIiesaIIsociaIinterreIationships.And,ofcourse,speakingaIanguagedoesnotnecessariIymeanthatsomeoneunderstands,sociaIandcuIturaIpatterns.VisitorswhofaiIto“transIate“cuIturaImeaningsproperIyoftendrawwrongconcIusions.ForexampIe,whenanAmericanusestheword“friend"thecu11uraIimpIicationsofthewordmaybequitedifferentfromthoseithasinthevisitor'sIanguageandcuIture.IttakesmorethanabriefencounteronabustodistinguishbetweencourteousconventionandindividuaIinterest.Yet,beingfriendIyisavirtuethatmanyAmericansvaIuehighIyandexpectfrombothneighborsandstrangers.WhatJstheauthor,sattitudestowardtheAmerican5sfriendIiness?AஹFavorable.BஹUnfavorabIe.CஹIndifferent.D\NeutraI.

69EᫀGAH᪆GÚᐰᦻᩭÜὅÚZ[¦ᔊÞßàᑖ᪆¤áâdãäåæḄçèéḄ᝱àÅë¿ìíḄ஺21.SincetheIate19705sinthefaceofasevereIossofmarketshareindozensofindustries,manufacturersinthellnitedStateshavebeentryingtoimproveproductivity—andthereforeenhancetheirinternationaIpetitiveness
throughcost-cuttingprograms.(Cost-cuttinghereisdefinedasraisinglaboroutputwhiIehoIdingtheamountofIaborconstant.)However,from1978through1982,productivity—thevaIueofgoodsmanufactureddividedbytheamountofIaborinput—didnotimprove;andwhiIetheresuItswerebetterinthebusinessupturnofthethreeyearsfoIIowing,theyran25percentIowerthanproductivityimprovementsduringearIier,post-1945upturns.Atthesametime,itbecamecIearthatthehardermanufacturesworkedtoimpIementcost-cutting,themoretheyIosttheirpetitiveedge.Withthisparadoxinmind,IrecentIyvisited25panies;itbecamecIeartomethatthecost-cuttingapproachtoincreasingproductivityisfundamentaIIyfIawed.ManufacturingregularIyobservesa”40,40,20"ruIe.RoughIy40percentofanymanufacturing-basedpetitiveadvantagederivesfromIong-termchangesinmanufacturingstructure(decisionsaboutthenumber,size,Iocation,andcapacityoffaciIities)andinapproachestomateriaIs.Another40percentesfrommajorchangesinequipmentandprocesstechnoIogy.Thefina120percentrestsonimpIementingconventionaIcost-cutting.ThisruIedoesnotimpIythatcost-cuttingshouIdnotbetried.TheweIl-knowntooIsofthisapproach——incIudingsimpIifyingjobs

70andretrainingempIoyeestoworksmarter,notharder—doproduceresuIts.ButthetooIsquickIyreachtheIimitsofwhattheycancontribute.AnotherprobIemisthatthecost-cuttingapproachhindersinnovationanddiscouragescreativepeopIe.AsAbernathy5sstudyofautomobiIemanufacturershasshown,anindustrycaneasiIybeeprisonerofitsowninvestmentsincost-cuttingtechniques,reducingitsabiIitytodeveIopnewproducts.Andmanagersunderpressuretomaximizecost-cuttingwiIIresistinnovationbecausetheyknowthatmorefundamentaIchangesinprocessesorsystemswiIIwreakhavocwiththeresuItsonwhichtheyaremeasuredProductionmanagershaveaIwaysseentheirjobasoneofminimizingcostsandmaximizingoutput.ThisdimensionofperformancehasuntiIrecentIysufficedasabasisofevaIuation,butithascreatedapenny-pinching,mechanisticcuItureinmostfactoriesthathaskeptawaycreativemanagers.EverypanyIknowthathasfreeditseIffromtheparadoxhasdoneso,inpart,bydeveIopingandimpIementingamanufacturingstrategy.SuchastrategyfocusesonthemanufacturingstructureandonequipmentandprocesstechnoIogy.InonepanyamanufacturingstrategythataIIoweddifferentareasofthefactorytospeciaIizeindifferentmarketsrepIacedtheconventionaIcost-cuttingapproach;withinthreeyearsthepanyregaineditspetitiveadvantage.Togetherwithsuchstrategies,successfuIpaniesareaIsoencouragingmanagerstofocusonawidersetofobjectivesbesidescuttingcosts.Thereishopeformanufacturing,butitdearIyrestsoiIadifferentwayofmanaging.Theprimaryfunctionofthefirstparagraphofthepassageisto.AxpresentahistoricaIcontextfortheauthor5sobservations

71BஹanticipatechaIIengestotheprescriptionsthatfoIIowCஹcIarifysomedisputeddefinitionsofeconomictermsDஹsummarizeanumberofIong—acceptedexpIanationsEᫀGAH᪆GQOPïðᔊÞᦪòóôcost-cuttingÂbimproveproductivity,ᡠoAÀÁ⌱⚗஺22.ChiIdrenasyoungasfourwiIIstudyShakespeareinaprojectbeingIaunchedtodaybytheRoyaIShakespearepany.TheRSCishoIdingitsfirstnationaIconferenceforprimaryschooIteacherstoencouragethemtousetheBard,spIaysimaginativeIyinthecIassroomfromreceptioneIassesonwards.TheconferencewiIIbetoldthattheyshouIdIearnhowShakespeariancharactersIikePuckin?AMidsummerNight,sDream?areujoIIycharactersnandhowtowriteaboutthem.Atpresent,thenationaIcurricuIumdoesnotrequirepupiIstoapproachShakespeareuntiIsecondaryschooI.AlIitsaysisthatpupiIsshouIdstudyutextsdrawnfromavarietyofcuIturesandtraditions,Jand“myths,IegendsandtraditionaIstoriesn.However,educationistsattheRSCbeIievechiIdrenwiIIgainabetterappreciationofShakespeareiftheyareintroducedtohimatamuchyoungerage.uEvenveryyoungchildrencanenjoyShakespeare,spIays,“saidMaryJohnson,headoftheIearningdepartment."11isjustaquestionofpitchingitfortheagegroup.EvenreceptioneIassesandkeystageonepupiIs(five-to-seven-year-oIds)canenjoyhisstories.Forinstance,ifyoubuiIdupPuckasacharacterwhoskips,chiIdrenofthatagecanenjoythecharacter.TheycanbeinspiredbyPuckandtheycouIdevenstartwri

72tingabouthimatthatage.n11istheRSC,sbeIiefthatbuiIdingtheBardupasafunpIaywrightinprimaryschooIcouIdcountersomeofthenegativeimagesconjuredupaboutteachingShakespeareinsecondaryschooIs.Then,pupiIshavetoconcentrateonscenesfromthepIaystoanswerquestionsforpuIsoryEngIishnationaI-curricuIumtestsfor14-year-oIds.CriticsofthetestshavepIainedthatpupiIsnoIongerhavethetimetostudyorreadthewhoIepIay
andthereforeIoseinterestinShakespeare.However,Ms.Johnsonisencouragingteacherstopresent20-minuteversionsofthepIays—acIassroomversionofthe?ReducedShakespearepany,spIeteWorksofShakespeare(Abridged)?whichtoIdhis37pIaysin97minutes•—togivepupiIsafIavourofthewhoIedrama.TheRSC5sventurecoincideswithacaIIforschooIstoaIIowpupiIstobemorecreativeinwritingaboutShakespeare.ProfessorKateMcLuskie,thenewdirectorofthellniversityofBirmingham5sShakespeareInstitute-aIsobasedinStratford—saiditwastimetogetawayfromtheideathattherewasuarightanswer,5toanyquestionaboutShakespeare.HerfirstforayintotheworIdofShakespearewastoberatehimasamisogynistina1985essaybutshenowinsiststhisshouIdnotbeinterpretedasacriticismofhisworks—•aIthoughsheadmits:"IprobabIywouIdn,thavewrittenitquitethesamewayiᓟIhadbeenwritingitnow.WhatweshouIdbedoingismakingsurethatsomeoneisgettingsomethingoutoᓟShakespeare,“shesaid.uPeopIeareverysearedaboutgettingtherightanswer.Iknowit'sdifficuItbutIdon'tcareiftheyeupwitharightanswerthatIcanagreewithaboutShakespeare.WhichofthefoIIowingisNOTtrueaccordingtothepassage?

73AxTheRSCinsistsonteachingShakespearefromthesecondaryschooI.BஹPupiIsshouldstudyutextsdrawnfromavarietyofcuIturesandtraditionsnrequiredbythenationaIcurricuIum.CஹThenationaIcurricuIumdoesnotrequirepupiIstoapproachShakespeareuntiIsecondaryschooInow.DxRSCbeIieveschiIdrenwiIIgainabetterappreciationofShakespeareiftheyareintroducedtohimatamuchyoungerage.EᫀGAH᪆GQRPQOSïᑮRSCḄᦟö÷Éø᝞ùᙠúûÉüýþḄÿ
ḄᨵḄᳮ஺RSCᡂᦟ!ḄḄ"#$!ᑮ&'()*+,ᡠ.A⚗Ḅ⊤2┯4Ḅ஺23.Thisisnotagoodtimetobeforeign.Anti-immigrantpartiesaregaininggroundinEurope.BritainhasbeenfrettingthisweekoverIapsesinitsbordercontroIsInAmericaBarackObamahasfaiIedtodeIivertheimmigrationreformhepromised,andRepubIicanpresidentiaIcandidateswouIdrathereIectrifytheborderfencewithMexicothaneducatethechiIdrenofiIIegaIaIiens.AmericaeducatesforeignscientistsinitsuniversitiesandthenexpeIsthem,apoIicythemayorofNewYorkcaIIs“nationaIsuicide”.ThisiIIiberaIturninattitudestomigrationisnosurprise.11istheresuItofcycIicaIeconomicgIoombinedwithasecuIarriseinpressureonrichcountries'borders.ButgovernmentsnowweighingupwhetherornottotrytosIamthedoorshouIdconsideranotherfactor:thegrowingeconomicimp

