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大学共建令学救您(T)01・A.WhatIsaDecision?Adecisionisachoicemadefromamongalternative可选择的coursesofactionthatareavailable.Thepurposeofmakingadecisionistoestablish建立andachieveorganizationalgoalsandobjectives.Thereasonformakingadecisionisthataproblemexists,goalsorobjectivesarewrong,orsomethingisstandinginthewayofaccomplishingthem.Thusthedecision-makingprocessisfundamentaltomanagement.Almosteverythingamanagerdoesinvolvesdecisions,indeed,somesuggestthatthemanagementprocessisdecisionmaking.Althoughmanagerscannotpredictthefuture,manyoftheirdecisionsrequirethattheyconsiderpossiblefutureevents.Oftenmanagersmustmakeabestguessatwhatthefuturewillbeandtrytoleaveaslittleaspossibletochance,hutsinceuncertaintyisalwaysthere,riskdecisions-Sometimestheco-sofapoordecisionig,atothertimestheyareserious.Choiceistheopportunitytoselectamongalternatives.Ifthereisnochoice,thereisnodecisiontobemade.Decisionmakingistheprocessofchoosing,andmanydecisionshaveabroadrangeofchoice.Forexample,astudentmaybeabletochooseamonganumberofdifferentcoursesinordertoimplementthedecisiontoobtainacollegedegree.Formanagers,everydecisionhasconstraintsbasedonpolicies,procedures,laws,precedents,andthelike.Theseconstraintsexistatalllevelsoftheorganization.Alternativesarethepossiblecoursesofactionfromwhichchoicescanbemade.Iftherearenoalternatives,thereisnochoiceand,therefore,nodecision.Ifnoalternativesareseen,oftenitmeansthatathoroughjobofexaminingtheproblemshasnotbeendone.Forexample,managerssometimestreatproblemsinaneilher/orfashion;thisistheirwayofsimplifyingcomplexproblems.Butthetendencytosimplifyblindsthemtootheralternatives.Atthemanageriallevel,decisionmakingincludeslimitingalternativesaswellasidentifyingthem,andtherangeisfromhighlylimitedtopracticallyunlimited.Decisionmakersmusthavesomewayofdeterminingwhichofseveralalternativesisbest—thatis,whichcontributesthemosttotheachievementoforganizationalgoals.An
1organizationalgoalisanendorastateofaffairstheorganizationseekstoreach.Becauseindividuals(andorganizations)frequentlyhavedifferentideasabouthowtoattainthegoals,thebestchoicemaydependonwhomakesthedecision.Frequently,departmentsorunitswithinanorganizationmakedecisionsthataregoodforthemindividuallybutthatarelessthanoptimalforthelargerorganization.Calledsuboptimization,thisisatrade-offthatincreasestheadvantagestooneunitorfunctionbutdecreasestheadvantagestoanotherunitorfunction.Forexample,themarketingmanagermayargueeffectivelyforanincreasedadvertisingbudget.Inthelargerschemeofthings,however,increasedfundingforresearchtoimprovetheproductsmightbemorebeneficialtotheorganization.Thesetrade-offsoccurbecausetherearemanyobjectivesthatorganizationswishtoattainsimultaneously.Someoftheseobjectivesaremoreimportantthanothers,buttheorderanddegreeofimportanceoftenvaryfrompersontopersonandfromdepartmenttodepartment.Differentmanagersdefinethesameproblemindifferentterms.Whenpresentedwithacommoncase,salesmanagerstendtoseesalesproblems,productionmanagersseeproductionproblems,andsoon.Theorderingandimportanceofmultipleobjectivesisalsobased,inpart,onthevaluesofthedecisionmaker.Suchvaluesarepersonal;theyarehardtounderstand,evenbytheindividual,becausetheyaresodynamicandcomplex.Inmanybusinesssituationsdifferentpeople'svaluesaboutacceptabledegreesofriskandprofitabilitycausedisagreementaboutthecorrectnessofdecisions.Peopleoftenassumethatadecisionisanisolatedphenomenon.Butfromasystemspointofview,problemshavemultiplecauses,anddecisionshaveintendedandunintendedconsequences.Anorganizationisanongoingentity,andadecisionmadetodaymayhaveconsequencesfarintothefuture.Thustheskilledmanagerlookstowardthefutureconsequencesofcurrentdecisions.01・B.SecretsofSuccessatanInterview
2Thesubjectoftoday'stalkisinterviews.Thekeywordsherearepreparationandconfidence,whichwillcarryyoufar.Doyourhomeworkfirst.Findoutallyoucanaboutthejobyouareapplyingforandtheorganizationyouhopetoworkfor.Manyoftheemployers1interviewedmadethesamecriticismofcandidates."Theyhavenoideawhatthedaytodayworkofthejobbringsabout.Theyhavevaguenotionsof“furtheringthecompany'sprospects'orof'servingthecommunity',buthavenevertakenthetroubletofindouttheactualtaskstheywillberequiredtodo.”Donotletthisbesaidofyou.Itshowsanunattractiveindifferencetoyouremployerandtoyourjob.Takethetimetoputyourselfintotheinterviewer'splace.Hewantssomebodywhoishard-workingwithapleasantpersonalityandarealinterestinthejob.Anythingthatyoufindoutabouttheprospectiveemployercanbeusedtoyouradvantageduringtheinterviewtoshowthatyouhavebotheredtomastersomefactsaboutthepeoplewhoyouhopetoworkfor.Writedown(andremember)thequestionsyouwanttoasktheinterviewer(s)sothatyouarenotspeechlesswhentheyinviteyourquestions.Makesurethatholidaysandpayarenotthefirstthingsyouaskabout.Ifallyourquestionshavebeenansweredduringtheinterview,reply:“Infact,Ididhaveseveralquestions,butyouhavealreadyansweredthemall.”Donotbeafraidtoaskforclarificationofsomethingthathasbeensaidduringtheinterviewifyouwanttobesurewhatwasimplied,butdobepolite.Justbeforeyougototheinterview,lookagainattheoriginaladvertisementthatyouanswered,anycorrespondencefromyourprospectiveemployer,photocopiesofyourletterofapplicationorapplicationformandyourresume.Thenyouwillrememberwhatyousaidandwhattheywant.Thisisveryimportantifyouhaveappliedformanyjobsinashorttimeasitiseasytobecomeconfusedandgiveanimpressionofinefficiency.Makesureyouknowwhereandwhenyouhavetoreportfortheinterview.Gotothe
3building(butnotinsidetheoffice)adayortwobefore,ifnecessary,tofindouthowlongthejourneytakesandwhereexactlytheplaceis.Aimtoarrivefiveortenminutesearlyfortheactualinterview,thenyouwillhavealittletimeinhandandyouwillnotpanicifyouaredelayed.Youstartatadisadvantageifyouarriveworriedandtenminuteslate.Dressinclean,neat,conservativeclothes.NowisNOTthetimetoexperimentwiththepunklookor(girls)towearlow-cutdresseswithminiskirts.Makesurethatyourshoes,handsandhair(andteeth)arecleanandneat.Havetheletterinvitingyouforaninterviewreadytoshowincasethereisanydifficultyincommunication.Youmayfindyourselffacingoneinterviewerorapanel.Thelatterisfarmoreintimidating,butdonotletitworryyoutoomuch.Theinterviewerwillprobablyhaveatableinfrontofhim/her.Donotputyourthingsorarmsonit.Ifyouhaveabagoracase,putitonthefloorbesideyourchair.Donotclutchitnervouslyor,worsestill,dropit,spillingeverything.Shakehandsiftheintervieweroffershishandfirst.Thereislittlelikelihoodthatapaneloffivewantstogothoughtheprocessofallshakinghandswithyouintum.Soyoudonotbeupsetifnooneoffers.Shakehandsfirmly—aweakhandsuggestsaweakpersonality,andacrushinggripisobviouslypainful.Donotdropthehandassoonasyourshastoucheditasthiswillseemtoshowyoudonotliketheotherperson.Speakpolitelyandnaturallyevenifyouarefeelingshy.Thinkbeforeyouansweranyquestions.Ifyoucannotunderstand,ask:"Wouldyoumindrephrasingthequestion,please?1'Thequestionwillthenberepeatedindifferentwords.Ifyouarenotdefinitelyacceptedorturneddownonthespot,ask:"WhenmayIexpecttoheartheresultsofthisinterview?',Ifyoudoreceivealetterofferingyouthejob,youmustreplybyletter(keepaphotocopy)assoonaspossible.
4Goodluck!02・A.BlackHolesWhatisablackhole?Well,it'sdifficulttoanswerthisquestion,sincethetermswewouldnormallyusetodescribeascientificphenomenonareinadequatehere.Astronomersandscientiststhinkthatablackholeisaregionofspace(notathing)intowhichmatterhasfallenandfromwhichnothingcanescape?notevenlight.Sowecantseeablackhole.Ablackholeexertsastronggravitationalpullandyetithasnomatter.Itisonlyspace-orsowethink.Howcanthishappen?Thetheoryisthatsomestarsexplodewhentheirdensityincreasestoaparticularpoint;theycollapseandsometimesasupernovaoccurs.Fromearth,asupernovalookslikeaverybrightlightintheskywhichshineseveninthedaytime.Supernovaewerereportedbyastronomersintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.SomepeoplethinkthattheStarofBethlehemcouldhavebeenasupernova.ThecollapseofastarmayproduceaWhiteDwarforaneutronstar-astar,whosematterissodensethatitcontinuallyshrinksbytheforceofitsowngravity.Butifthestarisverylarge(muchbiggerthanoursun)thisprocessofshrinkingmaybesointensethatablackholeresults.Imaginetheearthreducedtothesizeofamarble,butstillhavingthesamemassandastrongergravitationalpulLandyouhavesomeideaoftheforceofablackhole.Anymatterneartheblackholeissuckedin.Itisimpossibletosaywhathappensinsideablackhole.Scientistshavecalledtheboundaryareaaroundtheholethe“eventhorizon.HWeknownothingabouteventswhichhappenonceobjectspassthisboundary.Butintheory,mattermustbehaveverydifferentlyinsidethehole.Forexample,ifamanfellintoablackhole,hewouldthinkthathereachedthecenterofitveryquickly.Howeveranobserverattheeventhorizonwouldthinkthatthemanneverreachedthecenteratall.Ourspaceandlimelawsdon'tseemtoapplytoobjectsintheareaofablackhole.Einstein'srelativitytheoryistheonlyonewhichcanexplainsuchphenomena.Einsteinclaimedthatmatterandenergyareinterchangeable,sothatthereisno''absolute"timeandspace.
5Therearenoconstantsatall,andmeasurementsoftimeandspacedependonthepositionoftheobserver.Theyarerelative.Wedonotyetfullyunderstandtheimplicationsoftherelativitytheory;butitisinterestingthatEinstein'stheoryprovidedabasisfortheideaofblackholesbeforeastronomersstartedtofindsomeevidencefortheirexistence.Itisonlyrecentlythatastronomershavebegunspecificresearchintoblackholes.InAugust1977,asatellitewaslaunchedtogatherdataaboutthe10millionblackholeswhicharethoughttobeintheMilkyWay.Andastronomersareplanninganewobservatorytostudytheindividualexplodingstarsbelievedtobeblackholes,Themostconvincingevidenceofblackholescomesfrownresearchintobinarystarsystems.Binarystars,astheirnamesuggests,aretwinstarswhosepositioninspaceaffectseachother.Insomebinarysystems,astronomershaveshownthatthereisaninvisiblecompanionstar,a"partner"totheonewhichwecanseeinthesky.Matterfromtheonewhichwecanseeisbeingpulledtowardsthecompanionstar.Couldthisinvisiblestar,whichexertssuchagreatforce,beablackhole?Astronomershaveevidenceofafewotherstarstoo,whichmighthaveblackholesascompanions.Thestoryofblackholesisjustbeginning.Speculationsaboutthem,areendless.TheremightbeamassiveblackholeatthecenterofourgalaxyswallowingupstarsataveryrapidrateMankindmayonedaymeetthisfate.Ontheotherhand,scientistshavesuggestedthatveryadvancedtechnologycouldonedaymakeuseoftheenergyofblackholesformankind.Thesespeculationssoundlikesciencefiction.Butthetheoryofblackholesinspaceisacceptedbymanyseriousscientistsandastronomers.Theyshowusaworldwhichoperatesinatotallydifferentwayfromourownandtheyquestionourmostbasicexperienceofspaceandtime.02・B.WorldswithinWorldsFirstofallletusconsidertheearth(thatistosay,theworld)asaplanetrevolvingroundthesun.Theearthisoneofnineplanetswhichmoveinorbitroundthesun.Thesenineplanets,togetherwiththesun,makeupwhatiscalledoursolarsystem.Howthiswonderfulsystem
6startedandwhatkeptitworkingwithsuchwonderfulaccuracyislargelyamysterybutastronomerstellusthatitisonlyoneofmillionsofsimilarsystemsinspace,andoneofthesmallest.Thestarswhichweseeglitteringintheskyonadarkandcloudlessnightarealmostcertainlythesunsofothersolarsystemsmoreorlesslikeourown,buttheyaresofarawayinspacethatitisunlikelythatweshallevergettoknowverymuchaboutthem.Aboutourownsolarsystem,however,wearelearningmoreeveryday.BeforetheAmericanandRussianastronautsmadetheirthrillingjourneysintoouterspaceitwasdifficultforustorealisewhatourearthlookedlikefromhundredsofthousandsofmilesaway,butthephotographswhichtheastronautswereabletotakeshowustheearthinspacelookingnotverydifferentfromwhatthemoonlookslikewhenwelookatitfromtheearth.Theearthis,however,verydifferentfromthemoon,whichtheAmericanastronautshavefoundtobewithoutlifeorvegetation,whereasourearthisverymuchaliveineveryrespect.Themoon,bytheway,iscalledasatellitebecauseitgoesroundourearthaswellasroundthesun.Inotherwords,itgoesroundthesunwithourearth.Thesurfaceofourearthiscoveredbymassesoflandandlargerareasofwater.Letusconsiderthewaterareasfirst.Thetotalwaterareaisaboutthreetimesaslargeasthelandarea.Theverylargeseparateareasofwaterarecalled"oceans“andthelesserareasarecalled"seas.”Inmostoftheoceansandseassomeofthewaterisfoundtobeflowinginaparticulardirection-thatistosay,fromoneparttowardsanotherpartoftheoceanorseaconcerned.Thewaterwhichisflowinginthismannerissaidtobemovingasa"current.0Therearemanythousandsofcurrentsinthewatersoftheoceansandseas,butonlycertainofthestrongerandbettermarkedcurrentsarespeciallynamedandofgreatimportance.Thesecurrentsareimportantbecausetheyaffecttheclimateofthelandareasclosetowheretheyflowandalsobecausetheycarrylargequantitiesofmicroscopicanimalandvegetablelifewhichformsalargepartofthefoodforfishes.Thenatureandcharacteristicsofthesurfaceofthelandareasoftheearthvaryagreatdealfromareatoareaandfromplacetoplace.Thesurfaceofsomeareasconsistslargelyofhighmountainsanddeepvalleyswhilst,inotherareas,mostofthesurfaceconsistsofplains.Ifone
7madeajourneyovertheContinentsonewouldfindeverykindofsurfaceincludingmountainranges,plains,plateaux,deserts,tropicalforestlandsandemptyareascoveredpermanentlybyiceandsnow.Whenthinkingandlearningabouttheworldweshouldnotforgetthatourworldisthehomeofaverygreatmanydifferentpeople-peopleswithdifferentcolouredskins,livingverydifferentlivesandhavingverydifferentideasaboutagreatmanyimportantthingssuchasreligion,government,educationandsocialbehaviour.Thecircumstancesunderwhichdifferentpeoplelivemakeagreatdifferencebetweenthewayinwhichtheyliveandthewayinwhichwelive,anditoughttobeourbusinesstotrytounderstandthosedifferentcircumstancessothatwecanbetterunderstandpeopleofotherlands.Aboveall,weshouldavoiddecidingwhatwethinkaboutpeopledifferentfromourselveswithoutfirsthavinglearnedagreatdealaboutthemandthekindoflivestheyhavetolive.Itistruetosaythatthemorewelearnaboutotherpeople,thebetterweunderstandtheirideasand,asarule,thebetterwelikethosepeoplethemselves.03・A.Euthanasia:ForandAaainst,rWemustn'tdelayanylonger...swallowingisdifficult...andbreathing,that'salsodifficult.Thosemusclesareweakeningtoo...wemuslnTdelayanylonger.”ThesewerethewordsofDutchmanCeesvanWendeldeJoodeaskinghisdoctortohelphimdie.Affectedwithaseriousdisease,vanWendelwasnolongerabletospeakclearlyandheknewtherewasnohopeofrecoveryandthathisconditionwasrapidlydeteriorating.VanWendel'slastthreemonthsoflifebeforebeinggivenafinal,lethalinjectionbyhisdoctorwerefilmedandfirstshownontelevisionlastyearintheNetherlands.Theprogrammehassincebeenboughtby20countriesandeachtimeitisshown,itstartsanationwidedebateonthesubject.TheNetherlandsistheonlycountryinEuropewhichpermitseuthanasia,althoughitis
