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1、LOGICIntroductionLogic(fromtheAncientGreek)hastwomeanings:First,itdescribestheuseofvalidreasoninginsomeactivity;Second,itnamesthenormativestudyofreasoningorabranchthereof.Inthelattersense,itfeaturesmostprominentlyinthesubjectsofphilosophy,mathematics,andcomputerscience.HistoryInEurope,logicwas
2、firstdevelopedbyAristotle.AristotelianlogicbecamewidelyacceptedinscienceandmathematicsandremainedinwideuseintheWestuntiltheearly19th.DuringtheHighMiddleAges,logicbecameamainfocusofphilosophers,whowouldengageincriticallogicalanalysisofphilosophicalarguments,oftenusingvariationsofthemethodologyo
3、fscholasticism.Bythe18thcentury,thestructuredapproachtoargumentshaddegeneratedandfallenoutoffavor,asdepictedinHolberg'ssatiricalplayErasmusMontanus.TheChineselogicalphilosopherGongsunLongproposedtheparadox"Oneandonecannotbecometwo,sinceneitherbecomestwo."InChina,thetraditionofscholarlyinvestig
4、ationintologic,however,wasrepressedbytheQindynastyfollowingthelegalistphilosophyofHanFeizi.InIndia,innovationsinthescholasticschool,calledNyaya,continuedfromancienttimesintotheearly18thcentury.Bythe16thcentury,itdevelopedtheoriesresemblingmodernlogic.Since1824,Indianlogicattractedtheattention
5、ofmanyWesternscholars,andhashadaninfluenceonimportant19th-centurylogiciansLogicDeductivereasoningAbductivereasoningInductivereasoningIfa,thenb.FromobservationtoahypothesisOpposedtodeductivereasoningTopicsinLogicSyllogisticlogic三段论逻辑Propositionallogic(sententiallogic)命题逻辑Predicatelogic谓词逻辑Modal
6、logic模态逻辑InformalreasoningMathematicallogic数理逻辑Philosophicallogic哲学逻辑Computationallogic计算逻辑Bivalenceandthelawoftheexcludedmiddle二值和排中律Islogicempirical?ToleratingtheimpossibleRejectionoflogicaltruthFallacyAfallacyisanargumentthatusespoorreasoning.Anargumentcanbefallaciouswhetherornotitsconclusi
7、onistrue.Afallacycanbeeitherformalorinformal.Anerrorthatstemsfromapoorlogicalformissometimescalledaformalfallacy.Aninformalfallacyisanerrorinreasoningthatdoesnotoriginateinimproperlogicalform.Fallaciesofpresumptionfailtoprovetheconclusi