文献综述-文献综述的写作流程

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文献综述-文献综述的写作流程　　在某种意义上讲，论文选题是最重要的，因为论文的选题不好，论文也不会更好。　　学生在选题时常见的五种错误：　　1．对选题不感兴趣　　许多学生总是在最后期限时才开始考虑选题，仓促决定，以至于在写作中没有兴趣持续下去。其实，有趣的选题不会突然出现在你的脑海中，一定要有充分的时间仔细考虑，慎重选择。　　2．选题过于容易或过于保守　　学生写论文的目的是为了学习，因此应该选择一个相对不太熟悉的主题（虽然不是完全陌生）是有好处的。但学生有时为了保险（或得到更好的分数）而择熟悉的主题。如果选择背景知识不很充分的选题，学生能学到更多的知识。　　3．选题太难　　可能学生对某个选题很感兴趣也想做得很好，但有可能会发现选题过难，许多文献都没法看懂。假如其中有许多需要某种高级统计概念，大多数本科生还从未接触，所以很难写出优秀的论文。这种任务难度大，也很耗时间，所以要确定你的选题不需要理解你的背景知识不允许你掌握的概念。　　4．没有合适的文献资料　　由于各种原因，心理学上许多有趣的选题尚未得到充分研究，有些是因为人们还没有仔细考虑这些问题，也有可能是因为有人考虑过但发现很难进行实验分析或其他类型的分析。这种主题就不适合做文献综述。　　5．选题太宽泛 　　这是学生选题时最常犯的错误。写论文之前，学生对某个选题方面的文献资料的多少只有模糊的概念，教材往往只停留在表面。只有深入钻研主要的原始资料才能知道相关的文献资料的范围。一旦你暂定一个主题，不要急于为写论文做笔记，而应该编辑参考文献目录单，浏览其中的一些参考文献，这样可以避免使你的选题过于宽泛或过于狭隘。不要全盘放弃，而应该考虑如何把选题缩校可以用以下任意一种方法来缩小你的选题。方法很多，最好根据你的选题、可用的文献及你的兴趣来确定。一定要在论文开头部分说清楚你采用的限制方法，好的标题有助于读者理解你的限定方法。　　从年龄上进行限制，如是成人还是儿童或是婴儿。　　从物种上进行限制，如是考虑人类还是老鼠。　　从病理类型上进行限制，如是针对残疾人还是心理障碍的人。　　从心理学观点进行限制，如是成人还是儿童或是婴儿。　　从内容上进行限制，如只谈言语、数学或是空间问题。　　二、搜索文献资料　　做文献综述时准备两套记笔记的卡片将十分有用。　　1．作者卡片　　格式：用小的索引卡片（3×5），也可用电脑制作同样功能的虚拟卡片。在卡片上写下以后写论文时编辑资料所需要的全部信息。每一条资料来源都应该作记录。记录的形式因资料来源的特点而定：　　⑴期刊文章。包括作者的姓氏、名字第一个单词和中间的单词起首的大写字母；出版年份；文章标题；期刊名称；卷号；文章的页数。卡片样本如下：　　Janis,I.L.,&King,B.T.(1954).Theinfluenceofrole-playingonopinionchange.JournalofAbnormalandSocialPsychology,49,211-218.　　⑵书籍。书的记录应该包括作者的姓氏、名字第一个单词起首的大写字母(不用名字中间的单词起首的大写字母)；出版年份；书的标题；书出版的城市名称；出版商名称。例如：　　Festinger,L.(1957).Atheoryofcognitivedissonance.Evanston,Illinois:Row,Peterson.　　⑶编辑而成的书。编辑成的书中的文章的记录应包括作者的姓氏、名字第一个单词和中间的单词起首的大写字母；出版年份；文章标题；书的编者；书的标题；文章在书中的页数；书出版的城市名称；出版商名称。例如：　　Webb,E.J.,&Salancik,J.R.(1970).Supplementingtheself-reportinattituderesearch.InG.F.Summers(Ed.), Attitudemeasurement(pp.317-327).Chicago:RandMcNally.　　作者卡片的好处：　　⑴你会有一整套参考书，不可能忘记所需要的任何一本参考书。　　⑵每一个参考书都有完整的记录。　　⑶论文的参考文献部分已经完成了。　　2．标题卡片　　格式：最好用大的索引卡片（5×7），也可用电脑制作同样功能的虚拟卡片。在每张卡片上记录：文章标题；与标题有关的信息；每条信息的来源及其你的评价。　　每张卡片上只记录一个标题。用不同方式表述的标题记在同一张卡片上。每一个标题的笔记应该尽量完整，这样你今后不用再去查阅资料的来源了。要避免不能表示有用信息的与主题无关的的话。如果做论据的笔记时，确信你抓住了论据的要点，以便你今后重新组织作者的观点。　　你叙述时，要写清楚资料的来源，写下作者的姓氏和出版时间。如果直接引用或解释时，一定要记清楚你笔记中的内容，写下适当的页码。　　当你对信息进行评价时，要先在标题卡片上注明这个不是作者的评价而是你的评价。通常你阅读时是你评价的最好时间，因为那时材料和上下文在你脑海中最清晰，对你今后的写作也最有价值。阅读心理学文献时，通常你应从五个方面来评价作者的观点。　　⑴观点的准确性　　作者做每个辩论的基础是什么？观点是正确地被证明的吗？如何证明的？几乎所有的心理学家对期刊文章（或学生的论文）进行评论时对准确性问题非常敏感。十分常见的一种方法是作者可能提出一个似是而非的理论，设计一个实验或列举证据来检验另一个似是而非的理论，然后得出结论说原来的理论是正确的。因此，在读一篇文章或一本书时，确保你自己不仅对理论的检验很有说服力，而且评价的是一个正确的理论。　　⑵观点的内在的一致性 　　各个观点互相矛盾吗？各个观点与作者的总论点矛盾吗？在正确性上，要特别注意观点和论据之间的关系；要特别注意观点和其他观点之间一致性问题。　　⑶观点的研究假设　　作者提出观点时的研究假设是什么，尤其是作者没有告诉读者或自己没有意识到的假设是什么？这些研究假设现实吗？这些研究假设是增强了还使减弱了观点的影响？　　⑷观点的推论含义　　每个观点的含义是什么，尤其是作者忽略的含义是什么？这些含义增强了还使减弱了观点的影响？这些含义与其他观点的含义一致吗？　　文献综述的写作步骤3　　⑸观点的重要性　　某个观点是重要的吗，是你想在文章中详细描述的那个观点吗？或者这个观点不重要，因此不值得一提，或只需要一带而过？学生论文常见的缺点是强调所有的观点，不管是否重要。这种做法不可避免地会减少论文整体的影响力。　　标题卡片的好处：　　⑴你开始准备写理论时，就有了你所需要的所有信息。　　⑵你可以找到每个观点或每条信息的来源。你不用去记住你想说的话。　　⑶你会发现组织论文容易多了。因为标题卡片为你下一步写提纲提供了信息。　　三、列提纲　　1．使用标题卡片 　　做好笔记之后，你可以准备列提纲了。标题卡片上的标题就是提纲的基础，因为它们可以用来作标题或副标题。把所有的标题写在纸上。然后剪成小条，每个条上留一个标题。如果你用电脑，你可以使用文字处理程序中的"提纲"功能。你现在的工作是把纸条上的标题按陈述的逻辑顺序重新排列。各个标题不需要也不应该在同一水平上。其中一些标题构成主标题，一些构成小标题，另外一些套入这些小标题下。你需要在提纲中加入一些引言部分和结论部分，以及使文章流畅的过渡性标题。每个标题下最低水平的副标题应该代表论文终稿中的一个句子。　　2．提纲的类型　　主要有三中种类型的提纲。一旦你把提纲的标题排好顺序之后，你就必须决定你用哪种类型来完成提纲。下面以TAT和MMPI两个人格测验的比较为例来讨论这三种类型的提纲。　　