8nottechnicallylegalthere.However,doctorswhocarryouteuthanasiaunderstrictguidelinesintroducedbytheDutchParliamenttwoyearsagoareusuallynotprosecuted.Theguidelinesdemandthatthepatientisexperiencingextremesuffering,thatthereisnochanceofacure,andthatthepatienthasmaderepeatedrequestsforeuthanasia.Inadditiontothis,aseconddoctormustconfirmthatthesecriteriahavebeenmetandthedeathmustbereportedtothepolicedepartment.Shoulddoctorsbeallowedtotakethelivesofothers?Dr.WilfredvanOijen,CeesvanWendePsdoctor,explainshowhelooksatthequestion:"Well,it'snotasifI'mplanningtomurderacrowdofpeoplewithamachinegun.Inthatcase,killingistheworstthingIcanimagine.Butthat'sentirelydifferentfrommyworkasadoctor.IcareforpeopleandItrytoensurethattheydon*tsuffertoomuch.That'saverydifferentthing.”Manypeople,though,aretotallyagainstthepracticeofeuthanasia.Dr.AndrewFerguson,ChairmanoftheorganisationHealthcareOpposedtoEuthanasia,saysthat"inthevastmajorityofeuthanasiacases,whatthepatientisactuallyaskingforissomethingelse.Theymaywantahealthprofessionaltoopenupcommunicationforthemwiththeirlovedonesorfamily-there'snearlyalwaysanotherquestionbehindthequestion.MBritainalsohasastrongtraditionofhospices-specialhospitalswhichcareonlyforthedyingandtheirspecialneeds.CicelySaunders,PresidentoftheNationalHospiceCouncilandafoundermemberofthehospicemovement,arguesthateuthanasiadoesn'ttakeintoaccountthattherearewaysofcaringforthedying.Sheisalsoconcernedthatallowingeuthanasiawouldunderminetheneedforcareandconsiderationofawiderangeofpeople:"It'sveryeasyinsocietynowfortheelderly,thedisabledandthedependenttofeelthattheyareburdens,andthereforethattheyoughttooptout.Ithinkthatanythingthatlegallyallowstheshorteningoflifedoesmakethosepeoplemorevulnerable.^^Manyfindthisprohibitionofanindividuafsrighttodiepaternalistic.Althoughtheyagreethatlifeisimportantandshouldberespected,theyfeelthatthequalityoflifeshouldnotbeignored.Dr.vanOijenbelievesthatpeoplehavethefundamentalrighttochooseforthemselvesiftheywanttodie:"Whatthosepeoplewhoopposeeuthanasiaaretellingmeisthatdying
9peoplehaven'ttheright.Andthatwhenpeopleareveryill,weareallafraidoftheirdeath.Buttherearesituationswheredeathisafriend.Andinthosecases,whynot?But"whynot?**isaquestionwhichmightcausestrongemotion.ThefilmshowingCeesvanWendel*sdeathwasbothmovingandsensitive.Hisdoctorwasclearlyafamilyfriend;hiswifehadonlyherhusband'sinterestsatheart.Some,however,wouldarguethatitwouldbedangeroustousethisparticularexampletosupportthecaseforeuthanasia.Notallpatientswouldreceivesuchahighlevelofindividualcareandattention.03・B.AdvantaaeUnfairAccordingtothewriterWalterEllis,authorofabookcalledtheOxbridgeConspiracy,Britainisstilldominatedbytheold-boynetwork:itisn'twhatyouknowthatmatters,butwhoyouknow.HeclaimsthatatOxfordandCambridgeUniversities(Oxbridgeforshort)afewselectpeoplestartonanescalatorridewhich,overtheyears,carriesthemtothetopsofBritishprivilegeandpower.Hisresearchrevealedthatthetopprofessionsallcontinuetobedominated,ifnot90percent,then60or65percent,byOxbridgegraduates.Andyet,saysEllis,OxbridgegraduatesmakeuponlytwopercentofthetotalnumberofstudentswhograduatefromBritain'suniversities.OtherresearchesalsoseemtosupporthisbeliefthatOxbridgegraduatesstartwithanunfairadvantageintheemploymentmarket.Inthelaw,arecentlypublishedreportshowedthatoutof26seniorjudgesappointedtotheHighCourtlastyear,allofthemwenttoprivateschoolsand21ofthemwenttoOxbridge.Butcanthisbesaidtoamounttoaconspiracy?NotaccordingtoDr.JohnRae,aformerheadmasterofoneofBritain'sleadingprivateschools,Westminster:“IwouldacceptthattherewasabiasinsomekeyareasofBritishlife,butthatbiashasnowgone.Sometimeago-inthe60sandbefore?entrytoOxfordandCambridgewasnotentirelyonmerit.Now,there'sabsolutelynoquestioninanyobjectiveobserver'smindthat,entrytoOxfordandCambridgeisfiercelycompetitive.HHowever,manywoulddisagreewiththis.For,althoughoverthree-quartersofBritish
10pupilsareeducatedinstateschools,overhalfthestudentsthatgotoOxbridgehavebeentoprivate,or"public"schools.IsthisbecausepupilsfromBritain'sprivateschoolsaremoreintelligentthanthosefromstateschools,oraretheysimplybetterprepared?Onaverage,about$5.000ayearisspentoneachprivateschoolpupil,morethantwicetheamountspentonstateschoolpupils.Sohowcanthestateschoolsbeexpectedtocompetewiththeprivateschoolswhentheyhavefarfewerresources?AndhowcantheypreparetheirpupilsforthespecialentranceexamtoOxfordUniversity,whichrequiresextrapreparation,andforwhichmanypublicschoolpupilstraditionallystayatschoolanddoanadditionalterm?Untilrecently,manyblamedOxfordforthisbiasbecauseoftheuniversity'sspecialentranceexam(Cambridgeabolisheditsentranceexamin1986).ButlastFebruary,OxfordUniversitydecidedtoabolishtheexamtoencouragemorestateschoolapplicants.Fromautumn1996,OxfordUniversityapplicants,likeapplicantstootheruniversities,willbejudgedonlyontheirAlevelresultsandontheirperformanceatinterviews,althoughsomedepartmentsmightstillsetspecialtests.However,somearguethatthere'snothingwronginhavingeliteplacesoflearning,andthatbytheirverynature,theseplacesshouldnotbeeasilyaccessible.Mostcountriesarerunbyaneliteandhavecentresofacademicexcellencefromwhichtheelitearerecruited.WalterEllisacceptsthatthisistrue:"ButinFrance,forexample,therearesomethinglike40equivalentsofuniversity,whichprovidethiselitethroughamuchbroaderbase.InAmericayou'vegottheIvyLeague,centredonHarvardandYale,withPrincetonandStanfordandothers.Butagain,thoseuniversitiestogether-theeliteuniversities-areabouttenorfifteeninnumber,andarebeingpushedalongfrombehindbyothergreatuniversitieslike,forexample,ChicagoandBerkeley.Soyoudon'thavejustthisnarrowconcentrationoftwouniversitiesprovidingaconstantlyreplicatingelite.”WhenitcomestoOxfordandCambridgebeingelitistbecauseofthenumberofprivateschoolpupilstheyaccept.ProfessorStoneofOxfordUniversityarguesthatthereisasimplefactheandhisassociatescannotignore:"Ifcertainschoolsdobetterthanothersthenwejusthavetoacceptit.Wecannotbeaplaceforremedialeducation.It'snotwhatOxfordistheretodo.”
11However,sinceacademicexcellencedoesappeartoberelatedtotheamountofmoneyspentperpupil,thisdoesseemtoimplythatPrimeMinisterJohnMajor'svisionofBritainasaclasslesssocietyisstillalongwayoff.AnditmaybeworthrememberingthatwhileJohnMajordidn'thimselfgotoOxbridge,mostofhisministersdid.04・A.SlaveryonOurDoorste。Thereareestimatedtobemorethan20,000overseasdomesticservantsworkinginBritain(theexactfigureisnotknownbecausetheHomeOffice,theGovernmentdepartmentthatdealswiththis,doesnotkeepstatistics).Usually,theyhavebeenbroughtoverbyforeignbusinessmen,diplomatsorBritonsreturningfromabroad.Ofthese20,000,justunder2,000arebeingexploitedandabusedbytheiremployers,accordingtoaLondon-basedcampaigninggroupwhichhelpsoverseasservantsworkinginBritain.Theabusecantakeseveralforms.Oftenthedomesticsarenotallowedtogoout,andtheydonotreceiveanypayment.Theycanbephysically,sexuallyandpsychologicallyabused.Andtheycanhavetheirpassportsremoved,makingleavingor"escaping"virtuallyimpossible.Thesadconditionofwomenworkingasdomesticsaroundtheworldreceivedmuchmediaattentionearlierthisyearinseveralhighlypublicisedcases.Inoneofthem,aFilipinomaidwasexecutedinSingaporeafterbeingconvictedofmurder,despiteprotestsfromvariousquartersthatherguilthadnotbeenadequatelyestablished.GroupslikeAnti-SlaveryInternationalsayother,lessdramatic,casesareequallydeservingofattention,suchasthatofLydiaGarcia,aFilipinomaidworkinginLondon:M1washiredbyaSaudidiplomatdirectlyfromthePhilippinestoworkinLondonin1989.Iwassupposedtobepaid$120butIneverreceivedthatamount.Theyalwaysthreatenedthattheywouldsendmebacktomycounlry.”ThenthereisthecaseofKumarifromSriLanka.Themainbreadwinnerinherfamily,sheusedtoworkforaverylowwageatateafactoryinSriLanka.Becauseshefounditdifficulttofeedherfourchildren,sheacceptedajobworkingasadomesticinLondon.ShesaysshefeltlikeaprisonerattheLondonhousewheresheworked:
12“Nodaysoff—ever,nobreaksatall,noproperfood.Ididn'thavemyownroom;IsleptonashelfwithaspadOofonlythreefeetaboveme.Iwasn'tallowedtotalktoanybody.Iwasn'tevenallowedtoopenthewindow.MyemployersalwaysthreatenedtoreportmetotheHomeOfficeorthepolice/*Attheendof1994theBritishGovernmentintroducednewmeasurestohelpprotectdomesticworkersfromabusebytheiremployers.Thisincludedincreasingtheminimumageofemployeesto18,gettingemployeestoreadand,understandanadviceleaflet,gettingemployerstoagreetoprovideadequatemaintenanceandconditions,andtoputinwritingthemaintermsandconditionsofthejob(ofwhichtheemployeesshouldseeacopy).However,manypeopledoubtwhetherthiswillsuccessfullyreducetheincidenceofabuse.Forthemainproblemfacingoverseasmaidsanddomesticswhotrytocomplainaboutcruellivingandworkingconditionsisthattheydonothaveindependentimmigrantstatusandsocannotchangeemployer.(TheyareallowedintheUnitedKingdomunderaspecialconcessionintheimmigrationruleswhichallowsforeignerstobringdomesticstaffwiththem.)Soiftheydocomplain,theyriskbeingdeported.Allowingdomesticworkersthefreedomtoseekthesametypeofworkbutwithadifferentemployer,iftheysochoose,iswhatgroupslikeAnti-SlaveryInternationalarecampaigningtheGovernmentfor.Itis,theysay,therighttochangeemployerswhichdistinguishesemploymentfromslavery.04・B.ReturnofTheChainGan。Eyewitnessessayitwasascenestraightoutofablackandwhitemoviefromthe1950s.AsthesunroseoverthefieldsofHuntsville,Alabama,intheAmericanSouth,theconvictsgotdownfromthetrucksthathadbroughtthemthere.Watchedoverbyguardswithguns,theyraisedtheirlegsinunisonandmadetheirwaytotheedgeofthehighway,Interstate65.TheBBC'sWashingtoncorrespondentClareBoldersonwasthereandshesentthisreport:“Theyworewhiteuniformswiththewords"ChainGang*ontheirbacksand,ingroupsoffive,wereshackledtogetherinlegironsjoinedbyaneight-footchain.Theprisonerswillworkforupto90daysonthegang:theyllclearditchesofweedsandmendfencesalongAlabama's
13mainroads.Whiletheyareworkingonthegang,they1alsoliveinsomeoftheharshestprisonconditionsintheUnitedStates.There'llbenotelevisionsorphonecalls;manyotherday-to-dayprivilegeswillbedenied/'TheauthoritiesinAlabamasaythereisalotofsupportforthere-introductionofchaingangsintheStateafteragapof30years(thelastgangswereabolishedinGeorgiaintheearly1960s).Manypeoplebelieveitisaneffectivewaytogetcriminalstopaybacktheirdebttosociety.Theprisonersstayshackledwhentheyusetoilets.Theyreactedsharplytothetreatmenttheyaregiven:Prisonerone:"Thisislikeacircus.Azoo.Allchainedheretoazoo.We'reallanimalsnow.”Prisonertwo:"It'sdegrading.It'sembarrassing.”Prisonerthree:"Inchains.It*sslavery!"Sixoutofeverytenprisonersinchainsareblack,whichiswhythechaingangscallupimagesofslaveryincenturiesgoneby,whenblackpeoplewerebroughtfromAfricainlegironsandmadetoworkinplantationsownedbywhitemen.Notsurprisingly,althoughthree-quartersofthewhitepopulationofAlabamasupportschaingangs,onlyasmallnumberofblackpeopledo.DonClaxton,spokesmanfortheStateGovernmentofAlabama,insiststhatthesystemisnotracist:"Thisisn'tsomethingthat'sdoneforracialreasons,forpoliticalreasons.Thisissomethingthat'sgoingtohelpsavethepeopleofAlabamataxmoneybecausetheydon'thavetopayasmanyofficerstoworkonthehighways.Andit'sgoingtohelpcleanupourhighwaysanditsgoingtohelpcleanuptheState.MHowever,there-introductionofthesemeasureshascausedagreatdealofstrongdisagreement.Humanrightsorganizationssaythatputtingprisonersinchainsisnotonlyinhumanebutalsoineffective.AlvinBronstein,memberoftheCivilLibertiesUnion,saysthatstudyafterstudyhasshownthatyoucannotpreventpeoplefromcommittingcrimesbypunishmentorthethreatofpunishment:"Whattheywilldoismakeprisonersmoreangry,morehostile,sothatwhentheygetoutofprison,theywillincreasetheleveloftheircriminal
14behaviour.”Civillibertiesgroupssaythatchainingpeopletogetherdoesn'tsolvethecausesofcrime,suchaspovertyordisaffectionwithinsociety.Whatitdoesispunishprisonersfortheillsofsociety.TheysaythepracticetakestheUnitedStatesbacktotheMiddleAges,andthatitisashametoAmericansociety.Butthat祖notanargumentlikelytowinfavouramongmanypeopleintheDeepSouthoftheUnitedStates.Alabama'sexperimentistobewidenedtoincludemoreprisoners,andotherStates,suchasArkansasandArizona,willveryprobablyintroducetheirownchaingangschemes.05・A.TheNewMusicThenewmusicwasbuiltoutofmaterialsalreadyinexistence:blues,rock'n'roll,folkmusic.Butalthoughtheformsremained,somethingcompletelynewandoriginalwasmadeoutoftheseolderelements-moreoriginal,perhaps,thaneventhenewmusiciansthemselvesyetrealize.Thetransformationtookplacein1966—1967.Uptothattime,theblueshadbeenanessentiallyblackmedium.Rock'n'roll,abluesderivative,wasrhythmicdancemusic.Folkmusic,oldandmodem,waspopularamongcollegestudents.Thethreeformsremainedmusicallyandculturallydistinct,andevenaslateas1965,noneofthemwereexpressinganyradicallynewstatesofconsciousness.Bluesexpressedblacksoul;rockwasthebeatofyouthfulenergy;andfolkmusicexpressedanti-warsentimentsaswellasloveandhope.In1966—1967therewasspontaneoustransformation.IntheUnitedStates,itoriginatedwithyouthfulrockgroupsplayinginSanFrancisco.InEngland,itwasledbytheBeatles,whowerealreadyestablishedasanextremelyfineandhighlyindividualrockgroup.Whalhappened,aswellasitcanbeputintowords,wasthis.First,theseparatemusicaltraditionswerebroughttogether.BobDylanandtheJeffersonAirplaneplayedfolkrock,folkideaswitharockbeat.Whiterockgroupsbeganexperimentingwiththeblues.Ofcourse,whitemusicianshadalwaysplayedtheblues,butessentiallyasimitatorsoftheNegrostyle;nowitbegantobethewhitebands'ownmusic.Andallofthegroupsmovedtowardsabroadereclecticismandsynthesis.Theyfreelytookoverelementsfromjazz,fromAmericancountrymusic,andastimewentonfromevenmorediversesources.Whatdevelopedwasamusicreadilytakingonvariousforms