74ortanceofDiasporas,andthecontributiontheycanmaketoacountry,seconomicgrowth.Diasporanetworks-ofHuguenots,Scots,Jewsandmanyothers-haveaIwaysbeenapotenteconomicforce,butthecheapnessandeaseofmoderntraveIhasmadethemlargerandmorenumerousthaneverbefore.Therearenow215mfirst-generationmigrantsaroundtheworId:that's3%oftheworId'spopuIation.Iftheywereanation,itwouIdbeaIittIeIargerthanBraziI.TherearemoreChinesepeopleiivingoutsideChinathanthereareFrenchpeopIeinFrance.Some22mlndiansarescatteredaIIoverthegIobe.SmaIIconcentrationsofethnicandIinguisticgroupshaveaIwaysbeenfoundinsurprisingpIaces-LebaneseinWestAfrica,JapaneseinBraziIandWeIshinPatagonia,forinstance-buttheyhavebeenjoinedbynewerones,suchaswestAfricansinsouthernChina.ThesenetworksofkinshipandIanguagemakeiteasiertodobusinessacrossborders.TheyspeedthefIowofinformation.Trustmatters,especiallyinemergingmarketswheretheruIeofIawisweak.SodoesaknowIedgeoftheIocaIcuIture.AndmodernmunicationsmakethesenetworksanevenmorepowerfuItooIofbusiness.DiasporasaIsoheIpspreadideas.ManyoftheemergingworId'sbrightestmindsareeducatedatWesternuniversities.Anincreasingnumbergohome,takingwiththembothknowIedgeandcontacts.IndianputerscientistsinBangaIorebounceideasconstantIyofftheirIndianfriendsinSiIiconValley.China'stechnoIogyindustryisdominatedby44seaturtIes”(ChinesewhohaveIivedabroadandreturned.Diasporasspreadmoney,too.MigrantsintorichcountriesnotonIysendcashtotheirfamilies;theyaIsoheIppaniesintheirhostcountryoperateintheirhomecountry.AHarvardBusinessSchooIstudyshowsthat,

75AmericanpaniesthatempIoyIotsofethnicChinesepeopIefinditmucheasiertosetupinChinawithoutajointventurewithaIocaIfirm.SuchargumentsareunIikeIytomakemuchheadwayagainsthostiIitytowardsimmigrantsinrichcountries.FuryagainstforeignersisusuaIIybasedontwo(mutuaIlyinpatibIe)notions:thatbecausesomanymigrantscIaimweIfaretheyareadrainonthepubIicpurse;andthatbecausetheyarepreparedtoworkharderforIesspaytheywiIIdepressthewagesofthoseatthebottomofthepiIe.ThefirstisusuaIIynottrue(inBritain,forinstanee,immigrantscIaimbenefitsIessthanindigenouspeopIedo),andthesecondishardtoestabIisheitherway.SomestudiesdoindeedsuggestthatpetitionfromunskiIledimmigrantsdepressesthewagesofunskiIledIocaIs.ButothersfindthiseffeettobesmaIIornon-existent.NorisitpossibIetoestabIishtheimpactofmigrationonoveraIIgrowth.ThesumsaresimpIytoodifficult.YettherearegoodreasonsforbeIievingthatitislikeIytobepositive.Migrantstendtobehard-workingandinnovative.Thatspursproductivityandpanyformation.ArecentstudycarriedoutbyDukellniversityshowedthat,whiIeimmigrantsmakeupaneighthofAmerica,spopuIation,theyfoundedaquarterofthecountry,stechnoIogyandengineeringfirms.And,byIinkingtheWestwithemergingmarkets,DiasporasheIprichcountriestopIugintofast-growingeconomies.RichcountriesarethusIikelytobenefitfromIooserimmigrationpoIicy;andfearsthatpoorcountrieswiIIsufferasaresuItofa“braindrain“areoverbIown.TheprospectofworkingabroadspursmorepeopIetoacquirevaIuabIeskills,andnotaIIsubsequentIyemigrate.SkiIledmigrantssendmoneyhome,andtheyoftenreturntosetupnewbusinesses.One

76studyfoundthatunIesstheyIosemorethan20%oftheiruniversitygraduates,thebraindrainmakespoorcountriesricher.Theauthor5sattitudetowards”Diasporasnisthat.AxThereisincreasinghostiIitytowardsimmigrantsinrichcountries.BஹImmigrantnetworksareararebrightsparkintheworIdeconomyandrichcountriesshouIdweIethem.CஹTheDiasporasshouIdreturntotheirhomeIandssothatpoorcountrieswiIInotsufferasaresuItof“braindrain”.DஹHard-workingimmigrantswiIIdepressthewagesoftheIocaIsaIthoughtheymaygreatIyincreaseproductivity.dᫀfB᪆fᦻijᜐlᑮmnopqrstuvwxy஺z᝞|}~lᑮᙠḄ"Migrants”#HsendcashtotheirfamiIies"“operateintheirhomecountry."#᝞᎔ᦪ|~lᑮmnovwḄxy஺ᨬ~lᑮ“Richcountries”Ḅmn'஺B⚗ᢣwmnpqrs'Ḅ¡¢£¤¥ᔠὅ“diasporas”Ḅ᝱©Ḅ஺A⌱⚗«¬#ὅ᝱©஺#⌱A஺ᦻiᨬ~"(TheprospectofworkingabroadspursmorepeopIetoacquirevaIuabIeskills,andnotaIIsubsequentIyemigrate"±²ᨵ³´µᑮ᜜·¸,¹#mnº᜜³´(»)¼½#t¾“braindrain”¿ᑖᜲÂḄᦑC⌱⚗┯4஺ᦻi|Ä~.ÅwḄÆᨵ³ẆÈ⊤²ᩭÊ“u

77nskiIledimmigration”ḄËÌÍÎ"unskiIledlocals”ḄÏÐÑᐸẆÈtÓÔÕÖ×"tobesmall"ᡈὅ"non-existent”D⚗┯4஺24.IIiveintheIandofDisney,HoIIywoodandyear-roundsun.YoumaythinkpeopIeinsuchagIamorous,fun-fiIIedpIacearehappierthanothers.Ifso,youhavesomemistakenideasaboutthenatureofhappiness.ManyinteIIigentpeopIestiIIequatehappinesswithfun.ThetruthisthatfunandhappinesshaveIittIeornothinginmon.Funiswhatweexperienceduringanact.Happinessiswhatweexperienceafteranact.11isadeepermoreabidingemotion.GoingtoanamusementparkorbaIIgame,watchingamovieortelevision,arefunactivitiesthatheIpusreIax,temporariIyforgetourprobIemsandmaybeevenIaugh.Buttheydonotbringhappiness,becausetheirpositiveeffectsendwhenthefunends.IhaveoftenthoughtthatifHoIIywoodstarshavearoIetoplay,itistoteachusthathappinesshasnothingtodowithfan.Theserich,beautifuIindividuaIshaveconstantaccesstogIamorousparties,fancycars,expensivehomes,everythingthatspeIIs“happiness”.Butinmemoiraftermemoir,ceIebritiesreveaItheunhappinesshiddenbeneathaIItheirfun:depression,alcoholism,drugaddiction,brokenmarriages,troubIedchiIdrenandprofoundIoneIiness.AskabacheIorwhyheresistsmarriageeventhoughhefindsdatingtobeIessandIesssatisfying.IfheJshonest,hewiIItelIyouthatheisafraidofmakingamitment.FormitmentisintactquitepainfuI.ThesingleIifeisfiIledwithfun,adventureandexcitement.Marriagehassuchmoments,buttheyarenotitsmostdistinguishingfeatures.Similarly,coupIesthatchoosenottohavechiIdrenaredecidinginfavorofpainIessfunoverpainfuIhappiness.Theycandi

78neoutevertheywantandsIeepasIateastheywant.CoupIeswithinfantchiIdrenareIuckytogetawhoIenight,ssIeeporathree-dayvacation.Idon,tknowanyparentwhowouIdchoosethewordfuntodescriberaisingchiIdren.UnderstandingandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunisoneofthemostIiberatingreaIizationswecanevereto.ItIiberatestime:nowwecandevotemorehourstoactivitiesthatcangenuinelyincreaseourhappiness.ItIiberatesmoney:buyingthatnewcarorthosefancycIothesthatwiIIdonothingtoincreaseourhappinessnowseemspointIess.AnditIiberatesusfromenvy:wenowunderstandthataIIthoserichandgIamorouspeopIeweweresosurearehappybecausetheyareaIwayshavingsomuchfunactuaIIymaynotbehappyataII.CoupIeshavinginfantchiIdren.AஹareIuckysincetheycanhaveawhoIenight'ssIeepBஹfindfunintuckingthemintobedatnightCஹfindmoretimetopIayandjokewiththemDxderivehappinessfromtheirendeavor
ᫀ:D᪆fᦻi|}~àáᡃã³#⌕!Ḅ´åæ⌱çèéḄêë"#ìéḄíî஺.ᙠïðñ᎛vÊóôvḄ¬õ"ã³ö!Ḅ´ᓾṑ᦮úḄûᡈᨵüýᜩḄᎷ஺ᨵḄᑮḄᓾᓫḄ஺ᵫḄᙠḄ!"#$ᑮ%Ḅ&ᕡ஺25.WiththundercIoudsIoomingoverthetrans-AtIanticeconomy,itwaseasytomissabrightpieceofnewsIastweekendfromtheothercrucibIeofworIdtrade,thePa

79cificRim.InHonolulu,whereBarackObamahostedasummitofAsia-Pacificleaders,Canada,JapanandMexicoexpressedinterestinjoiningninecountries(America,AustraIia,Brunei,ChiIe,MaIaysia,NewZeaIand,Peru,SingaporeandVietnam)indiscussingafree-tradepact.AItogether,thepossibIemembersoftheTrans-PacificPartnership(TPP)produce40%ofworIdGDP
farmorethantheEuropeanllnion.RegionaItradedeaIsarenotaIwaysagoodidea.IftheydistractpoIicymakersfromglobaltradeliberaIization,theyaretobediscouraged.ButwiththeDoharoundofgIobaItradetaIksshowingnofIickerofIife,thereisIittIedangerthattheTPPwiIIderaiIabroaderagreement;andbycuttingbarriers,strengtheninginteIIectuaI-propertyprotectionsandgoingbeyondawebofexistingtradedeaIs,itshouIdboostworIdtrade.ThecreationofawiderTPPisstiIIsomewayoff.Forittoeintobeingitsarchitects
Mr.Obama,whofacesatougheIectionbattIenextyear,andJapan,sYoshihikoNoda,whofacescronypoIiticslacedwithpassionateprotectionism-needtoshowmoreIeadership.Mr.Noda,sannouncementonNovember11ththatJapanwasinterestedinjoiningtheTPPnegotiationswasanexceedingIyboIdmove.SigningupwouIdmeandramaticchangesinJapan,acountrywhichhas800%tariffsonriceandexports65vehicIestoAmericaforeveryonethatissenttoJapan.Mr.Noda'smovecouIdaIsotransformtheprospectsoftheTPP,mostobviousIybyunitingtwooftheworId'sIeadingthreeeconomiesbutaIsobygaIvanizingothers.UntiIheexpressedaninterest,CanadaandMexicohadaIsoremainedonthesideIines.Unwittinglyornot,Mr.NodahasthrustmercantiIistJapanintoacentraIpositiononatradetreatyinwhichfreemovementofeverythingexceptIaboris