（1）关键词提纲（在每个描述水平上都要限制在关键词范围内）　　I．引言　　II．内容　　A．TAT：图片　　B．MMPI：文字　　III．施测　　A．TAT：口头　　B．MMPI：书面　　IV．计分　　A．TAT：主观　　B．MMPI：客观　　V．结论　　（2）标题提纲（在每个描述水平上都要用短语和从句）　　I．TAT和MMPI的比较　　II．内容的类型　　A．TAT：各种情境下人的图片，一些是真实的，一些不是。　　B．MMPI：描述行为或信仰的描述，被试标记对与错来描述自己。　　III．施测的方式　　A．TAT：主试按顺序向被试呈现图片，被试叙述图片上的事件产生的原因、当时发生的事以及随后要发生的事。　　B．MMPI：给被试装有一整套描述性的小册子，被试可以按自己的速度进行。　　IV．计分方式　　A．TAT：通常采用默瑞"需要--压力"分类法主观计分　　文献综述的写作步骤4 　　B．MMPI：通过每个诊断量表独立的答案的方式客观计分　　V．区别：内容、施测和计分　　（3）句子提纲（在每个描述水平上都要用完整的句子）　　I．本提纲分别从内容、施测和计分几个方面对TAT和MMPI进行比较。　　II．这两个测验的内容不同。　　A．TAT包括许多人在不同情境中的图片，一些是真实的，一些不是。　　B．而MMPI包括许多描述行为或信仰的描述，被试标记对与错来描述自己。　　III．这两个测验的内容施测方式也不同。　　A．在TAT施测时，主试按顺序向被试呈现图片，被试叙述图片上的事件产生的原因、当时发生的事以及随后要发生的事。　　B．在MMPI施测时，给被试装有一整套描述性的小册子，被试按自己的速度进行。　　IV．最后，这两个测验用不同的方式计分。　　A．TAT通常采用默瑞"需要--压力"分类法主观计分。　　B．MMPI通过每个诊断量表独立的答案的方式客观计分　　V．可以得出结论，这两个测验在内容、施测和计分几个方面都有很大的不同。　　选择一种提纲这三种类型的提纲各有特点，关键词提纲可以留给你写论文时最大程度的灵活度，但内容很少；句子提纲基本可以用于论文写作，但很浪费时间。因此你应该尝试这三种类型的提纲，然后根据你的经验选择最适合自己的提纲。　　3．组织提纲组织提纲的方法多种多样，依具体情况而定。但有五种常见的原则：　　（1）提纲应该包括开头、中间和结尾。给读者一个大概的描述，告诉他们你的论文的内容，你是如何组织的。当读者读完论文的主体，你需要把主要意思进行总结以及你的最终评论。　　（2） 一旦决定了组织的原则，就要坚持下去。如果改变文章的组织方式，会使读者感到迷惑。如果一定要改变其组织方式，一定要告诉读者。但尽量不要改。　　（3）有主题地组织文章。这一原则有两种例外情况。一是你要进行综述的文章没有形成一个主题，如不同的理论家处理不同的问题。二是当你要强调的是对对象的比较，如你想描述的是每个人格理论家的理论观点时不一定要有主题。　　（4）分级组织文章。论文往往有很多个观点，读者很难理解这些观点，更难记住这些观点。一定要把这些观点进行分级，这样可以提高你和读者交流的效率。　　（5）为你的听众组织文章。写提纲时一定要记住你的听众是谁。在提纲中每个标题描述的程度应该适合你的目标听众。　　4．列提纲的好处　　（1）有助于你组织写作。　　（2）防止删掉相关的话题。在做研究或编辑标题卡片时，你可能无意中删掉你本来在文章中要用到的一个相关的内容。在开始写论文之前通过列提纲就可以很容易地改正。　　（3）防止包含不相关的话题。有时候你会发现一开始觉得相关的内容在组织文章时觉得与你的主题不相关了，就可以放弃，这样写论文时就不要分散精力了。　　本章的这一部分很简短，因为适应文献综述的大部分原则同样也适合研究报告的写作，后面的章节将详细讨论。写文献综述是，要记住前面提到的评价作者观点的五个标准。读者也会以同样的或相似的方式评价你的论文。　　文献综述和论文的撰写（英文）　　　　Finding,formulatingandexploringyourtopic.　　Differenttopiccreations　　Manystudentshaveinmindsomethingthattheywanttoworkon;otherswanttoworkwithaparticularscholarorresearchcentre.Inthefirstcase,studentssearchforacompatiblesupervisor.Inthesecond,foratopic.Regardlessofthesepreliminarycircumstances,thetopicisverylikelyonly roughlyformulatedatthisstage.Thisisusuallyenoughtohaveyourenrolmentaccepted.　　Readingtheliterature　　Onceyouhaveageneralidea,youcouldstartbytalkingtoyoursupervisorandotherscholars.But,mostimportantly,youhavetothinkwhyyouwouldliketoworkonit,orwhyanyonewouldwanttodoso.Askyourself,"Whyisitimportant?Whatisinterestingaboutthis?SupposeIsolveit,orfindit,orpullitalltogether,whatuseisit?Whatisitssignificance?"Then,withsomequestionssuchastheseinmind,goandreadmoreaboutittoseewhatisthereandfindoutwhataspectsofithavebeenexhausted,whatneglected,whatthemainideas,issuesandcontroversiesareinthearea.Itisregardedasyoursupervisor'sroletodirectyoutothemostfruitfulstartingpointinreadingandsurveyingtheliterature.　　Cycleofliteraturereview　　Allofthisisnotaonceonlyactivity,butisacycleyougothroughagainandagain.Soyouread,think,anddiscussitwithyoursupervisorandthen,asaresult,comeclosertotheformulationofthetopic.Andthenwitheachcycleofreading,thinkinganddiscussingyourtopicbecomesmorespecificandfocussed.Thisisnotthefinalformulationandthelasttimeyouwillfocusyourtopic.Butyoucouldprobablyletgoofthisroundofgeneralexplorationandembarkonthenextstage.YoursupervisorbythistimeshouldhaveenoughofanideaofyourtopictojudgewhetherornotwhatyouproposetodoisfeasiblewithinthetimeavailableandhasthepotentialtomeettherequiredstandardsforaPhD.Toseethefullpotentialofyourtopicor,tothecontrary,seethatitisnotgoingtodeliverwhatyouwanted,youdoneedtobegindoingyourresearch.This,ofcourse,iswhypilotstudiesareoftenundertaken. 　　