15andcapableofanalmostlimitlessrangeofexpression.Thesecondthingthathappenedwasthatallthemusicalgroupsbeganusingthefullrangeofelectricinstrumentsandthetechnologyofelectronicamplifiers.Theelectricguitarwasanoldinstrument,butthenewelectroniceffectswerealtogetherdifferent—sodifferentthatanewlistenerin1967mightwellfeelthattherehadneverbeenanysoundslikethatintheworldbefore.Electronicsdid,infact,makepossiblesoundsthatnoinstrumentuptothattimecouldproduce.Andinstudiorecordings,newtechniquesmadepossibleeffectsthatnotevenanelectronicbandcouldproducelive.Electronicamplifiersalsomadepossibleafantasticincreaseinvolume,themusicbecomingasloudandpenetratingasthehumanearcouldstand,andtherebyachievinga"total"effect,sothatinsteadofanaudienceofpassivelisteners,therewerenowaudiencesoftotalparticipants,feelingthemusicinalloftheirsensesandalloftheirbones.Third,themusicbecomesamulti-mediaexperience;apartofatotalenvironment.Thewallsoftheballroomswerecoveredwithchangingpatternsoflight,thebeginningofthenewartofthelightshow.Andtheaudiencedidnotsit,itdanced.Withrecordsathome,listenersimitatedtheselightingeffectsasbesttheycould,andheightenedthewholeexperiencebyusingdrugs.Oftenmusicwasplayedoutofdoors,wherenatureprovidedtheenvironment.05・B.DifferentTv—esofComoosersIcanseethreedifferenttypesofcomposersinmusicalhistory,eachofwhomcreatesmusicinasomewhatdifferentfashion.Thetypethathasfiredpublicimaginationmostisthatofthespontaneouslyinspiredcomposer-theFranzSchuberttype,inotherwords.Allcomposersareinspired,ofcourse,butthistypeismorespontaneouslyinspired.Musicsimplywellsoutofhim.Hecan'tgetitdownonpaperfastenough.Youcanalmosttellthistypeofcomposerbyhisfruitfuloutput.Incertainmonths,Schubertwroteasongaday.HugoWolfdidthesame.Inasense,menofthiskindbeginnotsomuchwithamusicalthemeaswilhacompletedcomposition.Theyinvariablyworkbestintheshorterforms.Itismucheasiertoimproviseasongthanitistoimproviseasymphony.Itisn'teasytobeinspiredinthatspontaneouswayfor
16longperiodsatastretch.EvenSchubertwasmoresuccessfulinhandlingtheshorterformsofmusic.Thespontaneouslyinspiredmanisonlyonetypeofcomposer,withhisownlimitations.Beethovenbelongstothesecondtype-theconstructivetype,onemightcallit.Thistypeservesasanexampleofmytheoryofthecreativeprocessinmusicbetterthananyother,becauseinthiscasethecomposerreallydoesbeginwithamusicaltheme.InBeethoven'scasethereisnodoubtaboutit,forwehavethenotebooksinwhichheputthethemesdown.Wecanseefromhisnotebookshowheworkedoverhisthemes—howhewouldnotletthembeuntiltheywereasperfectashecouldmakethem.BeethovenwasnotaspontaneouslyinspiredcomposerintheSchubertsenseatall.Hewasthetypethatbeginswithatheme;makesitapreliminaryidea;anduponthatcomposesamusicalwork,dayafterday,inpainstakingfashion.MostcomposerssinceBeethovenrsdaybelongtothissecondtype.ThethirdtypeofcomposerIcanonlycall,forlackofabettername,thetraditionalisttype.MenlikePalestrinaandBachbelonginthiscategory.Theybotharecharacteristicofthekindofcomposerwhoisborninaparticularperiodofmusicalhistory,whenacertainmusicalstyleisabouttoreachitsfullestdevelopment.Itisaquestionatsuchatimeofcreatingmusicinawell-knownandacceptedstyleanddoingitinawaythatisbetterthananyonehasdoneitbeforeyou.Thetraditionalisttypeofcomposerbeginswithapatternratherthanwithatheme.ThecreativeactwithPalestrinaisnotthethematicconceptionsomuchasthepersonaltreatmentofawell-establishedpattern.AndevenBach,whocomposedforty-eightofthemostvariousandinspiredthemesinhisWellTemperedClavichord,knewinadvancethegeneralformalmoldthattheyweretofill.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatwearenotlivinginatraditionalistperiodnowadays.Onemightadd,forthesakeofcompleteness,afourthtypeofcomposer-thepioneertype:menlikeGesualdointheseventeenthcentury,MoussorgskyandBerliozinthenineteenth,DebussyandEdgarVareseinthetwentieth.Itisdifficulttosummarizethecomposingmethodsofsodiversifiedagroup.Onecansafelysaythattheirapproachtocompositionistheoppositeofthetraditionalisttype.Theyclearlyopposeconventionalsolutionsofmusicalproblems.Inmanyways,theirattitudeisexperimental?theyseektoaddnewharmonies,newsonorities,newforma)principles.Thepioneertypewasthecharacteristiconeattheturnoftheseventeenth
17centuryandalsoatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,butitismuchlessevidenttoday.06・A.ImorovinaIndustrialEfficiencvthrouahRoboticsRobots,becomingincreasinglyprevalentinfactoriesandindustrialplantsthroughoutthedevelopedworld,areprogrammedandengineeredtoperformindustrialtaskswithouthumanintervention.Mostoftoday'srobotsareemployedintheautomotiveindustry,wheretheyareprogrammedtotakeoversuchjobsasweldingandspraypaintingautomobileandtruckbodies.Theyalsoloadandunloadhot,heavymetalformsusedinmachinescastingautomobileandtruckframes.Robots,alreadytakingoverhumantasksintheautomotivefield,arebeginningtobeseen,althoughtoalesserdegree,inotherindustriesaswell.Theretheybuildelectricmotors,smallappliances,pocketcalculators,andevenwatches.Therobotsusedinnuclearpowerplantshandletheradioactivematerials,preventinghumanpersonnelfrombeingexposedtoradiation.Thesearetherobotsresponsibleforthereductioninjob-relatedinjuriesinthisnewindustry.Whatmakesarobotarobotandnotjustanotherkindofautomaticmachine?Robotsdifferfromautomaticmachinesinthataftercompletionofonespecifictask,theycanbereprogrammedbyacomputertodoanotherone.Asanexample,arobotdoingspotweldingonemonthcanbereprogrammedandswitchedtospraypaintingthenext.Automaticmachines,ontheotherhand,arenotcapableofmanydifferentuses;theyarebuilttoperformonlyonetask.Thenextgenerationofrobotswillbeabletoseeobjects,willhaveasenseoftouch,andwillmakecriticaldecisions.Engineersskilledinmicroelectronicsandcomputertechnologyaredevelopingartificialvisionforrobots.Withtheabilityto"see"，robotscanidentifyandinspectonespecificclassofobjectsoutofastackofdifferentkindsofmaterials.Onerobotvisionsystemuseselectronicdigitalcamerascontainingmanyrowsoflight-sensitivematerials.Whenlightfromanobjectsuchasamachinepartstrikesthecamera,thesensitivematerialsmeasuretheintensityoflightandconvertthelightraysintoarangeofnumbers.Thenumbersarepartofagrayscalesysteminwhichbrightnessismeasuredinarangeofvalues.Onescalerangesfrom0
18to15,andanotherfrom0to255.The0isrepresentedbyblack.Thehighestnumberiswhite.Thenumbersinbetweenrepresentdifferentshadesofgray.Thecomputerthenmakesthecalculationsandconvertsthenumbersintoapicturethatshowsanimageoftheobjectinquestion.Itisnotyetknownwhetherrobotswillonedayhavevisionasgoodashumanvision.Techniciansbelievetheywill,butonlyafteryearsofdevelopment.Engineersworkingonotheradvancesaredesigningandexperimentingwithnewtypesofmetalhandsandfingers,givingrobotsasenseoftouch.Otherengineersarewritingnewprogramsallowingrobotstomakedecisionssuchaswhether,todiscarddefectivepartsinfinishedproducts.Todothis,therobotwillalsohavetobecapableofidentifyingthosedefectiveparts.Thesefuturerobots,assembledwithasenseoftouchandtheabilitytoseeandmakedecisions,willhaveplentyofworktodo.Theycanbeusedtoexploreformineralsontheoceanfloororindeepareasofminestoodangerousforhumanstoenter.Theywillworkasgasstationattendants,firemen,housekeepers,andsecuritypersonnel.Anyonewantingtounderstandtheindustryofthefuturewillhavetoknowaboutrobotics.06・B.Predictin。EarthouakesCanearthquakesbepredicted?Scientistsareworkingonprogramstopredictwhereandwhenanearthquakewilloccur.Theyhopetodevelopanearlywarningsystemthatcanbeusedtoforecastearthquakessothatlivescanbesaved.Earthquakesarethemostdangerousanddeadlyofallnaturalevents.Theyoccurinmanypartsoftheworld.GiantearthquakeshavebeenrecordedinIran,China,Guatemala,Chile,India,andAlaska.TwoofthebiggestearthquakesthatwereeverrecordedtookplaceinChinaandAlaska.Theseearthquakesmeasuredabout8.5ontheRichterScale.TheRichterScalewasdevisedbyCharlesRichterin1935,andcomparestheenergylevelofearthquakes.Anearthquakethatmeasuresa2onthescalecanbefelthulcauseslittledamage.Onethatmeasures4.5onthescalecancauseslightdamage,andanearthquakethathasareadingofover7cancausemajordamage.Itisimportanttonotethatareadingof4indicatesanearthquaketentimes
19asstrongasonewithareadingof3.Scientistswanttobeabletopredictthoseearthquakesthathaveareadingofover4ontheRichterScale.Howdoearthquakesoccur?Earthquakesarecausedbytheshiftingofrocksalongcracks,orfaults,intheearth'scrust.Thefaultisproducedwhenrocksneareachotherarepulledindifferentdirections.Thebest-knownfaultinNorthAmericaistheSanAndreasfaultinthestateofCaliforniaintheUnitedStates.ThenationsthatareactivelyinvolvedinearthquakepredictionprogramsincludeJapan,China,Russia,andtheUnitedStates.Thesecountrieshavesetupseismicnetworksinareasoftheircountrieswhereearthquakesareknowntooccur.Thesenetworksareonthealertforwarningsignsthatshowtheweakeningofrocklayersthatcanprecedeanearthquake.Manykindsofseismicinstrumentsareusedbythenetworkstomonitorthemovementsoftheearth'scrust.Thescientistsalsocheckwaterindeepwells.Theywatchforchangesinthewaterlevelandtemperaturethatareassociatedwithmovementalongfaults.ScientistsinChina,Russia,andtheUnitedStatesmeasureradoningroundwater.Radonisagasthatcomesfromtheradioactivedecayofradiuminrocks.Thegasflowsthroughthegroundanddissolvesinundergroundstreamsandwells.Scientistsspeculatethattheamountofradonincreasesinthegroundwhenrockslayersshift,exposingnewrock,andthusmoreradon.ChineseandRussianscientistshavereportedthatinplaceswherestressisbuildingup,theradonlevelsofthewaterbuilduptoo.Whentheradonlevelsofthewatersubsideanddropbacktonormalreadings,anearthquakemayoccur.UnitedStatesscientistshavealsoplacedradonmonitoringstationsinearthquakezones,particularlyCalifornia.However,allthescientistsagreethatmoredataisnecessarytoprovethatradonlevelsinwaterareassociatedwiththepossiblebirthofanearthquake.Earthquakepredictionisstillayoungscience.Everyoneagreesthatearthquakescannotbepredictedwithanyreliability.Scientistshaveonlyapailialunderstandingofthephysicalprocessesthatcauseearthquakes.Muchmoreresearchhastobedone.Newandmoreup-to-datemethodshavetobefoundforcollectingearthquakedataandanalyzingit.However,scientistshavehadsomesuccessinpredictingearthquakes.SeveralsmallearthquakeswerepredictedinNewYorkState,intheeasternpartoftheUnitedStates.Chinesescientistspredictedamajorone
20inHaichengin1975,andRussianscientistspredictedamajoroneinGarmin1978.Whilethisisasmallstart,itisstillabeginning.07・A.LeisureandLeadershi。Observationsandresearchfindingsindicatethatpeopleinadvancedindustrialsocietiesareincreasinglyconcernedwithopportunitiesforleisureandwhattheycandointheirleisuretime.Theimportancepeopleattachtopaidholidaysandtherapiddevelopmentofservicesformassentertainmentandrecreationaresignsofthisincreasingconcern.Theterm''qualityoflife"isdifficulttodefine.Itcoversaverywidescopesuchaslivingenvironment,health,employment,food,familylife,friends,education,materialpossessions,leisureandrecreation,andsoon.Generallyspeaking,thequalityoflife,especiallyasseenbytheindividual,ismeaningfulintermsofthedegreetowhichthesevariousareasoflifeareavailableorprovidesatisfactiontotheindividual.Asactivitycarriedoutasonethinksfitduringone'ssparetime,leisurehasthefollowingfunctions:relaxation,recreationandentertainment,andpersonaldevelopment.TheimportanceofIhesevariesaccordingtothenatureofone'sjobandone*slife-style.Thus,peoplewhoneedtoexertmuchenergyintheirworkwillfindrelaxationmostdesirableinleisure.Thosewithabettereducationandinprofessionaloccupationsmaytendmoretoseekrecreationandpersonaldevelopment(e.g.,cultivationofskillsandhobbies)inleisure.Thespecificuseofleisurevariesfromindividualtoindividual.Eventhesameleisureactivitymaybeuseddifferentlybydifferentindividuals.Thus,thefollowingarepossibleusesoftelevisionwatching,apopularleisureactivity:achangeofexperiencetoprovideuescape"fromthestressandstrainofwork;tolearnmoreaboutwhatishappeninginone*senvironment;toprovideanopportunityforunderstandingoneselfbycomparingotherpeopleHllifeexperiencesasportrayedintheprogrammes.Inanurbansocietyinwhichhighlystructured,fast-pacedandstressfulworkloomslargeinlife,experiencesofadifferentnature,beittelevisionwatchingorbird-watching,canleadtoaself-renewalandamore"balanced"wayoflife.Sinceleisureisbasicallyself-determined,oneisabletotaketoone'sinterestsand
21preferencesandgetinvolvedinanactivityinwaysthatwillbringenjoymentandsatisfaction.Ourlikesanddislikes,tastesandpreferencesthatunderlieourchoicesofsuchactivitiesasreadingbooks,goingtothecinema,camping,orcertainculturalpursuits,areallrelatedtosocialcontextsandlearningexperiences.Weacquireinterestsinavarietyofthingsandsubjectsfromourfamilies,schools,jobs,andthemassmedia.Basically,suchattitudesamounttoarecognitionthatleisureisanimportantareaoflifeandabeliefthatleisurecanandshouldbeputtogooduse.Professionalworkersinrecreationservices,too,willfindthattoimpartpositiveleisureattitudestothegeneralpublicisessentialformotivatingthemtousetheirleisureincreativeandsatisfyingways.Hence,itcanbearguedthatthepeoplewithwhomwecomeintocontactinthesevariouscontextsarealllikelytohaveexertedsomeinfluenceinshapingourattitudes,interestsandevenskillsrelevanttohowwehandleleisure.Influenceofthiskindisaformofleadership.Parents,teachersinschools,workassociatesandcommunicatorsinorusingthemassmediaareallcapableofarousingourpotentialinterests.Forexample,thedegreetowhichandthewaysinwhichaschoolencouragesparticipationingames,sportsandculturalpursuitsarelikelytocontributetotheshapingofleisureattitudesonthepartofthestudents.Schoolsusuallysetastheireducationalobjectivetheattainmentofabalanceddevelopmentoftheperson.Themoreseriouslythisissought,themorelikelypositiveattitudestowardsleisureaswellasacademicworkwillbeencouraged.07・B.TheTimeMessageYoumayhavebeenexposedtothisideabefore,butthistimetrytohear.Thereisamessagethatistryingtoreachyou,anditisimportantthatitgetthroughloudandclear.Themessage?Timemanagement!Timeiselusiveandtricky.Itistheeasiestthingintheworldtowaste—themostdifficulttocontrol.Whenyoulookahead,itmayappearyouhavemorethanyouneed.Yetithasaway