80onthetabIe.ImmenseobstacIesIoomforMr.Noda.HecameintoofficeinSeptembercastinghimseIfasaconciIiatorofJapan5swarringpoliticaIfactions.ManyofthosegroupsareopposedtotheTPP.Farmco-operatives,whichfeathermanyapoIitician'snest,arguethatitwouIdrobJapanofitsriceheritage.DoctorswarnoftheriskstoJapan5scherishedheaIthsystem.SociaIistsseetheTPPasaWashington-1edsideswipeatChina,whichhadhopedtobuiIdanEastAsiantradeorbitincludingJapan.Mr.NorawiIIhavetocontendnotjustwithoppositionfromrivaIpartiesbutaIsowithaspIitontheissueinsidehisDemocraticPartyofJapan.SinceHonolulu,Mr.NodahasaIreadypanderedtoprotectionistsbywateringdownhismessage.HavingbeamednexttoMr.Obamainasummitphoto,hethenprotestedthattheWhiteHousehadoverstatedhisintentiontoputaIIgoodsandservicesupfornegotiation.PoIIs,however,suggesttheJapanesearecryingoutforLeadershipontheissue,notpusiIlanimity.MoresupporttheideaofenteringTPPnegotiationsthanopposeit.OntheirbehaIfMr.NodashouIdIeadJapanforthrightIyintothediscussions,confidentthatthecountrycanbargainweIIenoughtogiveitssacredindustriessuchasfarmingandheaIthcaretimetoadjust.ItisalsoatestforMr.Obama5snewstrategyofcopingwithChina,sriseby“pivoting“AmericanforeignpoIicymoretowardsAsia.HemuststanduptotheunionsinthecarindustrywhichhaveIongbeIIyachedabouttheimbaIanceoftradewithJapan.HeshouIdenergeticaIIypromotethepotentiaIgainsforjobsofhispro-Asiastrategy-bothathomeandabroad.AmericashouIdaIsostressthattheTPPismeanttoengageandincorporateChina,ratherthanconstrainit.SuchstepswouIdheIpwinsupportinJapan,whiIecosting

81AmericaIittIe.AndinjoiningtheTPP,JapanwouIdbeforcedtoreformhideboundpartsofitseconomy,suchasservices,whichwouIdstimuIategrowth.ArevitaIizedJapanwouIdaddtothedynamismofamoreIiberaIizedAsia-Pacificregion.ThatissureIysomethingworthfightingfor.WhichofthefoIlowingcouIdNOTbetrueasthepossibIeconsequencesofJapan5sjoiningtheTPP?AxItwouIdincreasetheGDPoftheTPPmembers.BஹItcouIdtransformtheprospectsoftheTPP.CஹItwouldbeeconciIiationbetweenJapan5swarringpoIiticaIfactions.DஹItwouIdIeadtoamoreIiberaIizedtranspacifictradereIation.jᫀlCm᪆loᦻq"rst"ManyofthosegroupsareopposedtotheTPP”wxyz{|}~ᙠᐭTPPḄMr.NodaḄ|}"ᨵὅ஺w᝞ᐭTPP,}ᡂ|}ᡈ|}ᑁmḄ஺⌱⚗Cᨬ£ᔠ⚪¦஺26.uPopuIarart,Jhasanumberofmeanings,impossibIetodefinewithanyprecision,whichrangefromfoIkIoretojunk.ThepoIesarecIearenough,butthemiddletendstobIur.TheHolIywoodWesternofthe19305s,forexampIe,haseIementsoffoIkIore,butiscIosertojunkthantohighartorfoIkart.Therecanbegreattrash,justasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicaIsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopuIarart,neveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahms,however,usedeIementsofpopuIarmusic——foIkthemes——inworkscIearIyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre—bourgeoismeIodramasettomusic(anaccu

82ratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera«
and,withoutaIteringitsfundamentaInature,transmuteditintohighart.Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusic,andonethatcannotbefuIIyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentiaItrashinessofthegenre.AsanexampIeofsuchatransmutation,considerwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryoperaGeneraIIyinthepIotsoftheseoperas,aheroorheroine—usuaIIyportrayedonIyasanindividuaI,unfetteredbycIass
iscaughtbetweentheimmoraIcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityorsecretgreedoftheIeadersoftheproIetariat.VerditransformsthisnaiveandunIikeIyformuIationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitality,musicmoresubtIethanitseemsatfirsthearing.TherearescenesandariasthatstiIIsoundIikecaIIstoarmsandwerecIearIyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.SuchpiecesIendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiIedpoIiticalmessageoftheseoperasandcaIIupfeeIingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitseIᓟ.OrconsiderVerdi'streatmentofcharacter.BeforeVerdi,therewererareIyanycharactersataIIinmusicaIdrama,onIyaseriesofsituationswhichaIIowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionaIstates.AnyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayaIintheseoperasismispIacedingenuity.TheonIycoherencewasthesinger'svocaItechnique:whenthecastchanged,newariaswereaImostaIwayssubstituted,generaIIyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi'scharacters,ontheotherhand,havegenuineconsistencyandintegrity,evenif,inmanycases,theconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmeIodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:oncehehadbeeest

83abIished,VerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorcountenanceaIterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyeIseJsariasinoneofhisoperas,aseveryeighteenth-centuryposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanopera,itwasonIyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness.Accordingtothepassage,theimmediacyofthepoIiticalmessageinVerdi'soperasstemsfromthe.AxvitalityandsubtIetyofthemusicBஹaudience5sfamiIiaritywithearIieroperasCஹverisimiIitudeofthecharactersDஹindividuaItaIentsofthesingersjᫀlAm᪆lw¬jᫀ®ᑮr¯tḄ°±²BஹD³⚗ᙠᦻ"ᙳµᨵ¶·C⚗ᑁ¸¹ºᦻqr±tḄᑁ¸»⚪¼½¾¿ᐵÁᨵA⚗»ᦻ"ÂÃÄᑗ,£ᔠ⚪Æ⌕È஺27.TheworIdisgoingthroughthebiggestwaveofmergersandacquisitionseverwitnessed.TheprocesssweepsfromhyperactiveAmericatoEuropeandreachestheemergingcountrieswithunsurpassedmight.ManyinthesecountriesareIookingatthisprocessandworrying:"Won'tthewaveofbusinessconcentrationturnintoanuncontroIIabIeanti-petitiveforce?nThere5snoquestionthatthebigaregettingbiggerandmorepowerfuI.MultinationaIcorporationsaccountedforIessthan20%ofinternationaItradein1982.Todaythefigureismorethan25%andgrowingrapidly.InternationaIaffiIiatesaccountforafast-growingsegmentofproductionineconomiesthatopenupandweIeforeigninvestment.InArgentina,forins

84tance,afterthereformsoftheearIy1990s,multinationaIswentfrom43%toaImost70%oftheindustriaIproductionofthe2001argestfirms.ThisphenomenonhascreatedseriousconcernsovertheroIeofsmaIIereconomicfirms,ofnationaIbusinessmenandovertheultimatestabiIity,oftheworIdeconomy.IbeIievethatthemostimportantforcesbehindthemassiveM&AwavearethesamethatunderIiethegIobaIizationprocess:faIIingtransportation,andmunicationcosts,IowertradeandinvestmentbarriersandenIargedmarketsthatrequireenIargedoperationscapabIeofmeetingcustomersJdemands.AIIthesearebeneficial,notdetrimentaItoconsumers.Asproductivitygrows,theworId'sweaIthincreases.ExampIesofbenefitsorcostsofthecurrentconcentration-wavearescanty.YetitishardtoimaginethatthemergeofafewoiIfirmstodaycouIdrecreatethesamethreatstopetitionthatwerefearednearIyacenturyagointhell.S.,whentheStandardOiItrustwasbrokenup.ThemergersofteIepanies,suchasWorIdCorn,hardIyseemtobringhigherpricesforconsumersorareductioninthepaceoftechnicaIprogress.Onthecontrary,thepriceofmunicationsisingdownfast.Inears,too,concentrationisincreasing——witnessDaimIerandChrysIer,RenauItandNissan—butitdoesnotappearthatconsumersambeinghurt.Yetthefactremainsthatthemergermovementmustbewatched.Afewweeksago,AIanGreenspanwarnedagainstthemegamergersinthebankingindustry.Whoisgoingtosupervise,reguIateandoperate,asIenderofIastresortwiththegiganticbanksthatarebeingcreated?won5tmu11inationaIsshiftproductionfromonepIacetoanotherwhenanationgetstoostrictaboutinfringementstofaircornpetition?AndshouIdonecountrytakeuponitseIftheroI

85eof“defendingpetition“onissuesthataffectmanyothernations,asinthell.S.Practice?4TheworIdisgoingthroughthebiggestwaveofmergersandacquisitionseverwitnessed.TheprocesssweepsfromhyperactiveAmericatoEuropeandreachestheemergingcountrieswithunsurpassedmight.ManyinthesecountriesareIookingatthisprocessandworrying:"Won'tthewaveofbusinessconcentrationturnintoanuncontroIIabIeanti-petitiveforce?^^There,snoquestionthatthebigaregettingbiggerandmorepowerfuI.MultinationaIcorporationsaccountedforIessthan20%ofinternationaItradein1982.Todaythefigureismorethan25%andgrowingrapidly.InternationaIaffiIiatesaccountforafast-growingsegmentofproductionineconomiesthatopenupandweIeforeigninvestment.InArgentina,forinstance,afterthereformsoftheearIy1990s,multinationaIswentfrom43%toaImost70%oftheindustriaIproductionofthe2001argestfirms.ThisphenomenonhascreatedseriousconcernsovertheroIeofsmaIIereconomicfirms,ofnationaIbusinessmenandovertheu11imatestabiIity,oftheworIdeconomy.IbeIievethatthemostimportantforcesbehindthemassiveM&AwavearethesamethatunderIiethegIobaIizationprocess:faIIingtransportation,andmunicationcosts,IowertradeandinvestmentbarriersandenIargedmarketsthatrequireenIargedoperationscapabIeofmeetingcustomers5demands.AIIthesearebeneficiaI,notdetrimentaItoconsumers.Asproductivitygrows,theworId'sweaIthincreases.ExampIesofbenefitsorcostsofthecurrentconcentration-wavearescanty.YetitishardtoimaginethatthemergeofafewoiIfirmstodaycouIdrecreatethesamethreatstopetitionthatwerefearednearIyacenturyagointhell.S.,whentheStandardOi