Makingsenseoftheliterature　　Wedotrulywishwecouldtellyouaboutareliableorsimplewaytomakesenseoftheliterature.Wecansay,however,thatyouneedtoattendtothingsattwolevels:　　?Oneisestablishingasystemthatwillallowyoutoorganisethehardcopiesofthearticlesetc.,anddevelopadatabaseforreferences,soyouhaveeasyaccessunderrelevantcategoriesanddon'tchasethesamereferencesrepeatedly.　　?Theotheristhemoredemandingtaskofunderstandingandusingtheliteratureforyourpurposes.　　Withoutattendingtothefirsttask,youcouldeasilybecomeinefficientandfrustrated.However,althoughitisnecessarytohavesomewayofkeepingtrack,don'tspendallyourenergiesonperfectingyoursystem.Itmaybeagoodideatoattendacourseforresearchersonhandlinginformation.Checkwhetheryouruniversity'slibraryorcomputercentreofferssuchacourse.　　Theothertaskaheadofyou-ofunderstanding,reviewingandusingtheliteratureforyourpurposes-goestotheheartofyourthesis.Weconsiderthisinthreestages.　　Makingsenseoftheliterature-firstpass　　Whenyoufirstcometoanareaofresearch,youarefillinginthebackgroundinageneralway,gettingafeelforthewholearea,anideaofitsscope,startingtoappreciatethecontroversies,toseethehighpoints,andtobecomemorefamiliarwiththemajorplayers.Youneedastartingpoint.Thismaycomeoutofpreviousworkyou'vedone.Ifyou'renewtothearea,yoursupervisorcouldsuggestfruitfulstartingpoints.Oryoucouldpursuesomerecentreviewarticlestobegin.　　Toomuchtohandle　　Atthisstagethereseemstobemassesofliterature relevanttoyourresearch.Oryoumayworrythatthereseemstobehardlyanything.Asyouread,thinkaboutanddiscussarticlesandisolatetheissuesyou'remoreinterestedin.Inthisway,youfocusyourtopicmoreandmore.Themoreyoucancloseinonwhatyourresearchquestionactuallyis,themoreyouwillbeabletohaveabasisforselectingtherelevantareasoftheliterature.Thisistheonlywaytobringitdowntoamanageablesize.　　Verylittlethere　　Ifinitiallyyoucan'tseemtofindmuchatallonyourresearcharea-andyouaresurethatyou'veexploitedallavenuesforsearchingthatthelibrarycanpresentyouwith-thenthereareafewpossibilities:　　?Youcouldberightatthecuttingedgeofsomethingnewandit'snotsurprisingthere'slittlearound.　　?Youcouldbelimitingyourselftotoonarrowanareaandnotappreciatingthatrelevantmaterialcouldbejustaroundthecornerinacloselyrelatedfield.　　?Unfortunatelythere'sanotherpossibilityandthisisthatthere'snothingintheliteraturebecauseitisnotaworthwhileareaofresearch.Inthiscase,youneedtolookcloselywithyoursupervisoratwhatitisyouplantodo.　　QualityoftheLiterature　　Thisbeginsyourfirststepinmakingsenseoftheliterature.Youarenotnecessarilycloselyevaluatingitnow;youaremostlylearningthroughit.But,sometimesatthisstagestudentsdoaskushowtheycanjudgethequalityoftheliteraturethey'rereading,asthey'renotexperts.　　Youlearntojudge,evaluate,andlookcriticallyattheliteraturebyjudging,evaluatingandlookingcriticallyatit.Thatis,youlearntodosobypractising.Thereisnoquick recipefordoingthisbuttherearesomequestionsyoucouldfindusefuland,withpractice,youwilldevelopmanyothers:　　?Istheproblemclearlyspelledout?　　