22ofslippingthroughyourfingerslikequicksand.Youmaysuddenlyfindthatthereisnowaytostretchthelittletimeyouhavelefttocoverallyourobligations.Forexample,asabeginningstudentlookingaheadtoafulltermyoumayfeelthatyouhaveanoversupplyoftimeonyourhands.Buttowardtheendofthetermyoumaypanicbecausetimeisrunningout.Theanswer?Control!Timeisdangerous.Ifyoudon'tcontrolit,itwillcontrolyou.Ifyoudon'tmakeitworkforyou,itwillworkagainstyou.Youmustbecomethemasteroftime,nottheservant.Studyhardandplayhardisanoldproverb,butitstillmakessense.Youhaveplentyoftimeforclasses,study,work,andplayifyouuseyourtimeproperly.Itisnothowmuchtimeyouallocateforstudythatcountsbuthowmuchyoulearnwhenyoudostudy.Toomuchwastedtimeisbadmedicine.Themoretimeyouwaste,theeasieritistocontinuewastingtime.Soon,doingnothingbecomesahabityoucan'tbreak.Itbecomesadrug.Whenthishappens,youloseyourfeelingofaccomplishmentandyoufallbythewayside.Afullscheduleisagoodschedule.Somestudentsrefusetohearthetimemessage.Theyrefusetoacceptthefactthatcollegelifedemandssomedegreeoftimecontrol.Thereisnoescape.Sowhat'sthenextstep?Ifyouseriouslywishtogetthetimemessage,thispassagewillgiveittoyou.Remember?itwillnotonlyimproveyourgradesbutalsofreeyoutoenjoycollegelifemore.Message1.Timeisvaluable-controlitfromthebeginning.Timeistoday,nottomorrowornextweek.Startyourplanatthebeginningofthetermandreadjustitwitheachnewproject.Thusyoucanspreadyourworktimearoundalittle.Message2.Getthenotebookhabit.Goandbuyapocket-sizenotebook.Therearemanyvarietiesofthesespecialnotebooks.Selecttheoneyoulikebest.Useittoscheduleyourstudytimeeachday.Youcanalsouseittonoteimportantdates,appointments,addresses,andtelephonenumbers.Keepitwithyouatalltimes.Message3.Prepareaweeklystudyschedule.Themainpurposeofthenotebookistohelpyouprepareaweeklystudyschedule.Onceprepared,followthesamepatterneveryweekwithminoradjustments.Sundayisanexcellent
23daytomakeupyourscheduleforthefollowingweek.Writeinyourclassschedulefirst.Addyourworkhours,ifany.Thenwriteinthehourseachdayyoufeelyoumustallocateforstudy.Keepitsimple.Message4.Berealistic.Whenyouplantimeforthesethings,berealistic.DonTunderestimate.Overestimate,ifpossible,sothatemergenciesthatarisedon'thangyouup.Otherwiseyourentireroutinemaygetthrownoffbalancewhileyoudevotenightanddaytocrashefforts.Message5.Makestudytimefitthecourse.Howmuchstudytimeyouscheduleforeachclassroomhourdependsontourfactors:(l)yourability,(2)thedifficultyoftheclass,(3)thegradesyouhopetoachieve,and(4)howwellyouuseyourstudytime.Onething,however,iscertain:youshouldscheduleaminimumofonehourofstudyforeachclassroomhour.Inmanycases,morewillberequired.Message6.Keepyourscheduleflexible.Agoodschedulemusthavealittlegivesothatspecialprojectscanbetakencareofproperly.Thinkoutandprepareyourscheduleeachweekanddonotbecomeaslavetoaninflexiblepattern.Adjustitasyoudeemnecessary.Message7.Studyfirst?funlater.Youwillenjoyyourfuntimemoreafteryouhavecompletedyourstudyresponsibilities.So,wherepossible,scheduleyourstudyhoursinadvanceoffunactivities.Thisisasoundprincipletofollow,sokeepitinmindasyouprepareyourfirstschedule.MessageS.Studysomeeachclassday.Someconcentratedstudyeachdayisbetterthanmanystudyhoursonedayandnothingthenext.Asyouworkoutyourindividualschedule,attempttoincludeaminimumoftwostudyhourseachday.Thiswillnotonlykeepthestudyhabitalivebutalsokeepyouuptodateonyourclassassignmentsandprojects.Fewbeginningfreshmencancontroltheirtimeeffectivelywithoutawrittenschedule,sowhykidyourselfintothinkingyoudon'tneedone?Youdo.Lateron,whenyouhavehadmoreexperienceandyouhavethetime-controlhabit,youmaybeabletooperatewithoutit.Ofcoursethescheduleisonlythefirststep.Onceyouhaveitprepared,youmuststickwithitandfollowit
24faithfully.Youmustpushawaythemanytemptationsthatarealwayspresentoryourscheduleisuseless.Yourschedulewillgiveyoucontrolonlyifyoumakeitwork.08・A.JetLa。：PreventionandCureTheproblemofJetLagisoneeveryinternationaltravellercomesacrossatsometime.Butdoyouhavetosuffer?Understandwhatitis,andhowacarefuldietcanminimizeitsworsteffects,andyourflightswillbelessstressful.Theeffectsofrapidtravelonthebodyareactuallyfarmoredisturbingthanwerealize.JetLagisnotapsychologicalconsequenceofhavingtoreadjusttoadifferenttimezone.Itisduetochangesinthebody'sphysiologicalregulatorymechanisms,specificallythehormonalsystems,inadifferentenvironment.Confused?SowasJohnFosterDulles,theAmericanSecretaryofState,whenheflewtoEgypttoconductnegotiationsontheAswanDam.HelaterblamedhispoorjudgementonJetLag.Theeffectscanbeusedtoadvantage,too.PresidentJohnsononceconductedanimportantmeetinginGuamandkepttheentireproceedingsatWashingtonDCtime.TheWhiteHouseworkingpersonnelwereasfreshaspaint,whilethelocals,inthiscase,werejel-lagged.Essentially,theyhadbeeninstantaneouslytransportedtoAmerica.NowthatweunderstandwhatJetLagis,wecangosomewaytoovercomingit.Agreatnumberofthebody'seventsarescheduledtooccuratacertaintimeofday.Naturallythesehavetoberegulated,andtherearetworegulatorysystemswhichinteract.Onetimingsystemcomesfromtheevidenceofoursensesandstomachs,andtheperiodicityweexperiencewhenlivinginaparticulartimezone.Theotherbelongsinourinternalclocks(themajoroneofwhichmaybephysicallylocatedinapartofthebraincalledthesuprachiasmaticnucleus)which,leftalone,wouldtiethebodytoa25hour-yes,25-rhythm.Normallythetwotimersareinstep,andtheexternalcuestendtoregularisetheinternalclockstothemoreconvenient24hourperiod.If,however,youmovethewholebodytoatimezonewhichisfourhoursdifferent,the
25twoclockswillbeoutofstep,liketwoalarmclockswhicharenormallysettogether,butwhichhavebeenresetafewhoursapart.Whereasthetwoclockswouldnormallysoundtheiralarmstogether,nowtheyringatdifferenttimes.Similarly,thebodycanhesetforeveningwhilethesunisrising.Intimethephysiologicalsystemwillresetitself,butitdoestaketime.Oneeasilymonitoredrhythmispalmsweating.Amanflowntoatimezonedifferentby10hourswilltakeeightdaystoreadjusthispalmsweat.Bloodpressure,whichisalsorhythmical,takesfourdaystoreadjust.Onereasonforthisdiscrepancyisthatdifferentbodilyeventsarecontrolledbydifferentfactors.Thehormonecortisol,whichcontrolssaltandwaterexcretion,ismadeinthemorning,whereverthebodyis.Butthegrowthhormoneisreleasedduringsleep,wheneverinthedaythatsleepoccurs.Normallythesetwohormonesareseparatedbysevenoreighthours,butifthebodyarrivesatadestinationintheearlymorning(local)andgoestosleepassoonaspossible,thetwohormoneswillbereleasedsimultaneously.Whatcanwedoaboutit?Itisnotfeasibletowaitfourdaysuntilthebodyisusedtothenewtimezone.Fortunatelythereisashortcut.Itreliesontwothings—thepowerofthestomachtoregulatethetimingofotherevents,andthepharmacologicalactionsofcoffee.Thebasicassumptionsare:Coffeedelaysthebodyclockinthemorning,andadvancesitatnight.Coffeeatmid-afternoonisneutral.Proteininmealsstimulateswakefulness,whilecarbohydratespromotesleep.Puttingfoodintoanemptystomachhelpssynchronizethebodyclock.08・B.Coetrollin。YourConcentrationCONCENTRATIONISCENTERINGYOURATTENTIONPsychologicallydefined,concentrationistheprocessofcenteringone'sattentionoveraperiodoftime.Inpracticalapplication,however,concentrationisnotassimpletodeal
26successfullywithasthedefinitionmayimply.Forthisreason,itishelpfultokeepthefollowingpointsinmind.YourattentionspanvariesEvenwiththegreatesteffort,oarspanofattentionfluctuates.Youcandemonstrateforyourselfthisfluctuationofattention.Inaquietroom,placeawatchsothatitcanjustscarcelybeheard.Listencarefullyandnoticehowthetickingincreasesinapparentintensity,fadestoapointwhereitcannotbeheard,andthenincreasesagain.Thisphenomenonrevealshowourspanofattentionfluctuates,fortheintensityofthetickingisactuallyconstant.YoupayattentiontoonethingatmtimeEvidencetodateindicatesthatyouattendtooneideaatatime.Itispossibleforyourattentiontoshiftsorapidlythatitseemsthatyouattendtoseveralconceptsatonce.Butapparentlythisisonlyanillusion.Inhighconcentrationtheshiftfromthefocusofattentionisofshortdurationandrelativelyinfrequent.Anillustrationofperiodsofhigh,moderate,andlowattentionHighattentionhaslongperiodsofattendingandshortdistractionperiods.Inlowattentiontheperiodsofattendingareshortandthedistractionperiodslong.Inmoderateattentionthereisamixtureoftheextremes.Thusitiseasytoseethatitishighlyunlikelythatthestudentwhohasmostofhisattentioncenteredonfancyingatlargewillbeabletorecalleventhemajorpointsofalecture.Lackofconcentrationisasymptom,notthecause,ofdifficulty.Whenastudentsays”Ican'tconcentrate1',whatheisreallysayingis,"Ican'tattendtothetaskathandbecausemydistractorsaretoostrong.HDISTRACTORSAREOFTWOSORTS-PSYCHOLOGICALANDPHYSICALAdistractorisanythingwhichcausesattentiontovaryfromacentralfocalpoint.Inthestudysituationdistractorsmaybethoughtofaseitherpsychologicalorphysicalinnature.Bothtypesofdistractorsmustbeunderstoodbeforethestudentcanattempttoremedyhislackofconcentration.Emotionsarethemostpowerfuldistractors
27Theangrymanforgetsthepainofinjurythefearfulmanfindsitdifficulttoenjoypleasureandthetenseoranxiouspersonmayreactviolentlytothesmallestofmatters.Inthestudent'slifetherearemanypsychologicalpressuresandtensionswhichblockeffectiveproductivity.Thefearsaboutmakingthegrade,thedoubtsofthefriendlinessofafriend'sbehaviourandthepressuresoflimitedfinances-theseareonlyafewoftheemotionalforceswhichaffectthestudent.Emotionalreactionvariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson.Somepersonsgaingoalanddirectionfromtheirtensionsandactuallydobetterbecauseofthem.Othersfallapartunderpressure,whileafewpeopledowelldespitethepressure.PhysicaldistractorsarealwayspresentandrarelyunderstoodOurenvironmentismuchmoreimportanttohowwefeelandreactthanweoftenthink.Particularlyisthistrueoftheeffectofphysicaldistractorsonmentaltasks.Oneresearchreporthasshownthatcomprehensionandretentionofreadingweredecreasedwhenstudentslistenedtolivelymusic.However,rateofreadingwasnotaffected,sothatmanystudentswerenotawarethattheywereaffectedbythebackgrounddistractor.Anotherstudyfoundthattheabilitytorecallaccuratelywasaffectedbydistractingconditions.Mostoftheevidenceindicatesthatnoiseaffectsadverselyhighermentaltaskoutput.Still,theeffectofdistractorsisseldomfullyappreciatedbystudents.ROUTINEANDREASONINGTASKSAREAFFECTEDDIFFERENTLYBYDISTRACTORSManyroutinetaskscanbeperformedwithdistractioninthebackgroundwithlittleornoadverseeffectonoutput.Moststudentshavefoundthisfacttobetruefromtheirownexperience.Theymayhavehadhighschoolhomeworkwhichwasdrillormerelycopyingassignments.Itwaspossibletodosuchworkwiththelatestrecordingsorthetelevisionsetplayinginthebackground.Intimesuchstudentsbegantofeelcertainthattheycoulddoallwork—routineorproblem-solving--inthesatemanner.Theevidenceindicatesthecontraryconclusion.EXCEPTIONSMAYMISLEADYOUTypicallywhenstudentsarefacedwiththeevidenceondistractorstheargumentisgiven
28thattheircousin,friend,orclassmatecanstudyin"GrandCentralStation/Andhemakes"alltoo!Thereisevidence,ofcourse,thatmotivationplaysanimportantroleinovercomingtheeffectsofdistractorsandthatthereareconsiderabledifferencesinindividualspansofattention.Eitherofthesefactorscouldaccountforsomeindividualsbeingabletodowellusinginefficientmethods.ThefactthatsomeexceptionalpeopledowellunderadverseconditionsscarcelyIjustifiesyourassumingthatyouareexceptionalinthesamemanner.Yourchancesofsuccessarehigherifyouavoidthedistractorswhichareknowntohinderthetypicalstudent.09・A.AainainEuroueanCountriesWehavetorealisehowold,howveryold,weare.Nationsareclassifiedas"aged"whentheyhave7percentormoreoftheirpeopleaged65orabove,andbyabout1970everyoneoftheadvancedcountrieshadbecomelikethis.Ofthereallyancientsocieties,withover13percentabove65,allareinNorthwesternEurope.Atthebeginningofthel980*sEastGermanyhad15.6percent,Austria,Sweden,WestGermanyandFrancehad13.4percentorabove,andEnglandandWales13.3percent.Scotlandhad12.3percent.NorthernIreland10.8percentandtheUnitedStates9.9percent.Weknowthatwearegettingevenolder,andthatthenearerasocietyapproximatestozeropopulationgrowth,the.olderitspopulationislikelytobe-atleast,foranyfuturethatconcernsusnow.Tothesenowfamiliarfactsanumberoffurtherfactsmaybeadded,someofthemonlyrecentlyrecognised.Thereistheapparentparadoxthattheeffectivecauseofthehighproportionoftheoldisbirthsratherthandeaths.Thereistheeconomicprinciplethatthedependencyratio?thedegreetowhichthosewhocannotearndependforalivingonthosewhocan?ismoreadvantageousinoldersocietieslikeoursthanintheyoungersocietiesofthedevelopingworld,becauselotsofdependentbabiesaremoreofaliabilitythannumbersoftheinactiveaged.Thereistheappreciationofthesalienthistoricaltruththattheagingofadvancedsocietieshasbeenasuddenchange.If"revolution”isarapidresettlementofthesocialstructure,andiftheagecompositionofthesocietycountsasaveryimportantaspectofthatsocialstructure,thentherehasbeenasocialrevolution
29inEuropeanandparticularlyWesternEuropeansocietywithinthelifetimeofeveryoneover50.Takentogether,thesethingshaveimplicationswhichareonlybeginningtobeacknowledged.Thesefactsandcircumstanceswerewelltotheforeearlierthisyearataworldgatheringaboutagingasachallengetoscienceandtopolicy,heldatVichyinFrance.ThereisoftenresistancetotheideathatitisbecausethebirthratefellearlierinWesternandNorthwesternEuropethanelsewhere,ratherthanbecauseofanychangeinthedeathrate,thatwehavegrownsoold.Butthisiswhatelementarydemographymakesclear.Longlifeisalt-ringoursociety,ofcourse,butinexperientialterms.Wehaveamongusaverymuchgreaterexperienceofcontinuedlivingthananysocietythathaseverprecededusanywhere,andthiswillcontinue.Buttoomuchofthatlengthenedexperience,eveninthewealthyWest,willbeexperienceofpovertyandneglect,unlesswedosomethingaboutit.Ifyouarenowinyourthirties,yououghttobeawarethatyoucanexpecttolivenearlyonethirdoftherestofyourlifeaftertheageof60.Theolderyouarenow,ofcourse,thegreaterthisproportionwillbe,andgreaterstillifyouareawoman.Expectationoflifeisaslipperyfigure,veryeasytogetwrongatthehighestages.AtVichythedemographersweretellingeachotherthattheirestimatesofhowmanyoldtherewouldbeandhowlongtheywillliveincountrieslikeEnglandandWalesaredueforrevisionupwards.09・B.Children'sSelf-esteemSelf-esteemiswhalpeoplethinkaboutthemselves—whetherornottheyfeelvalued—andwhenfamilymembershaveself-respect,pride,andbeliefinthemselves,thishighself-esteemmakesitpossibletocopewiththeeverydayproblemsofgrowingup.Successfulparentingbeginsbycommunicatingtochildrenthattheybelong,andarelovedfornootherreasonthanjustbecausetheyexist.Throughtouchandtoneofvoiceparentstelltheirinfantswhetherornottheyarevalued,special,andloved,anditisthesemessagesthatformthebasisofthechild'sself-esteem.Whenchildrengrowupwithloveandaremadetofeellovabledespitetheirmistakesandfailures,theyareabletointeractwithothersinaresponsible,