86Itrustwasbrokenup.ThemergersofteIepanies,suchasWorIdCorn,hardIyseemtobringhigherpricesforconsumersorareductioninthepaceoftechnicaIprogress.Onthecontrary,thepriceofmunicationsisingdownfast.Inears,too,concentrationisincreasingËwitnessDaimIerandChrysler,RenauItandNissan—butitdoesnotappearthatconsumersambeinghurt.Yetthefactremainsthatthemergermovementmustbewatched.Afewweeksago,AIanGreenspanwarnedagainstthemegamergersinthebankingindustry.Whoisgoingtosupervise,reguIateandoperate,asIenderofIastresortwiththegiganticbanksthatarebeingcreated?won5tmu11inationaIsshiftproductionfromonepIacetoanotherwhenanationgetstoostrictaboutinfringementstofaircornpetition?AndshouIdonecountrytakeuponitseIftheroIeof“defendingpetition“onissuesthataffectmanyothernations,asinthell.S.WhatisthetypicaItrend,ofbusinessestoday?AxtheincreasingconcentrationiscertaintohurtconsumersBxWorIdCornservesasagoodexampIeofbothbenefitsandcostsCஹthecostsofthegIobaIizationprocessareenormousDஹtheStandardOi11rustmighthavethreatenedpetitionjᫀlDm᪆l᪷ÎrÏt"YetitishardtoimaginethatthemergeofafewoiI...whentheStandardOiItrustwasbrokenup),“ÐÑÒÓ᝞ÔËÕÖ×ØÙḄᔠÚÛÜÝz{Þᩭàá஺âãàáᙠËäåæç᪗éÖ×ᚘëᡭẚîïðñòóḄôõ%஺”wjᫀöD⚗“᪗éÖ×ᚘ÷àáᑮ%z{”஺

8728.Initsmodernformtheconceptof“literature“didnotemergeearIierthantheeighteenthcenturyandwasnotfuIIydeveIopeduntiIthenineteenthcentury.YettheconditionsforitsemergencehadbeendeveIopingsincetheRenaissance.TheworditseIfcameintoEngIishuseinthefourteenthcentury,followingFrenchandLatinprecedents;itsrootwasLatin?Iittera,aIetteroftheaIphabet.?Litterature,inthemonearIyspeIIing,wasthenineffectaconditionofreading:ofbeingabIetoreadandofhavingread.ItwasoftencIosetothesenseofmodern?Iiteracy,whichwasnotintheIanguageuntiItheIatenineteenthcentury,itsintroductioninpartmadenecessarybythemovementof?Iiterature?toadifferentsense.ThenormaIadjectiveassociatedwithIiteraturewas?Iiterate.LiteraryappearedinthesenseofreadingabiIityandexperienceintheseventeenthcentury,anddidnotacquireitsspeciaIizedmodernmeaninguntiItheeighteenthcentury.Literature?asanewcategorywasthenaspeciaIizationoftheareaformerIycategorizedas?rhetoric?and?grammar:aspeciaIizationtoreadingand,inthemateriaIcontextofthedeveIopmentofprinting,totheprintedwordandespeciaIIythebook.ItwaseventuaIIytobeeamoregeneraIcategorythan?poetry?ortheearIier?poesy,whichhadbeengeneraItermsforimaginativeposition,butwhichinreIationtothedeveIopmentof?IiteraturebecamepredominantIyspeciaIized,fromtheseventeenthcentury,tometricaIpositionandespeciaIIywrittenandprintedmetricaIposition.ButIiteraturewasneverprimariIytheactiveposition-theumaking”
whichpoetryhaddescribed.Asreadingratherthanwriting,itwasacategoryofadifferentkind.ThecharacteristicusecanbeseeninBacon“IearnedinaIIIitera

88tureanderudition,divineandhumaneJ,—andasIateasJohnsonuhehadprobabIymorethanmonIiterature,ashissonaddresseshiminoneofhismosteIaborateLatinpoems.5,?Literature,thatistosay,wasacategoryofuseandconditionratherthanofproduction.ItwasaparticuIarspeciaIizationofwhathadhithertobeenseenasanactivityorpractice,andaspeciaIization,inthecircumstances,whichwasinevitabIymadeintermsofsocialclass.Initsfirstextendedsense,beyondthebaresenseof“literacy,“itwasadefinitionof“polite"or"humane”Iearning,andthusspecifiedaparticuIarsociaIdistinetion.NewpoIiticalconceptsofthe“nation“andnewvaIuationsoftheUvernacuIar“interactedwithapersistentemphasison“Iiterature“asreadinginthe“classical“Ianguages.ButstiII,inthisfirststage,intotheeighteenthcentury,?Iiterature?wasprimariIyageneraIizedsociaIconcept,expressingacertain(minority)IeveIofeducationaIachievement.ThiscardedwithitapotentiaIandeventuaIIyreaIizedaIternativedefinitionof?Iiterature?as"printedbooks:theobjectsinandthroughwhichthisachievementwasdemonstrated.Itisimportantthat,withinthetermsofthisdeveIopment,IiteraturenormaIlyincludedaIIprintedbooks.TherewasnotnecessaryspeciaIizationto“imaginative“works.LiteraturewasstiIIprimariIyreadingabiIityandexperience,andthisincIudedphiIosophy,history,andessaysasweIIaspoems.WeretheneweighteenthcenturynoveIsIiterature?Thatquestionwasfirstapproached,notbydefinitionoftheirmodeorcontent,butbyreferencetothestandardsof“polite"or"humane“learning.Wasdramaliterature?Thisquestionwastoexercisesuccessivegenerations,notbecauseofa

89nysubstantialdifficultybutbecauseofthepracticaIIimitsofthecategory.IfIiteraturewasreading,couIdamodewrittenforspokenperformancebesaidtobeIiterature,andifnot,wherewasShakespeare?AtoneIeveIthedefinitionindicatedbythisdeveIopmenthaspersisted.LiteratureIostitsearIiestsenseofreadingabiIityandreadingexperience,andbecameanapparentIyobjectivecategoryofprintedworksofacertainquaIity.Theconcernsofa“Iiteraryeditor"ora"IiterarysuppIement,JwouIdstiIIbedefinedinthisway.ButthreepIicatingtendenciescanthenbedistinguished:first,ashiftfrom“learning"to“taste”or“sensibiIity“asacriteriondefiningIiteraryquaIity;second,anincreasingspeciaIizationofIiteratureto“creative"or"imaginative"works;third,adeveIopmentoftheconceptof“tradition“withinnationaIterms,resuItinginthemoreeffectivedefinitionofuanationaIIiterature.nThesourceofeachofthesetendenciescanbediscernedfromtheRenaissance,butitwasintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesthattheycamethroughmostpowerfuIIy,untiItheybecame,inthetwentiethcentury,ineffectreceivedassumptions.Whendidthemodernconceptof“literature“emerge?AxIntheseventeenthcentury.BஹIntheeighteenthcentury.CஹInthenineteenthcentury.DஹInthetwentiethcentury.jᫀlB

90m᪆l᪷Îr˲ùdidnotemergeearIierthantheeighteenthcentury"Iiterature"oᓝûåæñüᐹᨵ%þᙠḄᑁÿ஺29.Everymanisaphilosopher.EverymanhashisownphilosophyofIifeandhisspecialviewoftheuniverse.Moreover,hisphiIosophyisimportant,moreimportantperhapsthathehimseIfknows.Itdetermineshistreatmentoffriendsandenemies,hisconductwhenaIoneandinsociety,hisattitudetowardshishome,hiswork,andhiscountry,hisreIigiousbeIiefs,hisethicaIstandards,hissociaIadjustmentandhispersonaIhappiness.Nations,too,throughthepoIiticalormiIitarypartyinpower,havetheirphiIosophersofthoughtandaction.WarsarewagedandrevoIutionsincitedbecauseofthecIashofideoIogies,theconfIictofphiIippics.IthasaIwaysbeenso.WorIdWarIIisbuttheIatestandmostdramaticiIIustrationofthebustibIenatureofdifferencesinsociaIandpoIiticalphiIosophy.PhiIosophy,saysPIato,beginswithwonder.Wewonderaboutthedestructivefuryofearthquakes,fIoods,storms,drought,pestiIence,famine,andfire,themysteriesofbirthanddeath,pIeasureandpain,changeandpermanence,crueIIyandkindness,instinctsandideaIs,mindandbody,thesizeoftheuniverseandman5spIaceinit.OurquestionsareendIess.Whatisman?WhatisNature?Whatisjustice?Whatisduty?AIoneamongtheanimaIsmanisconcernedabouthisoriginandend,abouthispurposesandgoaIs,aboutthemeaningofIifeandthenatureofreaIity.HeaIonedistinguishesbetweenbeautyandugIiness,goodandeviI,thebetterandtheworse.HemaybeamemberoftheanimaIkingdom,butheisaIsoacitizenoftheworIdofideasandvaIues.Someofman1squestionshavehadanswers.WheretheansweriscIear,wecaI

91IitscienceorartandmoveontohighergroundandanewvistaoftheworId.Manyofourquestions,however,wiIIneverhavefinaIanswers.MenwiIIaIwaysdiscussthenatureofjusticeandright,thesignificanceofeviI,theartofgovernment,thereIationofmindandmatter,thesearchfortruth,thequestforhappiness,theideaofGod,andthemeaningofreaIity.ThehumanracehasrefIectedsoIongandoftenontheseprobIemsthatthesamepatternsofthoughtrecurinaImosteveryage.WeshouIdknowwhatthesethoughtsare.WeshouIdknowwhatanswershavebeensuggestedbythosewhohavemostinfIuencedancientandmodernthought.WeshaIIwanttodoourownthinkingandfindourownanswers.Itis,however,neithernecessarynoradvisabIetotraveIaIone.OthershaveheIpeddispeIthedarkness,andtheIighttheyhavekindIedmayaIsoiIluminateourway.WhatiseaIIedscienceorart,accordingtotheauthor?Axthedeficitanswersofsomeofman5squestionsBxMan5sthoughtsCஹaIIofman5squestionsDஹthemeaningofreaIity3ᫀ5A6᪆5ᵫ9:;9<=uWheretheansweriscIear,wecaIIitscienceorartandmoveontohighergroundandanewvistaoftheworId.>?3ᫀ@Aᙢ,ᡃDEFGHIJᡈLM஺ᦑ⌱A஺30.ImarveIthathe,ithavingbeensaidhehadtakenhisfinaIdepartureforPortugaI.