?Aretheresultspresentednew?　　?Wastheresearchinfluentialinthatotherspickedupthethreadsandpursuedthem?　　?Howlargeasamplewasused?　　?Howconvincingistheargumentmade?　　?Howweretheresultsanalysed?　　?Whatperspectivearetheycomingfrom?　　?Arethegeneralisationsjustifiedbytheevidenceonwhichtheyaremade?　　?Whatisthesignificanceofthisresearch?　　?Whataretheassumptionsbehindtheresearch?　　?Isthemethodologywelljustifiedasthemostappropriatetostudytheproblem?　　?Isthetheoreticalbasistransparent?　　Incriticallyevaluating,youarelookingforthestrengthsofcertainstudiesandthesignificanceandcontributionsmadebyresearchers.Youarealsolookingforlimitations,flawsandweaknessesofparticularstudies,orofwholelinesofenquiry.　　Indeed,ifyoutakethiscriticalapproachtolookingatpreviousresearchinyourfield,yourfinalliteraturereviewwillnotbeacompilationofsummariesbutanevaluation.Itwillthenreflectyourcapacityforcriticalanalysis.　　Makingsenseoftheliterature-secondpass　　Youcontinuetheprocessofmakingsenseoftheliteraturebygainingmoreexpertisewhichallowsyoutobecomemoreconfident,andbybeingmuchmorefocusedonyourspecificresearch.　　You'restillreadingandperhapsneedingtore-readsome oftheliterature.You'rethinkingaboutitasyouaredoingyourexperiments,conductingyourstudies,analysingtextsorotherdata.Youareabletotalkaboutiteasilyanddiscussit.Inotherwords,it'sbecomingpartofyou.　　Atadeeperlevelthanbefore,　　?youarenownotonlylookingatfindingsbutarelookingathowothershavearrivedattheirfindings;　　?you'relookingatwhatassumptionsareleadingtothewaysomethingisinvestigated;　　?you'relookingforgenuinedifferencesintheoriesasopposedtosemanticdifferences;　　?youalsoaregaininganunderstandingofwhythefielddevelopedinthewayitdid;　　?youhaveasenseforwhereitmightbegoing.　　Firstofallyouprobablythoughtsomethinglike,"Ijusthavetogetahandleonthis".Butnowyouseethatthis'handle'whichyoudiscoveredforyourselfturnsouttobethekeytowhatisimportant.Youareverylikelygettingtothislevelofunderstandingbytakingthingstopiecesandputtingthembacktogether.　　Forexample,youmayneedtosetupalongsideoneanotherfourorfivedifferentdefinitionsofthesameconcept,versionsofthesametheory,ordifferenttheoriesproposedtoaccountforthesamephenomenon.Youmayneedtounpackthemthoroughly,evenattheverybasiclevelofwhatistheimpliedunderstandingofkeywords(forexample'concept','model','principles'etc.),beforeyoucanconfidentlycomparethem,whichyouneedtodobeforesynthesisispossible.　　Or,forexample,youmaybetryingtosortthroughspecificdiscoverieswhichhavebeenvariouslyandconcurrentlydescribedbydifferentresearchersindifferentcountries.You needtoaskquestionssuchaswhethertheyarethesamediscoveriesbeinggivendifferentnamesor,iftheyarenotthesame,whethertheyarerelated.Inotherwords,youmayneedtoembarkonverydetailedanalysesofpartsoftheliteraturewhilemaintainingthegeneralpicture.　　Makingsenseoftheliterature-finalpass　　Youmakesenseoftheliteraturefinallywhenyouarelookingbacktoplaceyourownresearchwithinthefield.Atthefinalpass,youreallyseehowyourresearchhasgrownoutofpreviouswork.Sonowyoumaybeabletoidentifypointsorissuesthatleaddirectlytoyourresearch.Youmayseepointswhosesignificancedidn'tstrikeyouatfirstbutwhichnowyoucanhighlight.Oryoumayrealisethatsomeaspectofyourresearchhasincidentallyprovidedevidencetolendweighttooneviewofacontroversy.Havingfinishedyourownresearch,youarenowmuchbetterequippedtoevaluatepreviousresearchinyourfield.　　