30honest,andlovingway.Ahealthyself-esteemisaresourceforcopingwhendifficultiesarise,makingiteasiertoseeaproblemastemporary,manageable,andsomethingfromwhichtheindividualcanemerge.If,however,childrengrowupwithoutloveandwithoutfeelingsofself-worth,theyfeelunlovableandworthlessandexpecttobecheated,takenadvantageof,andlookeddownuponbyothers.Ultimatelytheiractionsinvitethistreatment,andtheirself-defeatingbehaviorturnsexpectationsintoreality.Theydonothavethepersonalresourcestohandleeverydayproblemsinahealthyway,andlifemaybeviewedasjustonecrisisafteranother.Withoutahealthyself-esteemtheymaycopebyactingoutproblemsratherthantalkingthemoutorbywithdrawingandremainingindifferenttowardthemselvesandothers.Theseindividualsgrowuptoliveisolated,lonelylives,lackingtheabilitytogivethelovethattheyhaveneverreceived.Self-esteemisakindofenergy,andwhenitishigh,peoplefeelliketheycanhandleanything.Itiswhatonefeelswhenspecialthingsarehappeningoreverythingisgoinggreat.Awordofpraise,asmile,agoodgradeonareportcard,ordoingsomethingthatcreatespridewithinoneselfcancreatethisenergy.Whenfeelingsabouttheselfhavebeenthreatenedandself-esteemislow,everythingbecomesmoreofaneffort.Itisdifficulttohear,see,orthinkclearly,andothersseemrude,inconsiderate,andrough.Theproblemisnotwithothers,itiswiththeself,butoftenitisnotuntilenergiesarebacktonormalthattherealproblemisrecognized.Childrenneedhelpunderstandingthattheirself-esteemandtheself-esteemofthosetheyinteractwithhaveadirecteffectoneachother.Forexample,alittlegirlcomeshomefromschoolandsays,“Ineedlovings*causemyfeelingsgothurttoday.?Themotherrespondstoherchild'sneedtobeheldandloved.Ifinsteadthemothersaidshewastoobusytoholdthelittlegirl,theoutcomewouldhavebeendifferent.Theinfant'sself-esteemistotallydependentonfamilymembers,anditisnotuntilaboutthetimethechildentersschoolthatoutsideforcescontributetofeelingsabouttheself.Achildmustalsolearnthatamajorresourceforahealthyself-esteemcomesfromwithin.Someparentsraisetheirchildrentodependonexternalratherthaninternalreinforcementthroughpracticessuchaspayingforgoodgradesonreportcardsorexchangingspecialprivilegesforgoodbehavior.Thechildlearnstorelyonotherstomaintainahighself-esteemandisnotpreparedto
31liveinaworldinwhichdesirablebehaviordoesnotautomaticallyproduceatangiblerewardsuchasasmile,money,orspecialprivileges.Maintainingahealthyself-esteemisachallengethatcontinuesthroughoutlife.Onefamilyfoundthattheycouldhelpeachotheridentifypositiveattitudes.Oneeveningduringanelectricstormthefamilygatheredaroundthekitchentable,andeachpersonwrotedowntwothingsthattheylikedabouteachfamilymember.Thesepiecesofpaperwerefoldedandgiventotheappropriateperson,whoonebyoneopenedtheirspecialmessages.Thefatherlatercommented,"Itwasquiteanexperience,openingeachlittlepieceofpaperandreadingthemessage.Istillhavethosegifts,andwhenl*vehadareallybadday,IreadthroughthemandIalwayscomeawayfeelingbetter/'Thefoundationofahealthyfamilydependsontheabilityoftheparentstocommunicatemessagesoflove,trust,andself-worthtoeachchild.Thisisthebasisonwhichself-esteemisbuilt,andasthechildgrows,self-esteemchangesfromacollectionofothefsfeelingstobecomepersonalfeelingsabouttheself.Ultimatelyaperson'sself-esteemisreflectedinthewayheorsheinteractswithothers.10・A.TheCamoaianforElectionAlthoughpresidentialelectionsoccurevery4years,manypeoplefeelthattheydonothaveatrueunderstandingofhowpresidentialcampaignsoperate.ThewinnerintheNovembergeneralelectionisalmostcertaintobeeithertheRepublicanortheDemocraticnominee.Aminor-parlyorindependentcandidate,suchasGeorgeWallacein1968,JohnAndersonin1980,orRossPerotin1992and1996,candrawvotesawayfromthemajor-partynomineesbutstandsalmostnochanceofdefeatingthem.Amajor-partynomineehasthecriticaladvantageofsupportfromthepartyfaithful.Earlierinthetwentiethcentury,thissupportwassofirmandsteadythatthevictoryofthestrongerparty'scandidatewasalmostacertainty.WarrenGHardingacceptedthe1920RepublicannominationathisOhiohome,stayedtherethroughoutmostofthecampaign,andwonafullvictorysimplybecausemostofthevotersofhistimewereRepublicans.Partyloyalty
32hasdeclinedinrecentdecades,butmorethantwo-thirdsofthenation'svotersstillidentifythemselvesasDemocratsorRepublicans,andmostofthemsupporttheirparty'spresidentialcandidate.EvenDemocratGeorgeMcCiovern,whohadthelowest,levelofpartysupportamongrecentnominees,wasbackedin1972bynearly60percentofhisparty'svoters.Presidentialcandidatesactstrategically.Indecidingwhethertopursueacourseofaction,theytrytoestimateitslikelyimpactonthevoters.Duringthe1992campaign,asignonthewallofClinton'sheadquartersinLittleRockread,nTheEconomy,Stupid."ThesloganwastheideaofJamesCarville,Clinton'schiefstrategist,andwasmeantasaremindertothecandidateandthestafftokeepthecampaignfocusedonthenation'sslow-movingeconomy,whichultimatelywastheissuethatdefeatedBush.Asin1980,whenJimmyCarterlosttoRonaldReaganduringtougheconomictimes,thevotersweremotivatedlargelybyadesireforchange.Candidatestrytoprojectastrongleadershipimage.Whethervotersacceptthisimage,however,dependsmoreonexternalfactorsthanonacandidate'spersonalcharacteristics.In1991,aftertheGulfWar,Bush'sapprovalratingreached91percent,thehighestlevelrecordedsincepollingbeganinthe1930s.Ayearlater,withthenation'seconomyintrouble,Bush担approvalratingdroppedbelow40percent.Bushtriedtostirimagesofhisstrongleadershipofthewar,butvotersremainedconcernedabouttheeconomy.Thecandidates,strategiesareshapedbymanyconsiderations,includingtheconstitutionalprovisionthateachstateshallhaveelectoralvotesequalinnumbertoitsrepresentationinCongress.EachstatethusgetstwoelectoralvotesforitsSenaterepresentationandavaryingnumberofelectoralvotesdependingonitsHouserepresentation.Altogether,thereare538electoralvotes(includingthreefortheDistrictofColumbia,eventhoughithasnovotingrepresentativesinCongress).Towinthepresidency,acandidatemustreceiveatleast270votes,anelectoralmajority.Candidatesareparticularlyconcernedwithwinningthestateswhichhavethelargestpopulation,suchasCalifornia(with54electoralvotes).NewYork(33),Texas(32),Florida(25),Pennsylvania(23),Illinois(22),andOhio(21).Victoryintheelevenlargeststatesalonewouldprovideanelectoralmajority,andpresidentialcandidatesthereforespendmostoftheirtimecampaigninginthosestates.Clintonreceivedonly43percentofthepopularvotein1992,
33comparedwithBush's38percentandPerot's19percent;butClintonwoninstatesthatgavehimanoverwhelming370electoralvotes,comparedwith168forBushandnoneforPerot.10・B.TheAmericanTwo・DartySystemNoonenowlivingintheUnitedStatescanrememberwhenthecontestbeganbetweentheDemocraticandtheRepublicanparties.Ithasbeengoingonformorethanacentury,makingitoneoftheoldestpoliticalrivalriesintheworld.TheAmericanpoliticalsystemisaclassicalexampleofthetwo-partysystem.Whenwesaythatwehaveatwo-partysystemintheUnitedStateswedonotmeanthatwehaveonlytwoparties.Usuallyabout;idozenpartiesnominatepresidentialcandidates.Wecallitatwo-partysystembecausewehavetwolargepartiesandanumberofsmallparties,andthelargepartiesaresolargethatweoftenforgetabouttherest.Usuallythesmallpartiescollectivelypolllessthan5percentofthevotecastinnationalelections.TheDemocraticandRepublicanpartiesarethelargestandmostcompetitiveorganizationsintheAmericancommunity.Theyorganizetheelectorateverysimplybymaintainingthetwo-partysystem.AmericansalmostinevitablybecomeDemocratsorRepublicansbecausethereisusuallynootherplaceforthemtogo.Moreover,becausetherivalryofthesepartiesisveryold,mostAmericansknowwheretheybelonginthesystem.Asaconsequenceofthedominanceofthemajorparties,mostelectedofficialsareeitherRepublicansorDemocrats.Attemptstobreakupthisoldsystemhavebeenmadeineverypresidentialelectioninthepastonehundredyears,butthesystemhassurvivedallassaults.Howdoesithappenthatthetwo-partysystemissostronglyrootedinAmericanpolitics?Theexplanationisprobablytobefoundinthewayelectionsareconducted.IntheUnitedStates,unlikecountrieswithaparliamentarysystemofgovernment,weelectnotonlythePresident,butalargenumberofotherofficials,about800,000ofthem.Wealsoelectcongressmenfromsingle-memberdistricts.Forexample,weelect435membersoftheHouseofRepresentativesfrom435districts(thereareafewexceptions),onememberforeachdistrict.Statistically,this
34kindofelectionfavorsthemajorparties.Thesystemofelectionsmakesiteasyforthemajorpartiestomaintaintheirdominantposition,becausetheyarelikelytowinmorethantheirshareoftheoffices.Oneofthegreatconsequencesofthesystemisthatitproducesmajoritiesautomatically.Becausethereareonlytwocompetitorsintherunning,itisalmostinevitablethatonewillreceiveamajority.Moreover,thesystemtendsslightlytoexaggeratethevictoryofthewinningparty.Thisisnotalwaystrue,butthestrongtendencytoproducemajoritiesisbuiltintothesystem.Inover200yearsofconstitutionalhistory,Americanshavelearnedmuchaboutthewayinwhichthesystemcanbemanagedsoastomakepossiblethepeacefultransferofpowerfromonepartytotheother.Atthelevelofpresidentialelections,thepartyinpowerhasbeenoverturnedbythepartyoutofpowernineteentimes,almostonceadecade.Intheelectionof1860,thepoliticalsystembrokedown,andtheCivilWar,theworstdisasterinAmericanhistory,resulted.Ourhistoryjustifiesourconfidenceinthesystemhutalsoshowsthatitisnotfoolproof.Thesecondmajorpartyisabletosurviveadefeatbecausethestatisticaltendencythatexaggeratesthevictoryofthewinningpartyoperatesevenmorestronglyinfavorofthesecondpartyagainstthethird,fourth,andfifthparties.Asaresult,thedefeatedmajorpartyisabletomaintainamonopolyoftheopposition.Theadvantageofthesecondpartyoverthethirdissogreatthatitistheonlypartythatislikelytoheabletooverturnthepartyinpower.Itisable,therefore,toattractthesupportofeveryoneseriouslyopposedtothepartyinpower.Thesecondpartyisimportantaslongasitcanmonopolizethemovementtooverthrowthepartyinpower,becauseitiscertaintocomeintopowersoonerorlater.Anotherconsequenceofthetwo-partysystemisthatwhereasminorpartiesarelikelytoidentifythemselveswithspecialinterestsorspecialprogramsandthustakeextremepositions,themajorpartiesaresolargethattheytendtobemoderate.Evidenceofthemoderationofthemajorpartiesisthatmuchbusinessisconductedacrosspartylines.WhathappenswhentheDemocratscontrolonehouseofCongressandtheRepublicanscontroltheother?Aboutthesamevolumeoflegislationispassedaswhenonepartycontrolsbothhouses,althoughsomeimportantlegislationislikelytobeblockedtemporarily.Itispossibletocarryontheworkofthe
35governmentevenwhenpartycontrolisdividedbecausepartydifferencesarenotfundamental.11・A.SacrificedtoScience?ProfessorColinBlakemoreworksatOxfordUniversityMedicalSchooldoingresearchintoeyeproblemsandbelievesthatanimalresearchhasgivenhumansmanybenefits:Theuseofanimalshasbeencentraltothedevelopmentofanaesthetics,vaccinesandtreatmentsfordiabetes,cancer,developmentaldisorders...mostofthemajormedicaladvanceshavebeenbasedonabackgroundofanimalresearchanddevelopment.Therearethosewhothinkthetestsaresimplyunnecessary.TheInternationalAssociationAgainstPainfulExperimentsonAnimalsisanorganizationthatpromotestheuseofalternativemethodsofresearchwhichdonotmakeanimalssuffer.TheirspokesmanColinSmithsays:Animalresearchisirrelevanttoourhealthanditcanoftenproducemisleadingresults.Peopleandanimalsaredifferentintheirreactionstodrugsandinthewaytheirbodieswork.Weonlyhavetolookatsomeofthemedicalmistakestoseethisisso.ButProfessorBlackmorestresses:Itwouldbecompletelyirresponsibleandunethicaltousedrugsonpeoplethathadnotbeenthoroughlytestedonanimals.Thefamousexampleofthalidomideisacaseformoreanimaltesting,notless.Thebirthdefectsthatthedrugproducedwerearesultofinadequatetesting.Ifthalidomidewereinventedtoday,itwouldneverbereleasedforhumanusebecausenewtestsonpregnantanimalswouldrevealthedangers.AnotherorganizationthatisdevelopingothermethodsofresearchisFRAME.ThisistheFundfortheReplacementofAnimalsinMedicalExperiments.ItrecognisesthatmanyexperimentsstillhavetobedoneonanimalsandisaimingforReduction,RefinementandReplacementofanimalsinexperiments.In1981,itestablishedaresearchprogrammetoimproveandexpandnon-animaitesting.Increasingly,newtechnologyismakingiteasierforustofindalternativemethodsoftesting.Computermodelscanbeusedtosimulatethewaythatcellsworkandtotrytopredictthetoxicityofchemicals.Datafrompreviousanimalexperimentsisusedtodevelopacomputermodelwhichwillpredictwhatwillhappenifyouaddachemical
36withanunknownbiologicaleffecttoasubstance.Theeventualaimofcomputermodelingistoreducethenumberofanimalsusedinexperiments.TheLethalDose50test(LD50)mayalsobereplaced.Intheoriginaltest,alltheanimalsinatestgrouparegivenasubstanceuntilhalfofthemdie.Thetestindicatestoxicity.Amethodusingafixedamount,whichgivesthesameeventualinformationbutusesfeweranimalsanddoesnotrequirethattheydie,mayreplacetheLD50.Manyothernewtechniquesarenowavailablethatenablemoreresearchtobedoneinthetesttubetoseeifchemicalsproduceharmfulbiologicaleffects.Thenumberofanimalsusedinlaboratorytestshasdeclinedoverthelast20years.Thisispartlyduetoalternativesandpartlytothefactthatexperimentsarebetterdesignedsofewerneedtobeused—healthieranimalsprovidebetterexperimentalresults.Forexample,itusedtotake36monkeystotestasampleofpoliovaccine,nowittakesonly22.Also,lackofmoneyhasreducedthenumberofanimalsused-theyareexpensivetobuyandexpensivetokeep.BirminghamUniversitynowhasBritain'sfirstdepartmentofBiomedicalEthics.ProfessorDavidMortonofthedepartmentisinvolvedinanimalresearchandisconcernedwithreducinganimalsufferingasmuchaspossible.Animalsspend95%oftheirtimeintheircagesandrefinementalsomeansmakingtheirlivesbetterwhennotundergoingtests.Thisincludeskeepingtheminmoresuitablecages,allowingsocialanimalslikedogstolivetogetherandtryingtoreducetheboredomthattheseanimalscanexperience.InProfessorMorton'slaboratory,rabbitslivetogetherinlargeruns,filledwithdeeplitterandboxesthattheycanhidein.Theresearchershavealsorefinedsomeexperiments.IntheUS,oneexperimentinnerveregenerationinvolvescuttingabignerveinarat'sleg,leavingitslegparalysed.InMorton'slab,theresearchercutsasmallnerveinthefoot.Hecanseeifitcanregrowandtheratcanstillrunarounditscage.Evenwiththesenewdevelopmentsinresearch,onlyatinyproportionofalltestsaredonewithoutusinganimalsatsomestage.Theuseofanimalsinexperimentscannotstopimmediatelyifmedicalresearchistocontinueandconsumerproductsaretoheproperlytested,andProfessorBlakemorebelievesthatsometimestherearenoalternatives:Whereverpossible,forbothethicalandscientificreasons,wedonotuseanimals.But