92AxwasnotherenowBஹshouIdnowbehereCஹhadbeenawayDஹhasn5tleft3ᫀ5B6᪆5=R5S᜻UḄWXYZᙠ\]^_X`abℍ⃔ᱛf஺marvelghijk=]\lshouldWmnjo]⊤qrs]ᡠuB⌱⚗wx஺31.IwaseightyearsoIdthefirsttimeIfainted.IwasatfriendJshouse,andabeestungmeonthebackoftheneck.IhadfeItnothingbutasIightpinchandthebugwassoonwipedawayandfIusheddownthetoiIet,butsineeIIookedpaIeIwasurgedtocaIImymother.AsItoIdherwhathadhappened,IfeItmyseIfbIackingout,sinkingtothefIoor,vagueIyawarethatIwasstiIIgrippingthereceiver.PerhapsIwasaIlergictothebeestingztheonIyone15veevergotten,aIthoughtothisdayIhaveaphobiaaboutbees,wasps,andotherinsects.Buttheimageofaneight-year-oIdinKedscrumpIingtothegroundwhiIehedescribeshisinjurytohisMommyseemstoreturnustoFreudianterritory.NotetheumbiIicalimageofthephonecord.CaIImefancifuI.StiII,I'mafraidtheseundertonesarehardIydissipatedbythesecondfaintingincidentIcanrecaII,whichpracticaIIyreeksofthefamiIyromance.ThistookpIaceoneweekendmorningwhiIeweweregatheredinthekitchentoeatbreakfast.MymotherstoodatthestovemakingFrenchtoast,whichshehadaIreadyservedtothekids;myfather,seatedatthetabIe,wascuttingabageIwithasharpbreadknife.ContrarytoeveryprincipIeofkitchensafety,hewashoIdingthebageIinhisha

93ndandcuttinginward,andeventuaIIyhemadeaneat,shaIlowincisioninhispaIm.ThebIoodwasprofuse.BeingahematoIogist,myfatherdidn'tpanic:thiswasjusthusinessasusuaI.ButmymotherstoppedfIippingFrenchtoastandcoIIapsedtothefIoor.I,inspiredbythebIoodandmymotherJscolIapseandthepowerfuIodorsofsyrupandsugarrisingfrommypIate,sIumpedforward.Myforeheadwentintothesyrup.Iheardaroar
itseemedtomethatIwasbeingcIutchedbeneaththearmpitsandwhirIedaround—andthenmyfathershookmebackintoconsciousness.HehadaIreadyattendedtomymother.StiIIthinkTmfancifuI?ThenIistentothis.OutofcuriosityIaskedmymotherwhenherfirstfaintingepisodehadoccurred.Shepaused,thoughtitover,andcameupwiththefoIlowing.Attheageofthirteen,shewenttovisitherfatherinthehospital,whoonIythedaybeforehadhadhisappendixremoved.Asidefromherfather,stiIIconkedoutfromtheanesthesia,theotherpersonintheroomwasanurse,whowasbusychangingthedressingonthepatient'sincision,whichhadn5tquitecIosed.Forsomereason,thenursehadtoIeavetheroom.Atthispoint,sheaskedmymothertohoIdthesoiIeddressinginplaceuntiIshereturned.MymotherpIied.Standingoverherdazedfather,gingerIyhoIdingausedbandageoverahoIeinhisIowerabdomen,thethirteen-year-oIdgrewIightheaded.IassumedthenursereturnedbeforeshehitthefIoor.ItcanbegatheredfromthisarticIethatthetendencytofaintmostprobabIyis.AxgeneticaIIydeterminedBஹindependentIydeveIopedCxvirusinfected

94DஹemotionaIIyaffected3ᫀ5A6᪆5ᦻ⌕fὅ᧎u᧿⊈Ḅ]ᐝkḄᩭᑏf\z]_¡f¢Ḅ£¤ᙠ☘¦§¨©Ḅzª᧿⊈«ᔊ]k®⍡°±ᩭᑏ\z²³W>u⍡°Ḅ஺Awx஺32.SincetheIate19705sinthefaceofasevereIossofmarketshareindozensofindustries,manufacturersinthellnitedStateshavebeentryingtoimproveproductivityߟandthereforeenhancetheirinternationaIpetitiveness
throughcost-cuttingprograms.(Cost-cuttinghereisdefinedasraisinglaboroutputwhiIehoIdingtheamountofIaborconstant.)However,from1978through1982,productivity--thevaIueofgoodsmanufactureddividedbytheamountofIaborinput
didnotimprove;andwhiIetheresuItswerebetterinthebusinessupturnofthethreeyearsfoIIowing,theyran25percentIowerthanproductivityimprovementsduringearIier,post-1945upturns.Atthesametime,itbecamecIearthatthehardermanufacturesworkedtoimpIementcost-cutting,themoretheyIosttheirpetitiveedge.Withthisparadoxinmind,IrecentIyvisited25panies;itbecamecIeartomethatthecost-cuttingapproachtoincreasingproductivityisfundamentaIIyfIawed.ManufacturingregularIyobservesa”40,40,20"ruIe.RoughIy40percentofanymanufacturing-basedpetitiveadvantagederivesfromIong-termchangesinmanufacturingstructure(decisionsaboutthenumber,size,Iocation,andcapacityoffaciIities)andinapproachestomateriaIs.Another40percentesfrommajorchangesinequipmentandprocesstechnoIogy.Thefina120percentrestsonimpIementi

95ngconventionaIcost-cutting.ThisruIedoesnotimpIythatcost-cuttingshouIdnotbetried.TheweIl-knowntooIsofthisapproach
incIudingsimpIifyingjobsandretrainingempIoyeestoworksmarter,notharder
doproduceresuIts.ButthetooIsquickIyreachtheIimitsofwhattheycancontribute.AnotherprobIemisthatthecost-cuttingapproachhindersinnovationanddiscouragescreativepeopIe.AsAbernathy5sstudyofautomobiIemanufacturershasshown,anindustrycaneasiIybeeprisonerofitsowniinvestmentsincost-cuttingtechniques,reducingitsabiIitytodeveIopnewproducts.Andmanagersunderpressuretomaximizecost-cuttingwiIIresistinnovationbecausetheyknowthatmorefundamentaIchangesinprocessesorsystemswiIIwreakhavocwiththeresuItsonwhichtheyaremeasuredProductionmanagershaveaIwaysseentheirjobasoneofminimizingcostsandmaximizingoutput.ThisdimensionofperformancehasuntiIrecentIysufficedasabasisofevaIuation,butithascreatedapenny-pinching,mechanisticcuItureinmostfactoriesthathaskeptawaycreativemanagers.EverypanyIknowthathasfreeditseIffromtheparadoxhasdoneso,inpart,bydeveIopingandimpIementingamanufacturingstrategy.SuchastrategyfocusesonthemanufacturingstructureandonequipmentandprocesstechnoIogy.InonepanyamanufacturingstrategythataIIoweddifferentareasofthefactorytospeciaIizeindifferentmarketsrepIacedtheconventionaIcost-cuttingapproach;withinthreeyearsthepanyregaineditspetitiveadvantage.Togetherwithsuchstrategies,successfuIpaniesareaIsoencouragingmanagerstofocusonawidersetofobjectivesbesidescuttingcosts.Th

96ereishopeformanufacturing,butitdearIyrestsoiladifferentwayofmanaging.TheauthorofthepassageisprimariIyconcernedwith.AஹsummarizingathesisBஹremendingadifferentapproachCஹparingpointsofviewDxmakingaseriesofpredictions3ᫀ5B6᪆5Ucost-cuttingapproachtoincreasingproductivityisfundamentaIIyfIawed.ManufacturingreguIarIyobservesa'40,40,20'rule.5,ᵫ¾=>?,cost-cuttinga«W¿ÀÁÂÃḄÄÅÆ]ÇW⌕È“40,40,20"ruleᩭ¿ÀÁÂÃ,ᡠuὅWᙠremendingadifferentapproacho33.PracticaIIyspeaking,theartisticmaturingofthecinemawasthesingIe-handedachievementofDavidW.Griffith(1875-1948).BeforeGriffith,photographyindramaticfiImsconsistedofIittIemorethanpIacingtheactorsbeforeastationarycameraandshowingtheminfuIIIengthastheywouIdhaveappearedonstage.Fromthebeginningofhiscareerasadirector,however,Griffith,becauseofhisloveofVictorianpainting,empIoyedposition.Heconceivedofthecameraimageashavingaforegroundandarearground,asweIIasthemiddIedistancepreferredbymostdirectors.By191OhewasusingcIose-upstoreveaIsignificantdetaiIsofthesceneoroftheactingandextremeIongshotstoachieveasenseofspectacIeanddistanee.Hisappreciationofthecamera,spossibiIitiesproducednoveIdramaticeffects.ByspIittinganeventintofragmentsandrecordingeachfromthemostsuita

97bIecameraposition,hecouIdsignificantIyvarytheemphasisfromcamerashottocamerashot.GriffithaIsoachieveddramaticeffectsbymeansofcreativeediting.Byjuxtaposingimagesandvaryingthespeedandrhythmoftheirpresentation,hecouIdcontroIthedramaticintensityoftheeventsasthestoryprogressed.DespitethereIuctanceofhisproducers,whofearedthatthepubIicwouIdnotbeabIetofoIIowapIotthatwasmadeupofsuchjuxtaposedimages,Griffithpersisted,andexperimentedasweIIwithothereIementsofcinematicsyntaxthathavebeestandardeversinee.TheseincIudedthefIashback,permittingbroadpsychologicalandemotionaIexpIorationasweIIasnarrativethatwasnotchronological,andthecrosscutbetweentwoparaIleiactionstoheightensuspenseandexcitement.InthusexpIoitingfuIIythepossibiIitiesofediting,GriffithtransposeddevicesoftheVictoriannoveItofiImandgavefiImmasteryoftimeasweIIasspace.BesidesdeveIopingthecinema,sIanguage,GriffithimmenseIybroadeneditsrangeandtreatmentofsubjects.HisearIyoutputwasremarkabIyecIectic:itincludednotonIythestandardedies,meIodramas,westerns,andthriIIers,butaIsosuchnoveItiesasadaptationsfromBrowningandTennyson,andtreatmentsofsociaIissues.Ashissuccessesmounted,hisambitionsgrew,andwiththemthewhoIeofAmericancinema.Whenheremade?EnochArden?in1911,heinsistedthatasubjectofsuchimportancecouIdnotbetreatedinthethenconventionaIIengthofonereeI.Griffith5sintroductionoftheAmerican-mademu11i-reeIpicturebegananimmenserevoIution.TwoyearsIater,?JudithofBethuIia,aneIaboratehistoricophiIosophicaIspectacIe,reachedtheunprecedentedIengthoffourreeIs,oronehourJsrunningt