Fromthispointwhenyouhavefinishedyourownresearchandyoulookbackandfillinthepicture,itisnotonlythatyouunderstandtheliteratureandcanhandleitbetter,butyoucouldalsoseehowitmotivatesyourownresearch.Whenyouconceptualisetheliteratureinthisway,itbecomesanintegralpartofyourresearch.　　Writingtheliteraturereview　　Whatwearetalkingabouthereisthewritingofthereview.Weassumethatyouhavemadesenseoftheliterature,andthatyouknowtheroleoftheliteratureanditsplaceinyourthesis.Belowarelinkstoothersectionscoveringtheseaspects.　　Youwilldoubtlesswriteyourliteraturereviewseveraltimes.Sinceeachversionwillserveadifferentpurpose,youshouldnotthinkyouarewritingthesamethingoverandover andgettingnowhere.Whereyoumaystriketroubleisifyoujusttrytotakewholesectionsoutofanearlierversionandpastethemintothefinalversionwhich,bynow,hastobedifferentlyconceived.　　Inpracticalterms,itisnecessarytohaveanoverallpictureofhowthethreadrunsthroughyouranalysisoftheliteraturebeforeyoucangetdowntoactuallywritingaparticularsection.Thestrategywhichwritersuseasawaytobegintheliteraturereviewistoproceedfromthegeneral,widerviewoftheresearchyouarereviewingtothespecificproblem.Thisisnotaformulabutisacommonpatternandmaybeworthtrying.　　Let'slookatanexampletakenfromthefirstpagesofaliteraturereview.Thisshowsustheprogressionfromgeneraltospecificandthebeginningofthatthreadwhichthencontinuesthroughthetextleadingtotheaims.　　Despitetheundisputedsuccessofquantummechanics,manyimportantfundamentalproblemsandquestionsremainunanswered(seeforexampleX,1973):themeasuringprocesscannotbesatisfactorilydescribedinQMformalism;therearegreatmathematicalstumblingblockstoattempttomakeQMconsistentwiththeassumptionsofspecialrelativity;………..,justtonameafew.　　[Thisisbasicallyanintroductorysection,whichstartswithastatementoftheprobleminverybroadterms,alertingustothefactthatnoteverythingisrosy,andproceedstosketchinspecificaspects.]　　Withoutdoubt,oneofthemostwidelydiscussedofthese…is…[thisclosesinonwhatthefocusoftheproblemis]Likemostfundamentalissuesinphysics,thisquestionleadstochallengesatseverallevelsofthought.Atthephilosophical levelthisissueposesquestionsabout….Atthephysicallevelweareforcedtoexamine….Atthemathematicallevelmanyquestionsareraisedaboutthecompletenessandlogicalconsistency….　　[Thetextmovesontospecifyissuesatvariouslevels.Althoughthefocusissharper,thecoverageatthesametimeopensout.]　　Animportantinstanceinwhichallofthesechallengesconvergeoccurswiththeconceptof'angle'inthedescriptionofquantumsystems…　　[Thusthetexthassetupthesituationwhereallaspectsoftheproblem--theoretical,practical,etc.--arebroughttogether.]　　Whateverthepatternwhichfitsyourworkbest,youneedtokeepinmindthatwhatyouaredoingiswritingaboutwhatwasdonebefore.But,youarenotsimplyreportingonpreviousresearch.Youhavetowriteaboutitintermsofhowwellitwasdoneandwhatitachieved.Thishastobeorganisedandpresentedinsuchawaythatitinevitablyleadstowhatyouwanttodoandshowsitisworthdoing.Youaresettingupthestageforyourwork.　　