37cellsliveinanimalsandwecanonlyreallyseehowtheybehavewhentheyareinsideanimals.Wecannotpossiblyreproduceinatesttubeoracomputermodelallthecomplexreactionsofthebodytoadrugoradisease.Whenitcomestoresearchintoheartdiseaseanditseffectsonthebody,ordiseasesofthebrainforexample,wedonothaveadequatesubstitutesfortheuseofanimals.Asresearchtechniquesbecomemoreadvanced,thenumberofanimalsusedinexperimentsmaydecrease,butstoppingtestingoilanimalsaltogetherisalongwayaway.11・B.Let'sSt。。Kee—in。PetsPetsarelovable,frequentlydelightful.Thedogandthecat,themostfavoredofpets,arebeautiful,intelligentanimals.Toassumethecareforthemcanhelpbringoutthehumanityinourchildrenandeveninus.Adogoracatcanteachusalotabouthumannature;theyarealotmorelikeusthansomemightthink.Morethanoneownerofadoghassaidthattheanimalunderstandseverythinghesaystoit.Soamotherandfatherwhohaveevercaredforpetsarelikelytobemorepatientandunderstandingwiththeirchildrenaswell,andespeciallytoavoidmakingnegativeorruderemarksinthepresenceofachild,nomatterhowyoung.Itistouchingtoseehowacatordog-especiallyadog-attachesitselftoafamilyandwantstoshareinallitsgoingsandcomings.Ifcertainanimalpsychologistsareright,adogadoptshisfamilyinamostliteralway-takingitforgrantedthatthefamilyisthebandofdogshebelongsto.Itissometimessaidthatthecat"takesallandgivesnothing/'Butisthatreallytrue?Acatcanteachusavaluablelessonabouthowtobecontented,howtobesereneandatease,howtositandcontemplate.Whereasadog'sconstantpleasforattentionbecome,sometimes,abittoomuch.Neverthelessitisthedogwhocanteachuslessonsofloyaltyanddevotionthatnocateverknew.Sothere'splentytobesaidinfavorofkeepingpets.Butwithallthatinmind,Istillsay
38let'sstopkeepingpets.Notthatafamilyshouldkillitspets.Veryfewcouldbringthemselvestodothat.Tobepractical,Iamsuggestingthatifwedonotnowhaveapetweshouldnotacquireone;second,thatifwenowhaveapet,weletitbeourlastone.1couldneversaythatpetsarebad.Iamsaying,let'sgiveupthisgoodthing-theownershipofapet—infavorofamoreimperativegood.Thepurchase,thehealthcare,thefeedingandhousingandtrainingofapet-andIchieflymeanthelarger,longer-livedpets—costtimeandmoney.Dependingontheanimafssizeandactivity,it,sspecialtastesandneeds,andthestandardoflivingweestablishforit,thecareofapetcancostfromadollaraweektoadollarormoreaday.Iwouldnotforamomentdenyitisworththat.Butfactsoutsidethewallsofourhomekeepbreakinginonourawareness.Thoughwedonotseethepoverty-strickenpeopleofIndiaandAfricaandSouthAmerica,wecanneverquiteforgetthattheyarethere.Nowandthentheirfacesareshowninthenews,orinthebeggingadsofrelieforganizations.Probablywesendadonationwheneverwecan.Butwedonot,asarule,feelaheavypersonalresponsibilityfortheafflictedanddeprivedforweareprettythoroughlyformedbytheindividualistic,competitivesocietywelivein.Thefirstdimeweevermadewasourstospendinanywaywechose.Noonethoughtofquestioningthat.Thatattitude,formedbeforewehadlearnedtothink,usuallyprevailsthroughourlife:"Imademymoney.IcanspenditanywayIlike.”Butmoreandmorewearereadingthatthepeopleofthe"ThirdWorld,,feelbitteratusinthedevelopedcountries(withtheUnitedStatesfarmoredevelopedthananyoftheothers)forourseizingholdoftwo-thirdsoftheworld'swealthandlivinglikekingswhiletheyworkawayalldaytoearnabareliving.Themoneyandthetimewespendonpetsissimplynotourowntospendaswelikeinatimeofwidespreadwantandstarvation.Arelieforganizationadvertisesthatfor$33amonththeycangivehospitalcaretoachildsufferingfromkwashiorkor-theseveredeficiencydiseasewhichissimplyastarvingforprotein.Doingwithoutsuchapet,andthensendingthemoneysavedtoarelieforganizationwouldmeansavingalife-overtheyears,severalhumanlives.
39Childrennotsufferingfromsuchagravediseasecouldbefedwithhalfthatamount-notonadietlikeours,butonplain,basic,life-sustainingfood.Itisnotunreasonabletobelievethattheamountofmoneywespendontheaveragepetdogcouldkeepachildaliveinaregionofgreatpoverty.Togivewhatwewouldspendonacatmightnotfeedachild,butitwouldprobablypayforhismedicalcareorbasiceducation.Thepointneedsnolaboring.Thatisallthatneedbesaid.12・A・LetYourMindWanderUntilrecentlydaydreamingwasgenerallyconsideredeitherawasteoftimeorasymptomofneurotictendencies,andhabitualdaydreamingwasregardedasevidenceofmaladjustmentoranescapefromliferealitiesandresponsibilities.Itwasbelievedthathabitualdaydreamingwouldeventuallydistancepeoplefromsocietyandreducetheireffectivenessincopingwithrealproblems.Atitsbest,daydreamingwasconsideredacompensatorysubstitutefortherealthingsinlife.Aswithanythingcarriedtoexcess,daydreamingcanbeharmful.Therearealwaysthosewhowouldsubstitutefantasylivesfortherewardsofrealactivity.Butsuchextremesarerelativelyrare,andthereisagrowingbodyofevidencetosupportthefactthatmostpeoplesufferfromalackofdaydreamingratherthananexcessofit.Wearenowbeginningtolearnhowvaluableitreallyisandthatwhenindividualsarecompletelypreventedfromdaydreaming,theiremotionalbalancecanbedisturbed.Notonlyaretheylessabletodealwiththepressuresofday-to-dayexistence,butalsotheirself-controlandself-directionbecomeendangered.Recentresearchindicatesthatdaydreamingispartofdailylifeandthatacertainamounteachdayisessentialformaintainingequilibrium.Daydreaming,sciencehasdiscovered,isaneffectiverelaxationtechnique.Butitsbeneficialeffectsgobeyondthis.Experimentsshowthatdaydreamingsignificantlycontributestointellectualgrowth,powersofconcentration,andtheabilitytointeractandcommunicatewithothers.
40InanexperimentwithschoolchildreninNewYork,Dr.JoanFreybergobservedimprovedconcentration:"Therewaslessrunningaround,morehappyfeelings,moretalkingandplayinginthegroup,andmoreattentionpaidtodetail.'1InanotherexperimentatYaleUniversity,Dr.JeromeSingerfoundthatdaydreamingresultedinimprovedself-controlandenhancedcreativethinkingability.Daydreaming,Singerpointedout,isonewayindividualscanimproveuponreality.Itis,heconcluded,apowerfulspurtoachievement.'Butthevalueofdaydreamingdoesnotstophere.Ithasbeenfoundthatitimprovesaperson'sabilitytobebetteradaptedtopractical,immediateconcerns,tosolveeverydayproblems,andtocomeupmorereadilywithnewideas.Contrarytopopularbelief,constantandconsciouseffortatsolvingaproblemis,inreality,oneofthemostinefficientwaysofcopingwithit.Whileconsciousinitialeffortisalwaysnecessary,effectivesolutionstoespeciallysevereproblemsfrequentlyoccurwhenconsciousattemptstosolvethemhavebeenputoff.Inabilitytorelax,toletgoofaproblem,oftenpreventsitssolution.Historically,scientistsandinventorsareonegroupthatseemstotakefulladvantageofrelaxedmoments.Theirbiographiesrevealthattheirbestideasseemtohaveoccurredwhentheywererelaxinganddaydreaming.Itiswellknown,forexample,thatNewtonsolvedmanyofhistoughestproblemswhenhisattentionwaswaylaidbyprivatemusings.ThomasAlvaEdisonalsoknewthevalueof"halfwaking?states.Wheneverconfrontedwithataskwhichseemedtoohardtobedealtwith,hewouldstretchoutonhislaboratorysofaandletfantasiesfloodhismind.Painters,writers,andcomposersalsohavedrawnheavilyontheirsensitivitytoinnerfantasies.DebussyusedtogazeattheRiverSeineandthegoldenreflectionsofthesettingsuntoestablishanatmosphereforcreativity.Brahmsfoundthatideascameeffortlessonlywhenheapproachedastateofdeepdaydreaming.AndCesarFrankissaidtohavewalkedaroundwithadreamlikegazewhilecomposing,seeminglytotallyunawareofhissurroundings.Manysuccessfulpeopleactuallydaydreamedtheirsuccessesandachievementslongbeforetheyrealizedthem.HenryJ.KaisermaintainedthatUyoucanimagineyourfuture,?andhebelievedthatagreatpartofhisbusinesssuccesswasduetopositiveuseofdaydreams.HarryS.Trumansaidthatheuseddaydreamingforrest.ConradHiltondreamedofoperatingahotel
41whenhewasaboy.Herecalledthatallhisaccomplishmentswerefirstrealizedinhisimagination."Greatlivingstartswithapicture,heldinsomeperson'simagination,ofwhathewouldlikesomedaytodoorbe.FlorenceNightingaledreamedofbeinganurse.Edisonpicturedhimselfaninventor;allsuchcharactersescapedthemerepushofcircumstancebyimaginingafuturesovividlythattheyheadedforit?Thesearethewordsofthewell-knownthinkerDr.HarryEmersonFosdick,andtheyshowthatpeoplecanliterallydaydreamthemselvestosuccess.Fosdick,awareofthewonderfulpowerofpositivedaydreaming,offeredthisadvice:"Holdapictureofyourselflongandsteadilyenoughinyourmind'seye,andyouwillbedrawntowardit.Pictureyourselfvividlyasdefeatedandthatalonewillmakevictoryimpossible.Pictureyourselfaswinningandthatwillcontributeremarkablytosuccess.Donotpictureyourselfasanything,andyouwilldriftlikeanabandonedshipatsea.°Togettheresults,youshouldpictureyourself-asvividlyaspossible-asyouwanttobe.Theimportantthingtorememberistopicturethesedesiredobjectivesasifyouhadalreadyattainedthem.Gooverseveraltimesthedetailsofthesepictures.Thiswilldeeplyimpressthemonyourmemory,andthesememorytraceswillsoonstartinfluencingyoureverydaybehaviortowardtheattainmentofthegoal.Whileexercisingyourimagination,youshouldbealoneandcompletelyundisturbed.Someindividualsseemtohavetheabilitytotuneintotheirprivateselvesinthemidstofthenoisiestcrowdsorcompany.Butmostofus,especiallywhentheexperienceisnew,requireanenvironmentfreefromoutsidedistraction.Alifelivedwithoutfantasyanddaydreamingisaseriouslyimpoverishedone.Eachofusshouldputasideafewminutesdaily,takingshort10-or15-minutevacations.Daydreamingishighlybeneficialtoyourphysicalandmentalwell-being,andyouwillfindthatthismodest,inexpensiveinvestmentintimewilladduptoamorecreativeandimaginative,amoresatisfied,andamoreself-fulfilledyou.Itoffersusafullersenseofbeingintenselyalivefrommomenttomoment,andthis,ofcourse,contributesgreatlytotheexcitementandjoyofliving.
4212・B.ToSleetxPerchancetoDreamSoyouawokethismorninginamiserablemood.Well,maybeyourspecialdreamcharacterdidn'tputinanappearancelastnight,ormaybetherejustweren'tenoughpeopledriftingthroughyourdreams.Ifthatsoundslikefar-fetchedfantasy,considertheseinterestingfindingsthathaveemergedfromeightyearsofsleepanddreamresearchattheVeteransAdministrationHospitalinCincinnati,Ohio:Whilesleepaffectshowsleepy,friendly,aggressive,andunhappywefeelafterawakening,feelingsofhappinessorunhappinessdependmoststronglyonourdreams.Eachofushasaspecialdreamcharacter,atypeofpersonwhoseappearanceinourdreamsmakesusfeelhappierwhenweawake.Whatwedreamatnightisn'tasimportanttohowwefeelinthemorningasthenumberofpeoplewhoappearinourdreams.Themorepeople,thebetterwefeel.Oursleepinfluencesourmood.Ourmood,inturn,affectsourperformance.Andthroughouttheday,ourlevelsofmoodandperformanceremaincloselylinked.Duringthepasttwodecades,researchhasgreatlyexpandedourknowledgeaboutsleepanddreams.Scientistshaveidentifiedvariousstagesofsleep,andtheyhavefoundthathumanscanfunctionwellonverylittlesleep,butonlyiftheydream.Yetthetruefunctionofsleepanddreamingcontinuestoeludepreciseexplanation.In1970MiltonKramerandThomasRoth,researchersattheVAHospitalandtheUniversityofCincinnatiCollegeofMedicine,respectively,raisedthisquestion:Doourmoodsinthemorningrelateinanywaytooursleepanddreamsthepreviousnight?Humanexperiencesuggeststhattheydo.Certainlywegenerallyfeelbetterafteragoodnight担sleep.ButDrs.KramerandRothsoughtamuchmoredefinitiveanswer.Andthatanswer,thoughstillevolving,isapositiveyes.KramerandRothbeganbyseekingtodeterminewhetherone'smooddiffersbetweennightandmorning,andwhetherthisisrelateddirectlytosleep.Theyfoundthatthereisadifference,anditisdefinitelyrelatedtosleep.Thentheyexploredthevariousaspectsofmood
43andtheirrelationshiptothevariousstagesofsleepanddreaming.Whatdoesagoodnight'ssleepmeantoourmood?Generallywearehappier,lessaggressive,sleepier,and,abitsurprisingly,lessfriendly.Beingsleepieriseasilyexplained.Itsimplytakesalittletimetobecomefullyalertafterawakening.Butwhyshouldwefeellessfriendly?Heretheresearchersmustspeculatealittle.Theysuggesttheanswermaybethelackofassociationwithotherhumansduringtheperiodofsleep.Oncethetwodoctorsestablishedscientificallywhatcommonsenseandfolkwisdomhadlongtaught-namely,thatthereislinkbetweensleepandhowwefeel-theysetouttolearnwhatpartsofourmoodarerelatedtowhichspecificpartsofthesleepcycle.Nonnalsleepisbrokenintofivedistinctparts—Stages1through4,plusREM,anacronymforrapideyemovement.Muchremainsunknownabouteachofthefivesleepstages.MostdreamingoccursduringREMsleep,aperiodwhentheeyeballsmoverapidlybeneaththeclosedlids.Andwhethertheyrememberornot,alladultsdream,usuallyfourtosixtimesanight.Threetypesofmoodarestronglyrelatedtosomespecificstageofsleep.Ourfriendly,aggressive,andsleepyfeelingsallrelatetoStage2sleep,whichaccountsformostofourtotalsleephours.Ourfriendlyandsleepyfeelings,butnotouraggressivefeelings,areaffectedaswellbyStages3and4,andbyhowlongittakesustofallasleep.Thismeansthatifyougetlesssleepthannormal?andpeoplevaryagreatdealinhowmuchsleeptheynormallyrequire-youawakemorefriendly,moreaggressive,andlesssleepy.Atthispoint,thedoctorsfoundthemselvespuzzled.Theyknewfromtheirearlierworkthatsleepdeterminesifpeoplefeelhappier.Yetwhentheystudiedthevarioussleepstages,theyfoundnocorrelationbetweensleepphysiologyandtheunhappymood.Clearlysleepmadeadifference,butthatdifferencedidn'trelatetohowmuchtimeonespentineachofthevarioussleepstages.Thetworesearchersdecidedthekeytowhetherwefeelhappyorunhappyaftersleepmustlieinsleep*spsychologicalcomponent-ourdreams.Sotheybeganstudyingdreamcontent-whatdreamersdreamedandwhoappearedintheirdreams—toseehowthisaffectedmood.
