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1、AsianJournalofSocialPsychology(1999)2:289–310Cultureandself:AnempiricalassessmentofMarkusandKitayama'stheoryofindependentandinterdependentself-construalsDavidMatsumotoSanFranciscoStateUniversityInthispaper,IcriticallyevaluatethelogicunderlyingMarkusandKitayama’s(1991)the
2、oryofindependentandinterdependentself-construals,andexaminetheevidencethatdirectlytestsitsmajorassumptions.Onthebasisofmyreviewofthestudiestheycite,andliteraturefromthreeothersources,Iconcludethattheevidenceseverelychallengesthevalidityoftheirtheoreticalframeworkforexpla
3、iningobservednationaldifferencesinpsychologicalphenomena.Ioffersomeideasaboutalternativemethodologiesforresearchinthisimportantareaofpsychologythatmayaidindevelopingandtestingtheoriesofcultureandselfinthefuture.IntheU.S.,‘‘thesqueakywheelgetsthegrease’’;inJapan,‘‘thenail
4、thatsticksupgetspoundeddown’’.MarkusandKitayama(1991)contendthatanecdoteslikethesesymbolizemeaningfulandimportantculturaldifferencesbetweentheU.S.andJapan,andNorthAmerican/Europeanandalmostallothercultures.Thesedifferencesarethebasisfortheirtheoryofindependentandinterdep
5、endentself-construals,whichisarguablyoneofthemostinfluentialworksinthepastdecadeincultureandpsychology.Itsimportandimplicationsarefar-reaching,itspopularityandusagewidespread.Likealltheories,weneedtoobjectivelyevaluateitintermsofitsassumptionsandempiricalsupport.Despitei
6、tspopularity,tomyknowledgenoworktodatehasexplicateditsassumptions,norobjectivelyreviewedtheavailableevidenceinsupportofthem.Thispaperdoesso.First,Ireviewthetheory,highlightmajoraspectsofit,anddescribeitsbasiclogic.Second,Iidentifyitsmajorassumptions,andevaluatethoseassum
7、ptionsinrelationtotheevidencethathasbeensuggestedassupportiveoftheirtheory.Myevaluationsuggeststhatnostudysupportstheircontentions,becausenoneteststhebasiclogicunderlyingtheirtheory.Third,Ireviewthreeothertypesofstudiesthatdirectlytesttheassumptionsintheirtheory.Thisevid
8、encealsosuggeststhatthereislittle,ifany,empiricalsupportforthem.Finally,Idiscusstheimplicationsofthisev