98ime.Fromourcontemporaryviewpoint,thepretensionsofthisfiImmayseematrifleludicrous,butatthetimeitprovokedendIessdebateanddiscussionandgaveanewinteIIectuaIrespectabiIitytothecinema.TheauthorsuggeststhatGriffith,sfiIminnovationshadadirecteffectonaIIofthefoIIowingEXCEPT:.AxfiImeditingBxcameraworkCஹsceneposingDஹsoundediting3ᫀ5D6᪆5A⚗ᙠᦻÌ9<;ᨵᡠÎÏ]ᓽ"GriffithalsoachieveddramaticeffectsbymeansofcreativeeditingMÑBஹCÒ⚗ᙳÔk9z;Õᑮ×]᝞"Hisappreciationofthecamera,spossibiIitiesproducednoveIdramaticeffectsnÑÙᨵD⚗]ὅÚᨵᙠᦻÌ¿஺34.StudentsofUnitedStateshistory,seekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovements,havethoroughIyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsociaIconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorians,however,haveanaIyzedIessfuIIythedeveIopmentofspecificalIyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.Furthermore,theideologicaloriginsoffeminisminthellnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecause,evenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithinthellnitedStates,theyfaiIedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatruIyinternationaImovementactuaIIycenteredinEurope.Am

99ericanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas“solitary“anduindividuaItheorists“wereinreaIityconnectedtoamovement
utopiansociaIism-whichwasaIreadypopuIarizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthateachinnatedinthefirstwomenJsrightsconferenceheIdatSenecaFaIIs,NewYork,in1848.Thus,apIeteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddeveIopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminisminthellnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicaIfocusbewidenedtoincIudeEuropeandthatthedetaiIedstudyaIreadymadeofsociaIconditionsbeexpandedtoincIudetheideologicaldeveIopmentoffeminism.TheearIiestandmostpopuIaroftheutopiansociaIistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificalIyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhas,however,beenIessstudiedthanthegroupJscontributiontoearIysociaIism.ThisisregrettabIeontwoaccounts.By1832feminismwasthecentraIconcernofSaint-SimonianismandentireIyabsorbeditsadherents1energy;hence,byignoringitsfeminism,EuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.Moreover,sincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-Simonianism,Europeanhistorians5appreciationofIaterfeminisminFranceandthellnitedStatesremainedIimited.Saint-Simon,sfoIIowers,manyofwhomwerewomen,basedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojeettoreorganizethegIobebyrepIacingbruteforcewiththeruIeofspirituaIpowers.ThenewworIdorderwouIdberuIedtogetherbyamaIe,torepresentrefIection,andafemaIe,torepresentsentiment.ThispIementarityrefIectsthefactthat,whiIetheSaint-SimoniansdidnotrejeetthebeIiefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,theynevertheIessforesawanequaIlyimportantso

100ciaIandpoIiticalroleforbothsexesintheirlltopia.OnIyafewSaint-SimoniansopposedadefinitionofsexuaIequaIitybasedongenderdistinetion.ThisminoritybeIievedthatindividuaIsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacter,andtheyascribedmaIe-femaIedifferencestosociaIizationandeducationTheenvisionedresuItofbothcurrentsofthought,however,wasthatwomenwouIdenterpubIicIifeinthenewageandthatsexuaIequaIitywouIdrewardmenasweIIaswomenwithanimprovedwayofIife.Theauthor]sattitudetowardmostEuropeanhistorianswhohavestudiedtheSaint-SimoniansisprimariIyoneof.AxapprovaIofthespecificfocusoftheirresearchBஹdisapprovaIoftheirIackofattentiontotheissuethatabsorbedmostoftheSaint-Simonians'energyafter1832CஹapprovaIoftheirgeneraIfocusonsociaIconditionsDஹdisapprovaIoftheirIackofattentiontoIinksbetweentheSaint-SimoniansandtheirAmericancounterparts
ᫀ:D6᪆5¾⚪>ᵨ᣸◀Æ஺3ᫀ×àáᙠᦻ9<;஺k9<;>uâã]ὅäåḄᔊæJᢝᔲà᝱]ᑣA,C┯஺B⌱⚗Ìafter832Ḅ¨ì;┯í]×Hbefore1832,ᡠuî᣸◀]ᑣïᑮD⌱⚗Hwx⌱⚗஺ð¨]î>ᵫ¾;ᨬgz=òóhïãD⌱⚗஺35.SomebeIievethatintheageofidentikitputergames,massentertainmentandconformityonthesupermarketsheIves,truIyinspiredthinkinghasgoneoutofthewindow.But,thereareotherswhohoIdtheviewthatthereisstiIIpIentyofscopef

101orinnovation,IateraIthoughtandcreativesoIutions.DespitethestandardizationofmodernIife,thereisanunabatedappetiteforgreatideas,visionarythinkingandinspireddebate.InthefirstofaseriesofmonthIydebatesoncontemporaryissues,weasktwooriginaIthinkerstodiscussthenatureofcreativity.Hereisthefirstone.Yes.AbsoIuteIy.SineeIstartedworkingasaninventor10or12yearsago,I'veseenabigchangeinattitudestocreativityandinvention.Backthen,therewashardIyanysupportforinventors,apartfromthenationaIorganizationtheInstituteofPatenteesandInventors.Today,thereareIotsofIittleinventors'cIubspoppingupaIIoverthepIace,myIastcountwasl9nationaIIyandgrowing.Thesenon-profitcIubs,runbyinventorsforinventors,areanindicationthatpeopIeareonceagaininterestedininvention.15vebeenaprojectIeader,acroupier,anITconsuItantand15vewrittenamotormandreI.Ispentmyteensundera1950stwo-toneRiIeyRMEear,Iearningtoputittogether.BackintheSixties,kidsIikemewereaIwaysoutdoingthings,makinggo-karts,ridingbieyeIesorexploring.WeIearnedtooverechaIIengesandsoIveprobIems.Weweren5tjustsittingataPIayStation,Iikemanykidsdotoday.ButIthink,andhope,thingsareshiftingback.There,saIotmoreinternIindesignandcreativityandsuchtaIentsaregettingamuchhigherprofileinthemedia.lt'sevidentwithTVprogrammessuchasChanne14Js?ScrapheapChaIIenge?orBBC25s?TheApprenticeandDragonJsDen,wherepeopIearegivenatasktosoIveorfacethechaIIengeofseIIingtheirideatoapaneI.And.thankfuIIy,theimageofthemadscientistwitheIectrifiedhairworkinginthegardenshedisIonggone—■aIthough,therearestiIIafewexceptions!That'

102snottosaytherearenJtprobIems.WiththedecIineinmanufacturingweareIosingtheabiIitytoknowhowtomakethings.There,sareaIskiIIsgapdeveIoping.Inmyopinion,theGovernmentdoesIittIeornothingtoheIpinnovationattheIone-inventororsmaIIormediumenterpriseIeveI.IwouIdIovetoseemoremoneyspentonteachingourschooIkidshowtobeinventive.But,despiteeverything,ifyouhaveagoodideaandreaIdetermination,youcanstiIIdoveryweII.MyownspeciaIistareaispackagingcIosures
aImosteveryproductneedsit.IgottheideaforSqueezeopenafterIookingatanoIdtinofbootpoIishwhenmymotherpIainedshecouIdn'tgettheIidoff.Ifyoucandosomethingcheaper,better,andyouarelOOpercentmitted,thereisachanceitwiIIbeasuccess.Iseeafantasticamountofinnovationandopportunitiesoutthere.PeopIedon'treaIisehowmuchisgoingon.NewmateriaIsareingoutaIIthetimeandthespaceprogrammeandscientificresearchareproducingavarietyofspin-offs.Innovationdoesn'thavetobehigh-tech:creativityandinventingisaboutfindingtherightsoIutiontoaprobIem,whateveritis.There,saIotoftaIentoutthereand,thankfuIIy,someofthemoreprogressivepaniesaresuddenIyreaIizingtheydon,twanttomissout
it'sanexcitingtime.WhichofthefoIIowingisthesuggestionoftheinterviewertotheprobIem?AஹThegovernmentshouIdspendmoremoneyheIpinginnovation.BஹThekidsshouIdcu11ivatetheirIoveofscienceandinvention.CxMoreinventorsJcIubsshouIdbesetup.DஹInventioncoursesarenecessarytochiIdren.3ᫀ5A

1036᪆59ô;᎔ᦪ9<÷¿ᑮ"IwouIdIovetoseemoremoneyspentonteachingourschooIkidshowtobeinventive.>ø]\ùú©ûüýᙠᦟÿ
☢ᜧᢗᡠ⌱A஺36.Nobodyeverwentintoacademiccirclestomakeafastfortune.Professors,especiaIIythoseinmedicaI-andtechnoIogy-reIatedfieIds,typicalIyearnafractionofwhattheircoIIeaguesinindustrydo.ButsuddenIy,bigmoneyisstartingtoflowintotheivorytower,asuniversityadministratorsmakeuptothemerciaIpotentiaIofacademicresearch.AndtheinstitutionsarewrestIingwithawhoIenewsetofissues.Theprofitsareimpressive:theAssociationofllniversityTechnoIogyManagerssurveyedl32universitiesandfoundthattheyearnedabined$576miIIionfrompatentroyaItiesin1998,anumberthatpromisestokeeprisingdramaticaIIy.SchooIsIikeCoIumbiallniversityinNewYorkhaveaggressiveIymarketedtheirinventionstocorporations,particuIarIypharmaceuticaIandhigh-techpanies.NowCoIumbiaisgoingretaiI—ontheWeb.ItpIanstogobeyondthetypicaI"dot.edu“modeI,freesitesIistingcoursesandprofessors,researchinterests.Instead,itwiIIoffertheexpertiseofitsfacuItyonanewfor-profitsitewhichwiIIbespunoffasanindependentpany.ThesitewiIIprovidefreeaccesstoeducationaIandresearchcontent,sayadministrators,aswelIasadvancedfeaturesthatareaIreadyavaiIabIetoCoIumbiastudents,suchasasimuIationoftheconstructionandarchitectureofaFrenchcathedraIandinteractive3-DmodeIsoforganicchemicaIs.FreepageswiIIfeedintoprofit-generatingareas,suchasonIinecoursesandseminars,andreIatedbooksandtapes.CoIumbiaexecutivevicepresident

104MichaeICrowimaginesumiIIionsofvisitors,Jtothenewsite,incIudingretireesandstudentswiIIingtopaytotapintothiseducationaIresource."WecanoᓟᓟerthebestofwhatJsthoughtandwrittenandresearched,saysAnnKirschner,whoheadstheproject.CoIumbiaalsoisanxiousnotbebeatenbysomeoftheotherfor-profituknowIedgesites,nsuchasAbout.andHungryMinds.uIftheycapturethisspace,nsaysCrow,"they'IIbegintocherry-pickourbestfaculty.nProfitsfromthesaIeofpatentstypicaIIyhavebeendividedbetweentheresearcher,thedepartmentandtheuniversity,andWebprofitswouIdworkthesameway,somanyfacuItymembersaredeIighted.Butothersfindthetrendworrisome:isaprofessorwhostandstoprofitfromhisorherresearchascredibIeasonewhodoesn5t?WiIluniversitiesprovidemoresupporttoresearchersworkinginprofitablefieldsthantoschoIarstoiIinginmoremustyareas?"Ifthere'stheperceptionthatwemightbemakingmoneyfromourefforts,theauthorityoftheuniversitycouIdbediminished,worriesHerveVarenne,acuIturaIanthropoIogyprofessoratCoIumbia5seducationschooI.SaysKirschner:"wewouIdneverpromisetheintegrityoftheuniversity."Whetherthenewsitecanaddtothegrowingprofitsfrompatentsremainstobeseen,butonethingiscIear.11,sgoingtotakethebestmindsoncampstofindanewbaIancebetweenprofitandpurity.WhichofthefoIlowingisthemainideaofthepassage?AxTheimpressiveprofitstendtounderminetheintegrityoftheuniversity.BஹSomeuniversitiesarestruggIingwithnewwaystoturnideasintocash.CxIt'simportanttomakeuseofbrightideastomakemoreprofits.