44Insteadofsleepingthroughthenight,volunteersnowwereawakenedfourtimeswhileinREMsleep.Theywereaskedaboutsuchthingsaswhattheirdreamswereabout;thesex,age,identity,andnumberofthepeopleintheirdreams;andwhateachpersoninadreamwasdoing.Interestingly,KramerandRothfoundthatbeingawakenedfourtimesanightdidn'tmakeadifferenceinthevolunteers'morningmoodpatterns.Buttheydidfindthatwhoappearsinadreamhasafargreaterinfluenceonmoodthanwhatoccursinthedream.''Whoaffectsallthemoods."Kramersays,Mbutprimarilytheunhappymood.^^Eachofus,itturnsout,hasaspecialdreamcharacter,andifthistypeofcharacterappearsinourdreams,wearehappierwhenweawake.''Forpeopleingeneral,howunhappyyoufeelaftersleepdependsonwhoisinthedream,“Kramersays."Whoitisthatmakesyouhappierisdifferentforyouthanforme."Forsomeitmaybeanolderwoman,forexample;forothers,ayoungman.Whoappearsinyourdreamisn*ttheonlyimportantthing.Themorepeoplewhoappearinyourdreamsthehappieryouareonawakening.It'sacaseofthemorethemerrier.nThebadthinginadreamistobealone;youfeelworse,“Kramerexplains."Youcanrelatethistowakeningpsychology,wherebeingaloneleadstomoreunhappiness.Thereissomethingaboutinteractingwithpeoplethatproduceshappiness.^^Anumberofresearchershaveexaminedtherelationshipofmoodandperformance.Thedoctorsalsocheckedintothisrelationship,andtheyhavefoundsomeinterestingcorrelations."Wefoundthatthemorefriendly,moreaggressive,moreclear-thinking,lesssleepy,andsurprisingly,themoreunhappyyouare,thebetteryouperform.Thatlastone-theunhappy-Ican'texplain,"Kramersays.Moreover,thelevelofaperson'smoodsandthelevelofhisorherperformanceriseandfalltogetherthroughouttheday.InitiallythetwoVAresearchersworkedonlywithmen,becausethedreamsofmenarefareasiertostudy.Menandwomendreamdifferently.Indeed,sexisthebiggestfactorinaccountingfordifferencesinthepeople,activities,locationsandfeelingsthatoccurindreams.Dr.Kramersays,"Whenyoucomparemenandwomen,yougetagreaterdifferenceindreamcontentthanwhenyoucompare,say,20and60-year-olds,orblackandwhite.”LastyeartheVAresearchersbeganstudyingtherelationshipofsleep,dreams,andmood
45inwomen.Thisworkiscontinuing,buttheinitialfindingsreinforcewhattheyhadfoundinmen.“Overall,thewomenarejustlikemen,“Kramersays.13・A.Work.Labor,andPlaySofarasIknow,MissHannahArendtwasthefirstpersontodefinetheessentialdifferencebetweenworkandlabor.Tobehappy,amanmustfeel,firstly,freeand,secondly,important.Hecannotbereallyhappyifheiscompelledbysocietytodowhathedoesnotenjoydoing,orifwhatheenjoysdoingisignoredbysocietyasofnovalueorimportance.Inasocietywhereslaveryinthestrictsensehasbeenabolished,thesignthatwhatamandoesisofsocialvalueisthatheispaidmoneytodoit,butalaborertodaycanrightlybecalledawageslave.Amanisalaborerifthejobsocietyoffershimisofnointeresttohimselfbutheiscompelledtotakeitbythenecessityofearningalivingandsupportinghisfamily.Theantithesistolaborisplay.Whenweplayagame,weenjoywhatwearedoing,otherwiseweshouldnotplayit,butitisapurelyprivateactivity;societycouldnotcarelesswhetherweplayitornot.Betweenlaborandplaystandswork.Amanisaworkerifheispersonallyinterestedinthejobwhichsocietypayshimtodo;whatfromthepointofviewofsocietyisnecessarylaborisfromhisownpointofviewvoluntaryplay.Whetherajobistobeclassifiedaslabororworkdepends,notonthejobitself,butonthetastesoftheindividualwhoundertakesit.Thedifferencedoesnot,forexample,coincidewiththedifferencebetweenamanualandamentaljob;agardeneroracobblermaybeaworker,abankclerkalaborer.Whichamaniscanbeseenfromhisattitudetowardleisure,lbaworker,leisuremeanssimplythehoursheneedstorelaxandrestinordertoworkefficiently.Heisthereforemorelikelytotakeloolittleleisurethantoomuch;workersdieofcoronariesandforgettheirwives,birthdays.Tothelaborer,ontheotherhand,leisuremeansfreedomfromcompulsion,sothatitisnaturalforhimtoimaginethatthe
46fewerhourshehastospendlaboring,andthemorehoursheisfreetoplay,thebetter.Whatpercentageofthepopulationinamoderntechnologicalsocietyare,likemyself,inthefortunatepositionofbeingworkers?Ataguess1wouldsaysixteenpercent,andIdonotthinkthatfigureislikelytogetbiggerinthefuture.Technologyandthedivisionoflaborhavedonetwothings:byeliminatinginmanyfieldstheneedforspecialstrengthorskill,theyhavemadeaverylargenumberofpaidoccupationswhichformerlywereenjoyableworkintoboringlabor,andbyincreasingproductivitytheyhavereducedthenumberofnecessarylaboringhours.Itisalreadypossibletoimagineasocietyinwhichthemajorityofthepopulation,thatistosay,itslaborers,willhavealmostasmuchleisureasinearliertimeswasenjoyedbythearistocracy.Whenonerecallshowaristocraciesinthepastactuallybehaved,theprospectisnotcheerful.Indeed,theproblemofdealingwithboredommaybeevenmoredifficultforsuchafuturemasssocietythanitwasforaristocracies.Thelatter,forexample,ritualizedtheirtime;therewasaseasontoshootgrouse,aseasontospendintown,etc.Themassesaremorelikelytoreplaceanunchangingritualbyfashionwhichitwillbeintheeconomicinterestofcertainpeopletochangeasoftenaspossible.Again,themassescannotgoinforhunting,forverysoontherewouldbenoanimalslefttohunt.Forotheraristocraticamusementslikegambling,dueling,andwarfare,itmaybeonlytooeasytofindequivalentsindangerousdriving,drug-taking,andsenselessactsofviolence.Workersseldomcommitactsofviolence,becausetheycanputtheiraggressionintotheirwork,beitphysicalliketheworkofasmith,ormentalliketheworkofascientistoranartist.Theroleofaggressioninmentalworkisaptlyexpressedbythephrase"gettingone'steethintoaproblem.H13・B.TheWorkman'sComDensationHowcansomeone,hourafterhour,dayafterday,yearinandyearout,tightenapproximatelythesamenuttothesameboltandnotgomad?Thatmostworkingpeopledonot,
47infact,gomadisdueinlargemeasuretoaphenomenonsocommonthatitisfoundwhereverpeoplelaborinindustry:takingiteasy.Itwouldtakesomekindofrealmentalcasetodoalltheworkonecouldalldaylong.Nooneexpectsit.Takingiteasyonthejobwhilesomeoneelsecoversyourwork,or"workingonandoff,"asitisusuallycalledinAmerica,isanestablishedpartoftheworkinglife.Workingonandoff,however,hasitslimits.Therulesareinfinitelyvaried,subtle,andflexible,and,ofcourse,theyarealwayschanging.Management,uptoacertainlevelatleast,isawareofthepractice,andinsomeindustriesemploysentirecadresofpeopletocurtailorpatanendtoit.Simultaneously,theworkersaresubtlydoingtheirbesttokeepitgoingandtoextenditwhereverpossible.Everyworkerhasahighlydevelopedsenseofhowmuchworkisexpectedofhim.Whenhefeelsthattheexpectationisexcessive,hetriestodosomethingaboutit.Thisinstincthastodowiththepoliticalnatureofworkitself,somethingeverymodernworkerunderstands.Thebosseswantmorefromtheworkerthantheyarewillingtogiveinreturn.Theworkersgivework,andthebossesgivemoney.Theexchangeisneverquiteequal,andthediscrepancyiscalledprofit.Sincethebossescannotdowithoutprofit,workershaveanedge.Agoodworkerinakeyspotcould,solongashekeptupproduction,takeallthecoffeebreakshewanted,andthebosseswouldverylikelylooktheotherway.Hecouldalsochoosetocutdownonthecoffeebreaks,applyhimself,andincreaseproduction,andthenaskforandgetmoremoney.Butthatwouldbeself-defeating,andheknowsit.Itwouldalsoplacehimincompetitionwithotherworkers,whichwouldbeplayingintothebosses,hands.Whathewouldratherdoiscreatesomeslackforhimselfandenjoyhisjobmore.AtpresentontheWestCoast,whenagangoflongshoremenworkingoncargostartashift,theyoftendividethemselvesintotwoequalgroupsandtossacoin.OnegroupgoesintothefarreachesoftheshipJHholdandsitsaround.Theothergroupstartsloadingcargo,usuallyworkingwithavengeance,sinceeachoneofthemisdoingtheworkoftwomen.Anhourlater,thegroupschangeplaces.Inotherwords,althoughmyfellowlongshoremenandIaregettingpaidforeighthours,onoccasionweworkonlyfour.Ifsomeonereadingthisfeelsasenseofmoraloutragebecausewearesittingdownonthejob,Iamsorry.Ihavesearchedmymindin
48vainforapolitewaytotellthatreadertogotohell.Ifyouarethatreader,Iwouldrecommendthatyouabandonyouroutrageandbeginthinkingaboutdoingsomethingsimilarforyourself.Youprobablyalreadyhave,evenifyouwon'tadmitit.Whitecollarofficeworkers,too,havecomeundercriticismrecentlyforrobbingtheirbossesoftheirfull-timeservices.ToomuchtimeisbeingspentaroundtheMr.Coffeemachine,andsomepeople(wouldyoubelieveit?)haveevenbeenhavingpersonalconversationsoncompanytime.Infact,oneoffice-systemexpertrecentlysaidthathehadyettoencounterabusinessworkplacethatwasfunctioningatmorethanabout60percentefficiency.Managementoftenstruggleshardtosetupasituationwhereworkisdoneinseries:aworkerreceivesanarticleofmanufacture,doessomethingtoit,andpassesitontoanotherworker,whodoessomethingelsetoitandthenpassesitontothenextguy,andsoon.Theassemblylineisaperfectexampleofthis.Managerslikethistypeofmanufacturebecauseitismoreefficient?thatis,itachievesmoreproduction.Theyalsolikeitforanotherreason,eveniftheywillnotadmitit:itmakesitverydifficultfortheworkertodoanythingotherthanwork.FrederickW.Taylor,theefficiencyexpertwhoearlyinthiscenturyconductedthetime-and-motionstudiesthatledtotheassembly-lineprocess,triedtoreduceworkerstorobots,ailinthenameofgreaterproduction.Hisstaffofexperts,eacharmedwithclipboardandstopwatch,studiedindividualworkerswithaviewtowardeliminatingunnecessarymovement.Theysoonfoundagreatdealofoppositionfromtheworkers.Mostpeoplenotdirectlyengagedindailyworkexpressdisapprovalwhentheyhearofpeopleworkingonandoff.Astudiedcampaignwithcarefullychosenlanguage—“afullday'sworkforafullday'spay,?”takingafreeride”—hasbeenpushedbycertainemployerstodiscreditthepractice,andtheirsuccessissuchthatIrarelydiscussitexceptwithotherworkers.Myresponseispersonal,andIfeelnoneedtodefendit:If1amgettingafreeride,howcomeIamsotiredwhenIgohomeattheendofashift?
4914・A.TheTeacher'sLastShockinalessonAremarkablewomanreasonswithherkiller-andtapesitSheusedtheminiaturetaperecorderforagraduate-schoolcourseshewastaking.Thedevice,though,woulddomuchmorethancapturealecture.ItwasamicrocassettefoundinKathleenWeinstein'sshirtpocketthatnotonlyledpolicetoherallegedkillerbutalsorevealedtheNewJerseyteachertobeawomanofextraordinarycourageandcompassion.Weinstein,45,wasonherwaytoanexamatTomsRiverHighSchoolSouthonMarch14whenshegotoutofhergold1995ToyotaCamrytobuyasandwichatthebusyTomsRiverShoppingCenter.That'swhereherpathcrossedthatofMichaelLaSane,who,policesay,wantedjustsuchacartocelebratehis17thbirthday.GrabbingWeinsteinbythejaw,theattackertoldherhehadagunandforcedherintotheCamry.ThecarwasthendriventoManitouPark,abouttwomilesfromtheshoppingcenter.Itwasthere,policebelieve,thatWeinsteinwasabletoactivatetherecordershekeptinherbag.AccordingtoOceanCountyprosecutorDanielCarluccio,thetapedconversationbetweenWeinsteinandLaSanetookplaceastheyremovedpersonalitems—bags,notebooks,hersix-year-oldson'sbelongings,fromthecar."Itwasn'thysterical,“Carlucciosaysofthe24-minutetape."Itwasn'tthekindofthingyouwouldexpectofsomeonewhoisfacingalife-threateningsituation.Mrs.Weinsteinbravelyandpersistentlyusedeveryskillandpowershehadtoconvinceherattackertosimplytakehercarandnotherlife.”TheexcerptsofthetalkreleasedbytheprosecutorshowwhyWeinsteinwasabelovedfigureatThorneMicidleSchoolinMiddletown,whereshewasaspecial-educationteacher.“Youhaven'tdoneanythingyel,“shetellsherattacker.nAllyouhavetodoisletmegoandtakemycar.Formylife,don'tyouthink1shouldbeconcernedandletyoutakemycar?Formylife!Doyoureallywanttohavethatonyourhead?”Atanotherpoint,theteachertriestogethimtoopenup."Whydon*lyoujusttellme?Ofcourse,itsimportant.It*sdeterminingyourwholelifeandthedirectionyou'retaking."WeinsteinalsotalksabouthersonDanielandherplanstotakeinafosterchildwithherhusbandPaul."Iwanttogivesomethingtosomebody,togivesomethingbackJshesays.