Forexample,aseriesofparagraphsofthekind:　　"Green(1975)discovered….";　　"In1978,Blackconductedexperimentsanddiscoveredthat….";　　"LaterBrown(1980)illustratedthisin……";　　demonstratesneitheryourunderstandingoftheliteraturenoryourabilitytoevaluateotherpeople'swork.　　Maybeatanearlierstage,orinyourfirstversionofyourliteraturereview,youneededasummaryofwhodidwhat.Butinyourfinalversion,youhavetoshowthatyou'vethought aboutit,cansynthesisetheworkandcansuccinctlypassjudgementontherelativemeritsofresearchconductedinyourfield.So,totaketheaboveexample,itwouldbebettertosaysomethinglike:　　"Thereseemstobegeneralagreementonx,(forexample,White1987,Brown1980,Black1978,Green1975)butGreen(1975)seesxasaconsequenceofy,whileBlack(1978)putsxandyas….WhileGreen'sworkhassomelimitationsinthatit….,itsmainvalueliesin…."　　Approachingitinthiswayforcesyoutomakejudgementsand,furthermore,todistinguishyourthoughtsfromassessmentsmadebyothers.Itisthiswholeprocessofrevealinglimitationsorrecognisingthepossibilityoftakingresearchfurtherwhichallowsyoutoformulateandjustifyyouraims.　　Keepyourresearchfocused　　Itisalwaysimportanttokeepyourresearchfocused,butthisisespeciallysoattwopoints.Firstwhenyouhavesettledintothetopicandthetimeforwiderexplorationhastoend.Andthenagainatalaterstagewhenyoumayhavegatheredlotsofdataandarestartingtowonderhowyouaregoingtodealwithitall.　　Focusafterliteraturereview　　First,itisacommontemptationtoprolongtheexplorationphasebyfindingmoreandmoreinterestingthingsandstrayingawayfromwhatwasonceregardedasthepossiblefocus.Eitheryouoryoursupervisorcouldbeguiltyofthis.Insomecases,itmightbeyouwhoisputtingoffhavingtomakeacommitmenttoonelineofenquirybecauseexplorationandrealisingpossibilitiesisenjoyableandyou'realwayslearningmore.Inothercases,itcouldbeyoursupervisorwho,ateverymeeting, becomesenthusiasticaboutotherpossibilitiesandkeepsonsuggestingalternatives.Youmightnotbesureifthisisjustsharingexcitementwithyouorifyouaresupposedtofollowthemallup.　　Eitherwayyouneedtostoptheproliferationoflinesofenquiry,siftthroughwhatyouhave,settleononearea,andkeepthatfocusbeforeyou.Itcouldevenbeagoodideatowriteituponaposterinfrontofyourdesk.Unlessyouhavethisreallyspecifiedinthefirstplace,withthemajorquestionanditssub-questions,andyouknowexactlywhatyouhavetofindouttoanswerthese,youwillneverbefocusedandeverythingyoufindwillseemtobe'sortof'relevant.　　Youhavetocloseoffsomelinesofenquiryandyoucandosoonlyonceyoudecidetheyarenotrelevanttoyourquestion.Wecontinuallymeetstudentswho,whenweask,"Sowhatisthequestionyou'reresearching?",willanswer,"MytopicissuchandsuchandI'mgoingtolookatx,yandz".Sometimesfurtherprobingfromuswillrevealthattheydoindeedhaveafocus,butmanytimesthisisnotso.Thinkingintermsofyourtopicistoobroad.Youneedtothink,rather,ofwhatitisyouareinvestigatingaboutthetopic.　　?Questionsforceyoutofindanswers;topicsinviteyoutotalkaboutthings.　　Focusafterdatacollection　　Then,atalaterstage,youcouldfindyourselfsurroundedbylotsofdatawhichyouknowaresomewhatrelevanttoyourproject,butfindingthewaysofshowingthisrelevanceandusingthedatatoansweryourquestioncouldbeadifficulttask.Nowyouhavetore-findyourfocustobringitalltogether.　　