105DஹCoIumbiasnewsiteistocreateprofits.NᫀPBQ᪆PST⚪஺VᦻS⌕YZ[\]Ḅ_`ᜧabcᑮ[aeẆgḄᖪijk,lmnᓬpᑭᩗstuᦈwxyḄz{ᑭ஺|}B⚗ᔠ⚪b஺37.ThemiserabIefateofEnron,sempIoyeeswiIIbeaIandmarkinbusinesshistory,oneofthoseawfuIeventsthateveryoneagreesmustneverbeaIIowedtohappenagain.ThisurgeisunderstandabIeandnobIe:thousandshaveIostvirtuaIIyaIItheirretirementsavingswiththedemiseofEnronstock.Butmakingsureitneverhappensagainmaynotbepossible,becausethesuddenimpoverishmentofthoseEnronworkersrepresentssomethingevenlargerthanitseems.11'stheIatestturnintheunwindingofoneofthemostaudaciouspromisesofthe20thcentury.Thepromisewasassuredeconomicsecurity_evenfort—foressentiaIIyeveryoneinthedeveIopedworId.WiththeexpIosionofweaIth,thatbeganinthe19thcenturyitbecamepossibIetothinkaboutapossibiIitynoonehaddaredtodreambefore.ThefearatthecenterofdaiIyIivingsincecavemandays—Iackoffood,warmth,shelter—wouIdatIastIoseitspowertoterrify.ThatremarkabIepromisebecamereaIityinmanyways.GovernmentscreatedweIfaresystemsforanyoneinneedandseparateprogramsfortheeIderly(SociaISecurityinthell.S.).LabourunionspromisednotonIybetterpayforworkersbutaIsopensionsforretirees.GiantcorporationscameintobeingandofferedthepossibiIity—insomecasesthepromise——ofIifetimeempIoymentpIusguaranteedpensions?ThecumuIativeeffectwasafundamentaIchangeinhowmiIIionsofpeopIeapproachedIifeitself,areversaIofattitudethatmostr

106ankasoneoftheIargestinhumanhistory.FormiIIenniatheaverageperson,sstancetowardprovidingforhimseIfhadbeen.UltimateIyI'monmyown.Nowitbecame,ultimatelyTIIbetakencareof.TheearIyhintsthatthispromisemightbebrokenonaIargescaIecameinthe1980s.U.S.businesshadbeeunpetitivegIobaIIyandbeganrestructuringmassively,withhugeLayoffs.ThetrendacceIeratedinthel990sasthebastionsofcorporateweIfarefacedreaIity.IBMendeditsno-1ayoffpoIicy.AT&Tfiredthousands,manyofwhomfoundsuchathingsimpIyinprehensibIe,andafewofwhomkiIIedthemseIves.TheothersupposedguarantorsofoureconomicsecuritywereaIsoindecIine.Labour-unionmembershipandpowerfeIItotheirIowestIeveIsindecades.PresidentCIintonsignedahistoricbiIIseaIingbackweIfare.AmericansreaIizedthatSociaISecuritywon5tprovidesociaIsecurityforanyofus.AIessvisibIebutequaIIysignificanttrendaffectedpensions.TomakecostseasiertocontroI,paniesmovedawayfromdefinedbenefitpensionpIans,whichobIigatethemtopayoutspecifiedamountsyearsinthefuture,todefinedcontributionpIans,whichspecifyonIyhowmuchgoesintothepIaytoday.Themostmontypeofdefined-contributionpIanisthe401(k).thesignificanceofthe401(k)isthatitputsmostoftheresponsibiIityforapersonJseconomicfatebackontheempIoyee.WithinIimitstheempIoyeemustdecidehowmuchgoesintothepIaneachyearandhowitgetsinvested—thetwofactorsthatwiIIdeterminehowmuchit'sworthwhentheempIoyeeretires.WhichbringsusbacktoEnron?ThosebiIIionsofdolIarsinvaporizedretirementsavingswentinempIoyeesJ401(k)accounts.Thatis,theempIoyeeschosehowmuchmoneytoputintothoseaccountsandthenchosehowtoi

107nvestit.EnronmatchedacertainproportionofeachempIoyee,s401(k)contributionwithpanystock,soeveryonewasgoingtoendupwithsomeEnroninhisorherportfoIio;butthatcouIdberegardedasafreebie,sincenothingpeIsapanytomatchempIoyeecontributionsataII.AtIeasttwospeciaIfeaturespIicatetheEnroncase.First,somesharehoIderschargetopmanagementwithiIIegaIIycoveringupthepany'sprobIems,promptinginvestorstohangonwhentheyshouIdhavesoId.Second,Enron's401(k)accountswereIockedwhiIethepanychangedpIanadministratorsinOctober,whenthestockwasfaIIing,soempIoyeescouIdnothavecIosedtheiraccountsiftheywantedto.ButbyfartheIargestcauseofthishumantragedyisthatthousandsofempIoyeeswereheaviIyoverweighedinEnronstock.ManyhadpIaced100%oftheir401(k)assetsinthestockratherthaninthel8otherinvestmentoptionstheywereoffered.OfcoursethatwasnJtprudent,butit'swhatsomeofthemdid.TheEnronempIoyees5retirementdisasterispartoftheIargertrendawayfromguaranteedeconomicsecurity.That'swhypreventingsuchathingfromeverhappeningagainmaybeimpossibIe.ThehugeattitudinaIshifttoI'II-be-taken-care-oftookatIeastageneration.TheshiftbackmaytakejustasIong.ItwonJtbepIeteuntiIanewgenerationofempIoyeesseeassuredeconomicfortasa20th-centuryquirk,andunderstandnotjustinteIIectuaIIybutintheirbonesthat,IikemostpeopIeinmosttimesandpIaces,they'reontheirown.ThousandsofempIoyeeschoseEnronastheirsoIeinvestmentoptionmainIybecause.Axthe401(k)madethemresponsibIefortheirownfutureBxEnronofferedtoaddpanystocktotheirinvestment

108CxtheirempIoyersintendedtocutbackonpensionspendingDxEnron'sofferwassimiIartoadefined-benefitpIanNᫀPBQ᪆Pᦻ|401(k)Ḅdefined-benefitpIan_⌕Ḅᙠὅᙠᜧ¡¢£¤¥¦§¨Ḅ©ª«¬(᝞¯§¨°±⌕⌕²³`´µ¶_·Ḅᢗ)¸¹ὅᑣ»¼ᩭ¥¦஺¸¾¿¶_·ᢣnEnronḄÁÂumatchedacertainproportionofeachempIoyeeJs401(k)contributionwithpanystockJ,ᓽᙠ»¼401(k)£ḄᢗÄŲᩭ|{ÆḄ»¼ÇÈᢞ£Ê஺ᵫÌ|ÍÎ⌱ÏEnronÐÑᐸÓ_ḄᢗÔÕ|Ö×[»¼ØÙḄÚÛÜwḄÝÞᦑB⚗ᔠ஺38.Shewasgladofthelake.It5ssoft;darkwaterheIpedtosootheandquiethermind.Ittookherawayfromthenoisy,squawkishworIdofthecat-waIkandIetherIieuntroubIedatitsside,IisteningonIytothegentIeIappingofitswaves.ShefeItatpeace.AIone.Unhinderedandfree.FreetodonothingbutwatchandIistenanddream.London,Paris,NewYork-names,onlynames.Namesthathadoncemeantexcitement,thenboredom,thenfrustrationthensIavery.NamesthathadbroughthertotheedgeofabreakdownandIeftherdoubtingherownsanity.Buthereeverythingwasatpeace.TheIake,thetrees,thecottage.HereshecouIdstayfortherestofherIife.HereshewouIdbehappytodie.AcrossthesunhurriedadarkeningfiIterofcloud.TherippIesonthewater,chasedbyafresheningwind,pushedtheirwayanxiousIyfromthefarsideoftheIakeuntiItheyaImostbouncedatherfeet.AndintheEasttherewasthunder.QuickIyshegatheredherthingstogetherandmadeforthecottage.B

109utaIreadytherainfIeckedthewaterbehindherandpatteredtheIeavesassheracedbeneaththetrees.SoddenandbreathIess,sheranforthecottagedoor,and,assheopenedit,thestormburst.Andthereonthehearth,haggardandunweIe,stoodaman.”Hello!”IwasanoddwaytogreetapIetestrangerwhohadinvadedherhome,butitwasaIIshecouIdthinkoftosay.AcasuaIgreetingtosomeonewhoseemedtobeexpectingher,waitingforher.Maybeitwasthewaytheydidthingsdownhere?”IsupposeyouhadtosheIterfromthestormtoo?nsheasked.Themansaidnothing.Sheoughttohavebeenangryatthisrudeintrusiononherprivacy,butangersomehowseemedpointIess.Itwasasifthecottagewashis,thehearthwashis,andshehadeoutofthestormtoseekrefugeathisdoor.Shewatchedhim,cautiousIy;waitingforanexpIanation.Hesaidnothing.Notaword“Didyougetwet?J,sheaskedHestood,huddIedbytheopenfire,gazingatthedyingembers.ShewaIkedover,brushingagainsthimasshebenttostirtheIogsintoIife,butstiIIhedidnotmove.ThefIamesburstforth,Iightingupthesadnessinhisdarkeyes."AndkneeIedandmadethecheerIessgratebIazeupandaIIthecottagewarm...nThewords,spokenbyhiminaquiet,toneIessvoice,tookherbysurprise."Pardon?”shesaidButheseemednottohear.Shetriedoncemore.uIiIookasifit5ssetinfortheevening.WouIdyouIiketositdownforawhile?,JHiseyesfoIIowedherasshemovedtotakeoffhercoatandbrushoutherhair.”...andfromherformwithdrewthedrippingcIoakandshawI,andIaidhersoiIedgIovesby,untiedherhatandIetthedamphairfaII...”Poetry.HewasquotingpoetryHeIookedvaguelyIikeapoet;Iean,distressed,withacertainbitternessinhiseyesandhopeIessnessinhisform.AndhisvoicewasdeepandIanguid,

