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1、CHAPTER13WhereDoOurRelativesComeFromandWhyDoTheyMatter?Humanlifeisgrouplife;wedependononeanothertosurvive.Peopleorganizetheirinterdependencebymeansofvariousformsofrelatedness,includingfriendship,marriage,parenthood,sharedlinkstoacommonancestor,workplaceassociatio
2、ns,andsoon.Formsofrelatednessarealwaysembeddedin,andshapedby,politics,economics,andworldviews.Oneofthekeyformsofrelatednessstudiedbyanthropologistsiskinship.Kinshipsystemsfocusonideasaboutsharedsubstanceanditstransmission,oftenthoughttotakeplaceintheprocessofsexu
3、alreproduction.Cross-culturalcomparison,however,showsthatkinshipisnotadirectreflectionofbiology.Kinshipprinciplesarebasedon,butnotreducibleto,theuniversalbiologicalexperiencesofmating,birth,andnurturance.Kinshipsystemshelpsocietiesmaintainsocialorderwithoutcentra
4、lgovernment.Althoughfemale–maledualityisbasictokinship,manysocietieshavedevelopedsupernumerarysexesorgenders.RelatednessThesociallyrecognizedtiesthatconnectpeopleinavarietyofdifferentways.KinshipSystemsSocialrelationshipsthatareprototypicallyderivedfromtheunivers
5、alhumanexperiencesofmating,birth,andnurturance.MarriageAninstitutionthatprototypicallyinvolvesamanandawoman,transformsthestatusoftheparticipants,carriesimplicationsaboutsexualaccess,givesoffspringapositioninthesociety,andestablishesconnectionsbetweenthekinofthehu
6、sbandandthekinofthewife.DescentTheprinciplebasedonculturallyrecognizedparent–childconnectionsthatdefinethesocialcategoriestowhichpeoplebelong.AdoptionKinshiprelationshipsbasedonnurturance,oftenintheabsenceofotherconnectionsbasedonmatingorbirth.SexObservablephysic
7、alcharacteristicsthatdistinguishtwokindsofhumans,females,andmakes,neededforbiologicalreproduction.GenderTheculturalconstructionofbeliefsandbehaviorsconsideredappropriateforeachsex.Descentlinksmembersofdifferentgenerationswithoneanother.Patternsofdescentinkinships
8、ystemsareselective.Bilateraldescentresultsintheformationofgroupscalled“kindreds”thatincludeallrelativesfrombothparents’families.Unilinealdescentresultsinthefor