Again,itisyourresearchquestionandsub-questionswhichwillhelpyoutodothisbecauseyourwholethesisisbasically theanswertothesequestions,thatis,thesolutiontotheproblemyoupresentedatthebeginning.Thismaystrikeyouasaverysimplisticwaytoviewit.However,approachingitinthiswaydoeshelptobringthepartstogetherasawholeandgetthewholetowork.Weevenrecommendthat,torelatethepartstoeachotherandkeepyourselffocussed,youcouldtellyourselfthestoryofthethesis.　　Makingadeliberateattempttokeepfocusedwillhelpyoutoshapeyourresearchandkeepyoumotivated.　　ApparentlyIhavetowritearesearchproposal.WhatdoIneedtodo?　　Themainpurposeofaresearchproposalistoshowthattheproblemyouproposetoinvestigateissignificantenoughtowarranttheinvestigation,themethodyouplantouseissuitableandfeasible,andtheresultsarelikelytoprovefruitfulandwillmakeanoriginalcontribution.Inshort,whatyouareansweringis'willitwork?'　　ThelevelofsophisticationoramountofdetailincludedinyourproposalwilldependonthestageyouareatwithyourPhDandtherequirementsofyourdepartmentandUniversity.　　?Ininitialstages,thedocumentyouneedtowritewillprobablybethreetofivepageslong.Itwillgiveageneralideaofwhatyouareproposingtodobutitisn'tabindingcontract.Oftenitservesasastartingpointfordiscussionswithyoursupervisortofirmupthetopic,methodologyandmechanicsofyourresearch.　　?Someofyouwillberequiredtowriteaproposalatthetimeofconfirmingyourcandidature(usuallyattheendofthefirstyear).Insomeinstances,thisisadocumentoffourtofivepagesandmaybeviewedasamereformality.Inothercasesamuchmoresubstantialdocumentof30-40pagesisexpected. Thereforeitisessentialforyoutochecktherequirementswithyourdepartment.　　Regardlessoftheabovedistinctionsyoushouldneverseewritingaproposalasaworthlesschore.Indeed,ifitisn'tformallyrequired,itisaverygoodideatowriteoneanyway.Youcanuseittoyouradvantage.Italwaysforcesyoutothinkaboutyourtopic,toseethescopeofyourresearch,andtoreviewthesuitabilityofyourmethodology.Havingsomethinginwritingalsogivesanopportunitytoyoursupervisortojudgethefeasibilityoftheproject(whetheritispossibletofinishintime,costs,theequipmentneededandotherpracticalities,timeneededforsupervision),toassessitslikelihoodofsuccess,anditsabilitytomeettheacademicstandardrequiredofaPhDthesis.　　Whiletherearenohardandfastrulesgoverningthestructureofaproposal,atypicalonewouldinclude:aimsandobjectives,significance,reviewofpreviousresearchintheareashowingtheneedforconductingtheproposedresearch,proposedmethods,expectedoutcomesandtheirimportance.Inexperimentallybasedresearchitoftenincludesdetailedrequirementsforequipment,materials,fieldtrips,technicalassistanceandanestimationofthecosts.Itcouldalsoincludeanapproximatetimebywhicheachstageistobecompleted.　　writeaabstract　　.Indeed,thefinalversionoftheabstractwillneedtobewrittenafteryouhavefinishedreadingyourthesisforthelasttime.　　However,ifyouthinkaboutwhatithastocontain,yourealisethattheabstractisreallyaminithesis.Bothhavetoanswerthefollowingspecificquestions:　　1.Whatwasdone? 　　2.Whywasitdone?　　3.Howwasitdone?　　4.Whatwasfound?　　5.Whatisthesignificanceofthefindings?　　Therefore,anabstractwrittenatdifferentstagesofyourworkwillhelpyoutocarryashortversionofyourthesisinyourhead.Thiswillfocusyourthinkingonwhatitisyouarereallydoing,helpyoutoseetherelevanceofwhatyouarecurrentlyworkingonwithinthebiggerpicture,andhelptokeepthelinkswhichwilleventuallyunifyyourthesis.　　