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1、DevelopingClassroomSpeakingActivities;FromTheorytoPracticeJackCRichardsThemasteryofspeakingskillsinEnglishisapriorityformanysecondorforeignlanguagelearners.LearnersconsequentlyoftenevaluatetheirsuccessinlanguagelearningaswellastheeffectivenessoftheirEnglishc
2、ourseonthebasisofhowwelltheyfeeltheyhaveimprovedintheirspokenlanguageproficiency.OralskillshavehardlybeenneglectedinEFL/ESLcourses(witnessthehugenumberofconversationandotherspeakingcoursebooksinthemarket)thoughhowbesttoapproachtheteachingoforalskillshaslongb
3、eenthefocusofmethodologicaldebate.Teachersandtextbooksmakeuseofavarietyofapproaches,rangingfromdirectapproachesfocusingonspecificfeaturesoforalinteraction(e.g.turn-taking,topicmanagement,questioningstrategies)toindirectapproacheswhichcreateconditionsfororali
4、nteractionthroughgroupwork,taskworkandotherstrategies(Richards1990).Advancesindiscourseanalysis,conversationalanalysis,andcorpusanalysisinrecentyearshaverevealedagreatdealaboutthenatureofspokendiscourseandhowitdiffersfromwrittendiscourse(McCarthyandCarter199
5、7).Thesedifferencesreflectthedifferentpurposesforwhichspokenandwrittenlanguageareused.Jones(1996,12)comments:Inspeakingandlisteningwetendtobegettingsomethingdone,exploringideas,workingoutsomeaspectoftheworld,orsimplybeingtogether.Inwritingwemaybecreatingarec
6、ord,committingeventsormomentstopaper.Researchhasalsothrownconsiderablelightonthecomplexityofspokeninteractionineitherafirstorsecondlanguage.Luoma(2004)forexample,citessomeofthefollowingfeaturesofspokendiscourse:•Composedofideaunits(conjoinedshortphrasesandcl
7、auses)•Maybeplanned(e.g.alecture)orunplanned(e.g.aconversation)•Employsmorevagueorgenericwordsthanwrittenlanguage•Employsfixedphrases,fillersandhesitationmarkers•Containsslipsanderrorsreflectingon-lineprocessing•Involvedreciprocity(i.e.interactionsarejointly
8、constructed)•Showsvariation(e.g.betweenformalandcasualspeech),reflectingspeakerroles,speakingpurpose,andthecontext1Indesigningspeakingactivitiesorinstructionalmaterialsforsecondorforeignlanguage