50Herpowersofpersuasionweretonoavail.Weinstein'sbody,withhandsandfeetbound,wasdiscoveredbyahikeronMarch17.Shehadbeensmotheredwithhercoat.Butbeforeshediedshesomehowslippedthemicrocassetteintoherpocketwithoutherkillerknowingit.BecauseWeinsteinhadaskedLaSaneabouthimselfandhisfamily,policequicklyhadtheirsuspect,thesonofalocalofficial."Ourimpressionwasthatshewasveryawareshewasleavingsomethingbehind,MsaysCarluccio.HewillnotcommentonLaSane*ssideoftheconversationexcepttosay,"Whenyouhearthetape,itwillraiseprofoundquestionsaboutwhatishappeninginourworldwithjuvenilesandoursociety.Itgoesbeyondmaterialism.HWeinsteinalsohelpedleavebehindanewprogramatThorneMiddleSchoolinwhichstudentswereencouragedtodonicethingsforothers.EverymomingWeinsteinwouldannouncevariousgooddeedsoverthep.a.systemandshesolicitedprizesfromlocalmerchantsandrestaurants.Givenherfate,thenameoftheprogramhasaheartbreakingresonancetoit:RandomActsofKindness.14・B.TheSeedsofWrathTheworldknowsagreatdealaboutapartheid.Itknowsitasarepressivepoliticalsystemwhichdeniespoliticalrepresentationto14,000,000SouthAfricansbecausetheyarenotwhite;itknowsitasadivisivesocialsystemwhichkeepspeopleapart,dividingthemoncolourlinesandpunishingthosewhotrytocrosstheselines.Buttheeffectsofapartheidintermsofsocialbehaviourandonculturaldevelopmentarelesswellknown.Tounderstandtheeffectsofapartheiditisnecessarytothinkofthedailylivesofthepeopleandthewaysinwhichtheirlivesareregulatedbyapartheid.Itmeansstandingforhoursinabus-queue,becausetherearetoofewbusesspeciallysetasideforblackpeople;itmeanshavingtopasstheatresandswimmingpoolswithnothoughtofeverenteringthem,,becausetheyaresetasideforwhitepeople,andbecausetherestrictionsextendtothethoughtspeoplethink,andbecausethelawsapplytobothblackandwhite,it
51meansthatallpeopleinSouthAfricaaredeniedtherighttoreadcertainbooksbecause(hegovernmentbelievesthemtobesubversiveofitsapartheidsociety.ApartheidmeansthatsportsmenlikeBasilD'Oliviera,SteveMakone,andPreciousMackenziecouldneverrepresenttheirowncountrybecausetheywerenotwhite;thatsingersaandactorslikeMiriamMakebaandLionelNgamanewouldberestrictedbecauseoftheircolourtoappearingincertainplacesandbeforecertainaudiences-acolouredcastcouldperformVerdi's"LaTraviataMbutnonon-whitescouldattendaperformancebeforetheStatePresident.Thelistofrestrictionsisendless-theseareonlyafewsmallexamples.Butwhattheyadduptoisadivisionwhichbreedshostility.Atsportsevents,ifwhiteandblackarepresent,theysupportopposingsidesandtheresultisfriction-somuchsothatinmanygroundsonlywhitesareallowed.Itisillegalforwhiteandblacktoplaychesstogether.Andwhiteswhvtriedtoplayfootballinateamwithblackmemberswereprosecuted.Andinasocietywheretheseuglybarriersexist,itisbettertopretendthattheyarenotthere.TheresultisthatthewritersandpoetsofwhiteSouthAfricaareincapableofproducinganyworkwhichtruthfullyreflectstheirsociety;andsodeephasthiskindofblindnessenteredthatnoworkofanyrealworthhasbeenproducedinSouthAfricaformanyyears.Perhapsonemightexpectthewritersamongtheblacks,inasituationfulloftensionandpain,toproduceworkswhichlive.Butforthemapartheidpresentsanotherproblem;tobefrankistobebanned.AndsowriterslikeAlexlaGumaweresilencedbybanningorders,orothers,likeAlfredHutchinsonandBlokeModisanefledthecountry.FearNatNakasathepledgehewasrequiredtosign-toleavehiscountryandneverreturnprovedtoomuch;hecommittedsuicideinNewYork.Evenwhitewriters-AndreBrink,forinstance-whohavedaredtocriticise,orappeartocriticise,theapartheidsocietyhavesuffered.Iheirworkshave*beenbanned,ortheyhavebeensavagelyattackedbytheofficialspokesmenofapartheid.Thefailureofwriterstowrite,orofpeopletounderstandeachother—alltheseareindicationsofthedeeperevil;thefailureofcommunication.Butwhatislittleunderstoodbythe
52outsideworldisthatthisisafailurelegislatedfor.Itisafailurewhichhasbeencarefullydesigned.Itistheintentionofthosewhohaveconstructedtheapartheidsociety,andwhointendthatitshouldlastforever,thatthosewhomakeupthesocietyshouldbepreventedfromcommunicatingwitheachother.Blackandwhitemustbecutofffromeachother,mustbeunabletocommunicate.ItisonthisdivisionthatapartheidrestsThisisthetruemeaningofapartheid.AnditisthisthatinflictstheterriblewoundonSouthAfricansociety.Buttherealdamageisindailyhumanrelations.Ihaveseenwhitechildrenstandinginoneofthemixedbusesratherthansitbesideanyonewhowasnotwhiteandthisseemstomesocompletearejectionofanotherhumanpersonthatitgoesmuchfurtherthanthedivisionandseparationbackedbylaw.Fromthiskindofrejectioncomesacompletelackofanyfeelingofcommonhumanity;thesufferingofahumanbeingceasestoberealbecausehehasceasedtobearealhumanbeing.ThisisthesituationwhichhasbeencreatedinSouthAfricatoday.Thetensionsarereal,thethreatofaviolenteruptionconstant.Andthismustnotbethoughtofsimplyastheproductofpoliticalfactorsorarguments.Itisasimpletruththathumanrelationsbetweenpeoplehavedeterioratedsofarthatdialogue,understanding,friendship—alltheseareimpossible.Thisistheeffectofapartheidintermsofthesociety-thisisitsallpervasiveextent:itbreeds,ifitbreedsanything,hostility:oftentheresultissimplythebittersterilitywhichwillbringaboutviolence.15・A.TheComDUterandThePoetTheessentialproblemofmaninacomputerizedageremainsthesameasithasalwaysbeen.Thatproblemisnotsolelyhowtobemoreproductive,morecomfortable,morecontent,buthowtobemoresensitive,moresensible,moreproportionate,morealive.Thecomputermakespossibleamarvellousleapinhumanproficiency;itpullsdownthefencesaroundthepracticalandeventhetheoreticalintelligence.Butthequestionpersistsandindeedgrows
53whetherthecomputerwillmakeiteasierorharderforhumanbeingstoknowwhotheyreallyare,toidentifytheirrealproblems,torespondmorefullytobeauty,toplaceadequatevalueonlife,andtomaketheirworldsaferthanitnowis.Electronicbrainscanreducetheprofusionofdeadendsinvolvedinvitalresearch.Buttheycan'teliminatethefoolishnessanddecaythatcomefromtheunexaminedlife.Nordotheyconnectamantothethingshehastobeconnectedto-therealityofpaininothers;thepossibilitiesofcreativegrowthinhimself;thememoryoftherace;andtherightsofthenextgeneration.Thereasonthesemattersareimportantinacomputerizedageisthattheremaybeatendencytomistakedataforwisdom,justastherehasalwaysbeenatendencytoconfuselogicwithvalues,andintelligencewithinsight.Easyandconvenientaccesstofactscanproduceunlimitedgoodonlyifitismatchedbythedesireandabilitytofindoutwhattheymeanandwheretheywouldlead.Factsareterriblethingsifleftspreadingandunexamined.Theyaretooeasilyregardedasevaluatedcertaintiesratherthanastherawestofrawmaterialscryingtobeprocessedintothetextureoflogic.Itrequiresaveryunusualmind,Whiteheadsaid,toundertaketheanalysisofafact.Thecomputercanprovideacorrectnumber,butitmaybeanirrelevantnumberuntiljudgmentispronounced.Totheextent,then,thatmanfailstodistinguishbetweentheintermediateoperationsofelectronicintelligenceandtheultimateresponsibilitiesofhumandecision,thecomputercouldproveadigression.Itcouldobscureman'sawarenessoftheneedtocometotermswithhimself.Itmayfostertheillusionthatheisaskingfundamentalquestionswhenactuallyheisaskingonlyfunctionalones.Itmayberegardedasasubstituteforintelligenceinsteadofanextensionofit.Itmaypromoteundueconfidenceinconcreteanswers.MIfwebeginwithcertainties,HBaconsaid,Mweshallendindoubtsbutifwebeginwithdoubts,andwearepatientwiththem,weshallendincertainlies.”Thecomputerknowshowtoconquererror,butbeforeweloseourselvesincelebratingthevictory,wemightreflectonthegreatadvancesinthehumansituationthathavecomeaboutbecausemenwerechallengedbyerrorandwouldnotstopthinkingandexploringuntilthey
54foundbetterapproachesfordealingwithit."Givemeagoodfruitfulerror,fullofseeds,burstingwithitsowncorrections,MFerrisGreensleiwrote,**Youcankeepyoursteriletruthforyourself.”Thebiggestsingleneedincomputertechnologyisnotforincreasedspeed,orenlargedcapacity,orprolongedmemory,orreducedsize,butforbetterquestionsandbetteruseoftheanswers.Withouttakinganythingawayfromthetechnicians,wethinkitmightbefruitfultoeffectsomesortofjunctionbetweenthecomputertechnologistandthepoet.Agenuinepurposemaybeservedbyturningloosethewondersofthecreativeimaginationonthekindsofproblemsbeingputtoelectronictechnology.Thecompanyofpoetsmayenablethemenwhotendthemachinestoseeawiderrangeofpossibilitiesthantechnologyalonemayinspire.Apoet,saidAristotle,hastheadvantageofexpressingtheuniversal;thespecialistexpressesonlytheparticular.Thepoet,moreover,canremindusthatman'sgreatestenergycomesnotfromhisdynamosbatfromhisdreams.Butthequalityofaman*sdreamscanonlybeareflectionofhissubconscious.Whatheputsintohissubconscious,therefore,isquiteliterallythemostimportantnourishmentintheworld.Nothingrallyhappenstoamanexceptasitisregisteredinthesubconscious.Thisiswhereeventandfeelingbecomememoryandwheretheproofoflifeisstored.Thepoet-andweusethetermtoincludeallthosewhohaverespectforandspeaktothehumanspirit-canhelptosupplythesubconsciouswithmaterialtoenhanceitssensitivity,thussafeguardingit.Thepoet,too,canhelptokeepmanfrommakinghimselfoverintheimageofhiselectronicwonders.Forthedangerisnotsomuchthatmanwillbecontrolledbythecomputerasthathemayimitateit.Thepoetremindsmenoftheiruniqueness.Itisnotnecessarytopossesstheultimatedefinitionofthisuniqueness.Eventospeculateonitisagain.15・B.ChanaestoComeinU.S.EducationThebiggest''infrastructure1'challengefortheUnitedSlatesinthenextdecadeisnotthebillionsneededforrailroads,highwaysandenergy.ItistheAmericanschoolsystem,fromkindergartenthroughthePh.D.programandthepostgraduateeducationofadults.Anditrequires
55somethingfarscarcerthanmoney—thinkingandrisk-taking.Thechallengeisnotoneofexpansion.Onthecontrary,therapidgrowthinenrollmentoverthelast40yearshascometoanend.By1978,morethan93percentofyoungpeopleenteringthelaborforcehadatleastaneighth-gradeeducation.Soevenifthebirthrateshouldrisesomewhat,littleexpansionispossibleforelementaryandsecondaryschoolenrollments.Thelast30yearsofsocialupheavalarealsoover.Busingwillcontinuetobeahighlyemotionalissueinagoodmanylargecities.Andtherewillstillbeeffortstouseschoolstobringwomenintofieldssuchasengineeringthathavetraditionallybeenconsidered"male."Butthisshifthasalreadybeenaccomplishedinmanyfields:halformoreoftheaccountingstudentsingraduateschoolsofbusiness,forexample,arenowwomen.Asformostothersocialissues,thecountrywillnolongertrytouseschoolstobringaboutsocialreform.It'sbecomingincreasinglycleartopolicymakersthatschoolscannotsolvealltheproblemsofthelargercommunity.Instead,thebattlecryforthe'90swillbethedemandforperformanceandaccountability.For30years,employershavebeenhiringgraduatesfortheirdegreesratherthantheirabilities;employment,payandoftenevenpromotionhavedependedonone'sdiploma.Nowmanymajoremployersarebeginningtodemandmorethanthecompletionofschool.Someofthemajorbanks,forexample,arestudyingthepossibilityofentranceexaminationsthatwouldtesttheknowledgeandabilitiesofgraduatesapplyingforjobs.Studentsandparents,too,willdemandgreateraccountabilityfromschools,onalllevels.Itwillbeincreasinglycommontogotolawagainstschooldistrictsandcollegesforawardingdegreeswithoutimpartingtheskillsthataresupposedtogoalongwiththem.Andmanyyoungpeoplearealreadyswitchingtopractical"hard"subjects.Caringlittleabouttheso-called"youthculture"andthemedia,theyhavebeenshiftingfrompsychologyintomedicine,fromsociologyintoaccountingandfromblackstudiesintocomputerprogramming.Demandforeducationisactuallygoingup,notdown.Whatisgoingdown,andfairlyfast,isdemandfortraditionaleducationintraditionalschools.Indeed,thefastestgrowingindustryinAmericatodaymaybethecontinuingprofessionaleducationofhighlyschooledadults.Muchofittakesplaceoutsidetheeducationestablishment—throughcompanies,hospitalsandgovernmentdepartmentsthatruncoursesformanagerialand
56professionalemployees;orthroughmanagementassociationsandtradeassociations.Inthemeantime,anynumberofprivateenterprisesareorganizingcourses,producingtrainingfilmsandtapesandotherwisetakingadvantageofgrowthopportunitiesthatuniversitiesshyawayfrom.Thedemandforcontinuingeducationdoesnottaketheformthatmostobservers,includingthiswriter,originallyexpected-namely,"GreatBooks“classesforadultswantingtolearnaboutthehumanities,thearts,the“lifeofthemind.'*Wefaceinsteadagrowingdemandforadvancedprofessionaleducation:inengineeringandmedicine,inaccountingandjournalism,inlawandinadministrationandmanagement.Yettheadultswhocomebackforsuchstudiesalsodemandwhatteachersofprofessionalsubjectsaresorarelyabletosupply:ahumanisticperspectivethatcanintegrateadvancedprofessionalandtechnicalknowledgeintoabroaderuniverseofexperienceandlearning.Sincethesenewstudentsalsoneedunconventionalhours-evenings,weekendsorhigh-intensitycoursesthatstuffaterm'sworkintotwoweeks?theirdemandsforlearningbringavaguebutrealthreattotheschoolestablishment.Thegreatestchallengetoeducationislikelytocomefromournewopportunitiesfordiversity.Wenowhavethechancetoapplythebasicfindingsofpsychological,developmentalandeducationalresearchoverthelast100years:namely,thatnooneeducationalmethodfitsallchildren.Almostallchildrenarecapableofattainingthesamestandardswithinareasonableperiodoftime.Allbutafewbabies,forinstance,learntowalkbytheageoftwoandtotalkbytheageofthree,butnotwogettherequitethesameway.Sotooathigherlevels.Somechildrenlearnbestbyrote,instructuredenvironmentswithhighcertaintyandstrictdiscipline.Othersgainsuccessinthelessstructured"permissive”atmosphereofa"progressive“school.Someadultslearnoutofbooks,somelearnbydoing,somelearnbestbylistening.Somestudentsneedprescribeddailydosesofinformation;othersneedchallengeandahighdegreeofresponsibilityforthedesignoftheirownwork.Butfortoolong,teachershaveinsistedthatthereisonebestwaytoteachandlearn,eventhoughtheyhavedisagreedaboutwhatthatwayis.
57Acenturyago,thegreatestmajorityofAmericanslivedincommunitiessosmallthatonlyoneone-roomschoolhousewaswithinwalkingdistanceofsmallchildren.Thentherehadtobe"onerightmethod"foreverybodytolearn.TodaythegreatmajorityofpupilsintheUnitedStates(andalldevelopedcountries)liveinbigcitieswithsuchdensitythattherecaneasilybethreeorfourelementaryschools-aswellassecondaryschoolswithineachchild'swalkingorbicyclingdistance.Thisenablesstudentsandtheirparentstochoosebetweenalternativeroutestolearningofferedbycompetingschools.Indeed,competitionandchoicearealreadybeginningtoinfiltratetheschoolsystem.Privateschoolsandcollegeshaveshownanunusualabilitytosurviveanddevelopduringaperiodofrisingcostsanddroppingenrollmentselsewhere.Allthispresents,ofcourse,atruethreattothepublicschoolestablishment.Buteconomics,studentneedsandournewunderstandingofhowpeoplelearnareboundtobreakthetraditionaleducationmonopolyjustastrucksandairplanesbrokethemonopolyoftherailroads,andcomputersand"chips”arebreakingthetelephonemonopoly.Inthenext10or15yearswewillalmostcertainlyseestrongpressurestomakeschoolsresponsibleforthinkingthroughwhatkindoflearningmethodsareappropriateforeachchild.Wewillalmostcertainlyseegreatpressure,fromparentsandstudentsalike,forresult-focusededucationandforaccountabilityinmeetingobjectivessetforindividualstudents.Thecontinuingprofessionaleducationofhighlyeducatedadultswillbecomeathirdtierinadditiontoundergraduateandprofessionalorgraduatework.Aboveall,attentionwillshiftbacktoschoolsandeducationasthecentralcapitalinvestmentandinfrastructureofa“knowledgesociety.^^
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