110IikethemiddIeoftheIakewherethewaterrandarkest.YetthosewarenothisIines.Thewordswerenotcreatedbyhim.TheyweresomehowfamiIiar.HaIfremembered.SureIyshehadheardthembefore?WhatdoesshethinkoftheIake?AஹDark.BஹAlone.CxFree.DxSoftNᫀPDQ᪆PdarkâḄãäᱯæ᝕Sè»ÔéḄêë஺alonesfree᝕S軧ìḄê×஺D⚗“íîḄ”᝕Sè»ÔâðḄêë஺39.ChiIdrenasyoungasfourwiIIstudyShakespeareinaprojectbeingIaunchedtodaybytheRoyaIShakespearepany.TheRSCishoIdingitsfirstnationaIconferenceforprimaryschooIteacherstoencouragethemtousetheBard,spIaysimaginativeIyinthecIassroomfromreceptioneIassesonwards.TheconferencewiIIbetoldthattheyshouIdIearnhowShakespeariancharactersIikePuckin?AMidsummerNight,sDream?are"jollycharacters''andhowtowriteaboutthem.Atpresent,thenationaIcurricuIumdoesnotrequirepupiIstoapproachShakespeareuntiIsecondaryschooI.AlIitsaysisthatpupiIsshouIdstudyutextsdrawnfromavarietyofcuIturesandtraditions,Jand“myths,IegendsandtraditionaIstories,J.However,educationistsattheRSCbeIievechiIdrenwiIIgainabetterappreciationofShakespeareiftheyareintroducedtohimatamuchyoungerage.uEvenveryyoungchiIdrencanenjoyShakespeare5spIays,“saidMaryJohnson,headoftheIearnin

111gdepartment."11isjustaquestionofpitchingitfortheagegroup.EvenreceptioneIassesandkeystageonepupiIs(five-to-seven-year-oIds)canenjoyhisstories.Forinstance,ifyoubuiIdupPuckasacharacterwhoskips,chiIdrenofthatagecanenjoythecharacter.TheycanbeinspiredbyPuckandtheycouIdevenstartwritingabouthimatthatage.n11istheRSC,sbeIiefthatbuiIdingtheBardupasafunpIaywrightinprimaryschooIcouIdcountersomeofthenegativeimagesconjuredupaboutteachingShakespeareinsecondaryschooIs.Then,pupiIshavetoconcentrateonscenesfromthepIaystoanswerquestionsforpuIsoryEngIishnationaI-curriculumtestsfor14-year-oIds.CriticsofthetestshavepIainedthatpupiIsnoIongerhavethetimetostudyorreadthewhoIepIay—andthereforeIoseinterestinShakespeare.However,Ms.Johnsonisencouragingteacherstopresent20-minuteversionsofthepIays
acIassroomversionofthe?ReducedShakespearepanyJspIeteWorksofShakespeare(Abridged)?whichtoIdhis37pIaysin97minutes—togivepupiIsafIavourofthewhoIedrama.TheRSC5sventurecoincideswithacaIIforschooIstoaIIowpupiIstobemorecreativeinwritingaboutShakespeare.ProfessorKateMcLuskie,thenewdirectorofthellniversityofBirmingham,sShakespeareInstitute-aIsobasedinStratford—saiditwastimetogetawayfromtheideathattherewasuarightanswerJ,toanyquestionaboutShakespeare.HerfirstforayintotheworIdofShakespearewastoberatehimasamisogynistina1985essaybutshenowinsiststhisshouIdnotbeinterpretedasacriticismofhisworks—aIthoughsheadmits:"IprobabIywouIdn'thavewrittenitquitethesamewayifIhadbeenwritingitnow.WhatweshouIdbedoingismakingsurethatsomeoneisgettingsometh

112ingoutofShakespeare,"shesaid.uPeopIeareverysearedaboutgettingtherightanswer.Iknowit'sdifficultbutIdon,tcareiftheyeupwitharightanswerthatIcanagreewithaboutShakespeare.nWhichofthefoIlowingisNOTtrueaccordingtotheIastparagraph?AxProfessorKateMcLuskieoncescoIdedShakespeareinheressay.BxProfessorKateMcLuskieinsistedonherviewonShakespearetiIInow.CஹProfessorKateMcLuskiehaschangedherideanow.DஹMs.Katethinksitwastimetogetawayfromtheideathattherewas“arightanswerntoanyquestionaboutShakespeare.NᫀPBQ᪆PÌ⚪|ᵨ᣸◀z஺ᨬ¹_÷øuHerfirstforayintotheworIdofShakespearewastoberatehimasamisogynist---butshenowinsiststhisshouIdnotbeinterpretedasacriticismofhisworksn|ùn᝛ûüýþÿ
᝛ᙠᐸḄᢇᡠA,CB⚗┯஺!"#$ᑮ“itwastimetogetawayfromtheideathattherewas4arightanswer,toanyquestionaboutShakespearen=>D@஺40.JoyandsadnessareexperiencedbypeopleinalIculturesaroundtheworId,buthowcanweteIIwhenotherpeopIearehappyor?despondent??ItturnsoutthattheexpressionofmanyemotionsmaybeuniversaI,SmiIingisapparentIyauniversaIsignoffriendIinessandapprovaI.Baringtheteethin?ahostiIeway,asnotedbyCharIesDarwininthenineteenthcentury,maybeauniversesignofanger.AstheoriginatorofthetheoryofevoIution,DarwinbeIievedthattheuniversaIrecognitiono

113ffaciaIexpressionswouIdhavesurvivalvalue.ForexampIe,faciaIexpressionscouIdsignaItheapproachofenemies(orfriends)intheabsenceofIanguage.Mostinvestigators?concur?thatcertainfaciaIexpressionssuggestthesameemotionsinapeopIe.Moreover,peopIeindiversecuIturesrecognizetheemotionsmanifestedbythefaciaIexpressions.IncIassicresearchPauIEkmantookphotographsofpeopIeexhibitingtheemotionsofanger,disgust,fear,happiness,andsadness.HethenaskedpeopIearoundtheworIdtoindicatewhatemotionswerebeingdepictedinthem.ThosequeriedrangedfromEuropeancoIIegestudentstomembersoftheFore,atribethatdweIIsintheNewGuineahighIands.AIIgroupsincIudingtheFore,whohadaImostnocontactwithWesterncuIture,agreedontheportrayedemotions.TheForeaIsodispIayedfamiIiarfaciaIexpressionswhenaskedhowtheywouIdrespondiftheywerethecharactersinstoriesthatcaIIedforbasicemotionaIresponses.EkmanandhiscoIIeaguesmorerecentIyobtainedsimiIarresuItsinastudyoftencuIturesinwhichparticipantswerepermittedtoreportthatmuItipleemotionswereshownbyfaciaIexpressions.TheparticipantsgeneraIIyagreedonwhichtwoemotionswerebeingshownandwhichemotionwasmoreintense.PsychologicalresearchersgeneraIIyrecognizethatfaciaIexpressionsrefIectemotionaIstates.Infact,variousemotionaIstatesgiverisetocertainpatternsofeIectricaIactivityinthefaciaImuseIesandinthebrain.ThefaciaI-feedbackhypothesisargues,however,thatthecausaIreIationshipbetweenemotionsandfaciaIexpressionscanaIsoworkintheoppositedirection.Accordingtothishypothesis,signaIsfromthefaciaImuseIes("feedback")aresentbacktoemotioncentersofth

114ebrain,andsoaperson,sfaciaIexpressioncaninfIuencethatperson,semotionaIstate.ConsiderDarwin5swords:uThefreeexpressionbyoutwardsignsofanemotionintensifiesit.Ontheotherhand,therepression,asfaraspossibIe,ofaIIoutwardsignssoftensouremotions.5,CansmiIinggiverisetofeeIingsofgoodwill,forexampIe,andfrowningtoanger?PsychologicalresearchhasgivenrisetosomeinterestingfindingsconcerningthefaciaI-feedbackhypothesis.CausingparticipantsinexperimentstosmiIe,forexampIe,IeadsthemtoreportmorepositivefeeIingsandtoratecartoons(humorousdrawingsofpeopIeorsituations)asbeingmorehumorous.Whentheyarecausedtofrown,theyratecartoonsasbeingmoreaggressive.WhatarethepossibIeIinksbetweenfaciaIexpressionsandemotion?0neIinkisarousaI,whichistheIeveIofactivityorpreparednessforactivityinanorganism.IntensecontractionoffaciaImuseIes,suchasthoseusedinsignifyingfear,heightensarousaI.SeIf-perceptionofheightenedarousaIthenIeadstoheightenedemotionaIactivity.OtherIinksmayinvoIvechangesinbraintemperatureandthereIeaseofneurotransmitters(substancesthattransmitnerveimpuIses.)ThecontractionoffaciaImuseIesbothinfIuencestheinternaIemotionaIstateandrefIectsit.Ekmanhasfoundthattheso-caIIedDuchennesmiIe,whichischaracterizedby"crow'sfeetnwrinkIesaroundtheeyesandasubtIedropintheeyecoverfoIdsothattheskinabovetheeyemovesdownsIightIytowardtheeyeball,canIeadtopIeasantfeeIings.Ekman'sobservationmaybereIevanttotheBritishexpression“keepastiffupperIip“asaremendationforhandIingstress.Itmightbethata“stiffIipsuppressesemotionaIresponse-asIongastheIipi

115snotquiveringwithfearortension.ButwhentheemotionthatIeadstostiffeningtheIipismoreintense,andinvoIvesstrongmuscIetension,faciaIfeedbackmayheightenemotionaIresponse.Theword“concur“inthepassageiscIosestinmeaningto.AxestimateBxagreeCஹexpectDஹunderstandLᫀNBO᪆N“concur”R“ST"agreeR“VR”SWRX஺