Process　　Theactualprocessofwritinganabstractwillforceyoutojustifyandclearlystateyouraims,toshowhowyourmethodologyfitstheaims,tohighlightthemajorfindingsandtodeterminethesignificanceofwhatyouhavedone.Thebeautyofitisthatyoucantalkaboutthisinveryshortparagraphsandseeifthewholeworks.Butwhenyoudoallofthesethingsinseparatechaptersyoucaneasilylosethethreadornotmakeitexplicitenough.　　Ifyouhavetroublewritinganabstractatthesedifferentstages,thenthiscouldshowthatthepartswithwhichyouarehavingaproblemarenotwellconceptualisedyet.　　Weoftenhearthatwritinganabstractcan'tbedoneuntiltheresultsareknownandanalysed.Butthepointwearestressingisthatitisaworkingtoolthatwillhelptogetyouthere.　　Beforeyouknowwhatyou'vefound,youhavetohavesomeexpectationofwhatyouaregoingtofindasthisexpectationispartofwhatisleadingyoutoinvestigatetheproblem.Inwritingyourabstractatdifferentstages,anypartyouhaven'tdoneyoucouldwordasaprediction.Forexample,atonestage youcouldwrite,"Theanalysisisexpectedtoshowthat…".Then,atthenextstage,youwouldbeabletowrite"Theanalysisshowedthat…."or"Contrarytoexpectation,theanalysisshowedthat…..".　　Thefinal,finishedabstracthastobeasgoodasyoucanmakeit.Itisthefirstthingyourreaderwillturntoandthereforecontrolswhatthefirstimpressionofyourworkwillbe.Theabstracthas　　?tobeshort-nomorethanabout700words;　　?tosaywhatwasdoneandwhy,howitwasdone,themajorthingsthatwerefound,andwhatisthesignificanceofthefindings(rememberingthatthethesiscouldhavecontributedtomethodologyandtheoryaswell).　　Inshort,theabstracthastobeabletostandaloneandbeunderstoodseparatelyfromthethesisitself.　　IsthereaparticularthesisstructureIhavetofollow?　　Therearecertainconventionsspecifictocertaindisciplines.However,thesestructuresarenotimposedonapieceofwork.Therearelogicalreasonswhythereisaconventionalwayofstructuringthethesis,whichisafteralltheaccountofwhatyou'veachievedthroughyourresearch.Researchisofcoursenotconductedinthestep-by-stepwaythisstructuresuggests,butitgivesthereaderthemostaccessiblewayofseeingwhythisresearchwasdone,howitwasdoneand,mostimportantly,whathasbeenachieved.Ifyouputsidebysideallthequestionsyouhadtoanswertofinishyourresearchandwhatisoftenproposedasatypicalstructureofathesis,thenyouseethelogicofthearrangement.Thatdoesnotmean,however,thatyouhavetonameyourchaptersinthisway.Insomedisciplines,itveryoftenislikethis;inothers,thisstructureisimplied.Forexample,inmanysciencetheses,the followingbasicallyisthestructure;inmanyhumanitiestheses,thefinalstructurelooksverydifferent,althoughallofthesequestionsareansweredonewayoranother.　　WhyamIdoingit?Introduction　　Significance　　Whatisknown?　　Whatisunknown?Reviewofresearch　　Identifyinggaps　　WhatdoIhopetodiscover?Aims　　HowamIgoingtodiscoverit?Methodology　　WhathaveIfound?Results　　Whatdoesitmean?Discussion　　Sowhat?Whatarethepossibleapplicationsorrecommendations?　　Whatcontributiondoesitmaketoknowledge?Whatnext?Conclusions　　Occasionallyathesisiswrittenwhichdoesnotinanywaycomplywiththisstructure.Generallythereasonsyouwanttohavearecognised,transparentstructurearethat,tosomeextent,itisexpectedandtheconventionalstructureallowsreadersreadyaccesstotheinformation.If,however,youwanttopublishabookbasedonthethesis,itislikelythestructurewouldneedtobealteredforthedifferentgenreandaudience.