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1、CivilEngineeringCivilengineering,theoldestoftheengineeringspecialties,istheplanning,design,construction,andmanagementofthebuiltenvironment.Thisenvironmentincludesallstructuresbuiltaccordingtoscientificprinciples,fromirrigationanddrainagesystemstorocket-launchingfacilities.Civilengineersbuildr
2、oads,bridges,tunnels,dams,harbors,powerplants,waterandsewagesystems,hospitals,schools,masstransit,andotherpublicfacilitiesessentialtomodernsocietyandlargepopulationconcentrations.Theyalsobuildprivatelyownedfacilitiessuchasairports,railroads,pipelines,skyscrapers,andotherlargestructuresdesigne
3、dforindustrial,commercial,orresidentialuse.Inaddition,civilengineersplan,design,andbuildcompletecitiesandtowns,andmorerecentlyhavebeenplanninganddesigningspaceplatformstohouseself-containedcommunities.ThewordcivilderivesfromtheLatinforcitizen.In1782,EnglishmanJohnSmeatonusedthetermtodifferent
4、iatehisnonmilitaryengineeringworkfromthatofthemilitaryengineerswhopredominatedatthetime.Sincethen,thetermcivilengineeringhasoftenbeenusedtorefertoengineerswhobuildpublicfacilities,althoughthefieldismuchbroaderScope.Becauseitissobroad,civilengineeringissubdividedintoanumberoftechnicalspecialti
5、es.Dependingonthetypeofproject,theskillsofmanykindsofcivilengineerspecialistsmaybeneeded.Whenaprojectbegins,thesiteissurveyedandmappedbycivilengineerswholocateutilityplacement—water,sewer,andpowerlines.Geotechnicalspecialistsperformsoilexperimentstodetermineiftheearthcanbeartheweightoftheproj
6、ect.Environmentalspecialistsstudytheproject’simpactonthelocalarea:thepotentialforairandgroundwaterpollution,theproject’simpactonlocalanimalandplantlife,andhowtheprojectcanbedesignedtomeetgovernmentrequirementsaimedatprotectingtheenvironment. Transportationspecialistsdeterminewhatkindoffacilit
7、iesareneededtoeasetheburdenonlocalroadsandothertransportationnetworksthatwillresultfromthecompletedproject.Meanwhile,structuralspecialistsusepreliminarydatatomakedetaileddesigns,plans,andspecificationsfortheproject.Supervisingandcoordinatingt
